The Relationship of Literature and Society

Author(s): Milton C. Albrecht

Reviewed work(s):
Source: American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 59, No. 5 (Mar., 1954), pp. 425-436
Published by: The University of Chicago Press
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 THE RELATIONSHIP OF LITERATURE AND SOCIETY
MILTON C. ALBRECHT

ABSTRACT
In mosttheories oftherelationship ofliteratureand societyreflection,
influence,
and socialcontrolare
implied.Literatureis interpreted
as reflecting
normsandvalues,as revealing theethosofculture,theproc-
essesofclassstruggle,andcertaintypesofsocial"facts.""Influence" is notstrictly
thereverseofreflection,
sincesocialstabilityand culturalidealsareinvolved.Socialcontrol,however, articulates
closelywithone
versionofreflection,thoughto a limited extentin complex,dynamic societies.
As Muellerpointedoutfifteen yearsago,' at least as old as Plato's conceptof imita-
sociologistsin the UnitedStates have paid tion.4Systematic applicationoftheidea did
littleattentionto literatureand art; they, not appear,however,untilabout a century
likeothersocialscientists, have focusedpri- and a halfago. The "beginning"mightbe
marilyon theinstrumental aspectsofsocial said tobe Madamede Stae's De la litte'rature
life.2Perhapsthisis becausepracticalsocial consideree dans ses rapportsavecles institu-
problemshavegrownso urgent-but,what- tionssociales,6publishedin 1800,in which
everthereason,someinterest in theartshas theauthoroffered a socialand historicalin-
persistedand in recentyearshas increased, terpretation of the literatureof severalna-
howeversporadically.'Ofliterary and social tions.Her outlookwas romanticand idealis-
historiesas well as of morelimitedinvesti- tic,expressedin termsofindividualand so-
gationsthereare,ofcourse,an untoldnum- cialperfectionism. Apparently, thetheoryof
ber.Ourpurposein thispaperis to examine reflection aroseout ofthespiritofnational-
criticallysome of theircharacteristic view- ismspreadingthroughout Europe and from
points and theoreticalassumptions.One the environmentalism of seventeenth-and
hypothesis is thatliterature "reflects" socie- eighteenth-century thinkers.6In general,the
ty; its supposedconverseis thatliterature idea is a manifestation ofa changein man's
influences or "shapes" society.A thirdhy- perspective,crystallizedduringthe nine-
pothesisis thatliterature functions socially teenthcenturyinphilosophies of history,in
to maintainand stabilize,if not to justify the formulation of thetheoryof evolution,
and sanctify, thesocialorder,whichmaybe and in the sociologicalconceptionsof so-
calledthe"social-control" theory. cietiesand theirchangingcharacterthrough
The idea thatliterature reflectssocietyis successiveages.7
I J. H. Mueller,"Is Art the Productof Its Age?" The essentialfunctionof the reflection
Social Forces, XIII (March, 1935), 367-76; "The theorywas to "explain" in social and his-
Folkway of Art," AmericanJournal of Sociology, torical rather than individualterms the
XLIV (September,1938), 222-38. qualityand greatnessof literature, as well
2 Kingsley Davis, Human Society (New York: as its content,style,and forms.In effect, it
Macmillan Co., 1949), p. 392. emphasizedsocialand culturaldeterminism
3 Bibliographiesmay be foundin A. S. Tomars,
4 The Republic,in The Worksof Plato, trans. B.
Introductionto the Sociologyof Art (Mexico City,
1940), pp. 418-21; in H. E. Barnes and H. Becker, Jowett(4 vols. in 1; New York: Dial Press, n.d.),
Contemporary Social Theory(New York: Appleton- II, 378 ff.
CenturyCo., 1940), pp. 889-92; in JamesH. Bar- 5 2 vols.; Paris, 1800. See also De l'Allemagne
nett,Divorceand theAmericanDivorceNovel,1858- (Paris, 1813).
1937 (Philadelphia, 1939), pp. 146 ff.; in Bernard
6Max Lerner and Edwin Mims, Jr., "Litera-
Berelsonand MorrisJanowitz,Public Opinion and
ture," in Encyclopediaof theSocial Sciences (New
Communication (Glencoe,Ill.: Free Press,1950). For
York: Macmillan Co., 1933), IX, 538-39.
many othersourcessee Hugh D. Duncan, "An An-
notated Bibliographyon the Sociology of Litera- 7 Floyd N. House, The Development
of Sociology
ture" (Universityof Chicago thesis,1947). (New York: McGraw-HillBook Co., 1936).
425
426 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

insteadof personalinspiration, and it be- "social beliefsand sanctions"have usually

came the broad orientation of innumerable includedreligiousbeliefsand customs,as
worksdealing with the arts. To be sure, manifested in mythsand otherart forms,
otherphraseswereoftenused,suchas "ex- both of primitivesocietiesand of earlier
pressionofsociety"or "mirroroflife,"but historicalperiods of civilizations."Boas
theirmeaningis practicallyidenticalwith finds,forexample,thattheconditions oflife
"reflection."These phraseswereappliedto ina numberofIndiantribescanbe abstract-
nearlyeverything socialand culturalas well ed fromtheirtraditional tales: "Beliefsand
as biologicaland geographical. At one time customsin lifeand in talesare in fullagree-
or anotherliteraturehas been thoughtto ment."'12 Whetherthis is fullyas true in
reflecteconomics,familyrelationships, cli- complexcivilizations
suchas ourownseems
mate and landscapes, attitudes,morals, less clear,and it is uncertainwhetherthe
races,social classes,politicalevents,wars, situationsusedas vehiclesforillustrating or
religion,and manyothermoredetailedas- emphasizingimportantsocial values are
pectsofenvironment and sociallife.8 thoseactuallyoccurringin a societyortruly
This diversityresults,apparently,from typical.On thesequestionsthereseemsless
the fact that literatureembracesa wide generalagreement, but theuse ofliterature
varietyofsubjectmatter,representing "set- as an indexofsignificant beliefsand values
tings,"behaviorpatterns,and ideasin their in a societyhas beenwidespread.'3
complexinterrelationships. It has led some, In psychologya recentvariantof this
like Mueller,to believethat the reflection conceptionis that stories,at least as pre-
theoryis "too all-embracing" to be useful.9 sentedin movies,reflectthestresspatterns
Nevertheless, it has traditionally been ap- and emotionalneeds of audiences,arising
pliedin a fewmajorforms, sometimes stated out of sharedculturaland sociallife.Wolf-
explicitlybut oftenmerelyimpliedor as- ensteinand Leites,forinstance,believethat
sumed-by literaryand social historians as "thecommonday-dreams ofa culturearein
wellas by sociologistsand anthropologists.part thesources,in parttheproductsof its
Probably the commonestconceptionhas popularmyths,stories,plays and films."''4
been that literaturereflectspredominantlyAs a consequence,theplotsof thedramaof
thesignificantvaluesandnormsofa culture. a particulartimeor periodshowa distinc-
As DeVoto says, "Literatureis a recordof tive configuration. Otherinvestigators as-
social experience,an embodiment of social sumethata kindofcollectiveunconscious is
mytbsand idealsand aims,and an organiza-
tionofsocialbeliefsand sanctions."'0 These "An AnthropologistLooks at the Movies," Annals
of theAmericanAcademyofPolitical and Social Sci-
8 Cf.Lernerand Mims,op. cit.,p. 524. Franz Boas ence,CCLIV (November,1947), 83-84.
maintains(GeneralAnthropology [New York: D. C.
11ConsultE. Grosse,TheBeginningsofArt(New
Heath & Co., 1938],p. 594) that "the contentsof
York: Appleton,1897); Y. Hirn, The OriginsofArt
poetryare as varied as the culturalinterestsof the
(London, 1900); Jane Harrison, Ancient Art and
people." Henry Commagerinsists (The American
Ritual (New York: HenryHolt & Co., 1913); Franz
Mind [New Haven: Yale UniversityPress, 1950],p.
56) that imaginativeliteraturecould faithfullyre- Boas, PrimitiveArt (Oslo, 1927); Herbert Read,
Artand Society(New York: Macmillan Co., 1937);
place the documentaryrecordof the contemporary
Susanne K. Langer,Philosophyin a New Key (New
scene.
York: PenguinBooks, 1948).
9 "Is ArttheProductofIts Age?" op. cit.,p. 373. 12 GeneralAnthropology,
p. 600.
10W. E. Lingelbach(ed.), ApproachestoAmerican
Social History(New York: Appleton-Century Co., See also studiesofnationalcharacter,surveyed
13

1937), p. 54. Cf. David Daiches, Literatureand So-
ciety(London: VictorGollancz,1938); IrwinEdman,
Arts and theMan (New York: New AmericanLi-
brary,1949), pp. 122-29; Ruth Benedict,Chrysan-
by Otto Klineberg,TensionsAffecting International
Understanding (New York: Social Science Research
Council, 1950), pp. 49-58.
14 Martha Wolfenstein and Nathan Leites,

themumand theSword (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Movies: A PsychologicalStudy (Glencoe, Ill.: Free
Co., 1946), pp. 100-133; Hortense Powdermaker, Press, 1950), pp. 12-13.
 THE RELATIONSHIP OF LITERATURE AND SOCIETY 427
reflected,or, in psychoanalytic terms,that in "race," he was enoughof a positivistto
literaturepresentsa manifestand latent look forwardto the quantification of his
content,as in dreams,both derivedfrom formulaforsuccessfulpredictionof future
stressesin society,and bothgivensymbolic literarytrends.'9
meaning."5 However,as Fearingstates,there Morerecentrepresentatives ofthistradi-
is no indicationas to how makersof films tion,whoare concernedwiththeunityand
gain access to thecollectiveunconsciousof change of civilizations,include Spengler,
a populationforwhomtheyare intended, Toynbee,and Sorokin.Of these,Spengleris
or whether filmsactuallycarrythesymbolic the most closely identifiedwith Hegelian
meaningsto a mass audience.'6Neverthe- thought, bothin theprinciplesofspiritand
less,literature or motionpicturesmay pre- destinyand in regarding historyas proceed-
sent interpretive framesof reference,as ingthrough phasesofgrowth, maturity, and
Wolfenstein and Leites suggest,whichhave decay.20Otherdifferences in ideologyand
theircounterpart in real-lifeattitudes.Al- methodbetweentheserepresentatives liebe-
thoughtherelationship ofmovieor literary yondthescopeof thisarticle,but thereare
patternsto thelargercultureis complexand certain general agreements.All of them
notwellunderstood, itis assumedthatthese identifytwo main phases in the historyof
patternsreflect in significantand character- societies,called''culture"and "civili7ation"
isticways the attitudesand sharedexperi- by Spengler,2" "yin" and "yang" by Toyn-
encesin society.'7 bee,22"ideational"and "sensate"by Soro-
By studentsof culture,literatureand kin, althoughthe latteralso distinguishes
otherarts have been used as reflections of severalmixedforms,of whichthe "idealis-
the fundamental realityof a culture,vari- tic" is a specialtype.23 Each set oftermsre-
ouslycalled "culturementality,""Weltan- fersto contrasting typesofsocieties,theone
schauung,""spiritualprinciple,"or "soul," stableand slowto change,theotherdynam-
and of the different stagesin the develop- ic and rapidin change.Each societyis char-
mentof a culture.i"These conceptionsare acterizedby a numberof otherqualities,
derivedlargelyfromHegel and otherhis- which are reflectedin literatureand art.
toricalphilosophers of the earlynineteenth Toynbeefindsthatartstylesmoreaccurate-
centuryas well as fromthe sociologists, ly establishthe timespan of a civilization,
Comteand Spencer.Taine,forexample,at- its growthand dissolution, than any other
temptedto accountforthe characteristicsmethodofmeasurement.24 Sorokin, however,
of English literatureand theirhistorical 19H. A.
Taine, HistoryofEnglishLiterature(New
changesby applyinghis famoustriad:race, York: HenryHolt & Co., 1886), pp. 1-21. For com-
environment, and time.Althoughregarding ment see Albert Guerard, Literatureand Society
''mindorspirit"as themaster-idea inherent (Boston: Lothrop,Lee & Shepard Co., 1935).
20 Oswald
Spengler,The Decline of the West (2
15 J. P.Mayer, Sociologyof the Film (London: vols.; New York: A. A. Knopf, 1926-28), Vol. I,
Faber & Faber, 1946); SiegfriedKracauer, From Introduction.Cf. G. W. F. Hegel, Philosophyof
Caligari to Hitler (Princeton:PrincetonUniversity History(New York: Collier& Son, 1900),pp. 61-99,
Press, 1947); Parker Tyler, Magic and Mythof the 115-34, 300-302.
Movies (New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1947). 21
op. cit., I, 31-35.
16 FranklinFearing,"Influenceof the Movies on 22 ArnoldJ. Toynbee, A Studyof History(Lon-
Attitudesand Behavior," Annals of the American don: OxfordUniversityPress, 1934-39), I, 201-4;
Academy of Political and Social Science, CCLIV III, 196 ff.,390; IV, 33-34. DismissingSpengler's
(November,1947), 76-78. organic concept of cultures,Toynbee accepts the
17 Wolfensteinand Leites, op. cit.,pp. 295, 306-7. idea of dominanttendenciesor bent (III, 382-90).
18 Cf. Radhakamal Mukerjee,"The Meaningand 2a Pitirim A. Sorokin,Social and Cultural Dy-
Evolution of Art in Society,"AmericanSociological namics (4 vols.; New York: AmericanBook Co.,
Review,X (August,1945), 496: Artreveals"the soul 1937-41), I, 55-102; IV, passim. He surveysvarious
of a cultureand social milieuin a more significant "phase" conceptsof culturesin IV, 389 ff.
mannerthan religion,science,and philosophy." 24 Op. Cit., ITI, 378-79.
428 THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY
has describedand elaboratedon thesequali- vanceand significance varywiththesociety
ties probably more systematicallythan or culture.28 Betweenliteratureand other
eitherSpengleror Toynbee.Accordingto culturalproductstherealso seem to exist
him,in theliterature and art whichreflect specificinterrelationships, withoutany sys-
ideationalculturethesubjectsdealwithper- tematicattemptbeingmadeto designatethe
sonsand eventsofreligioussignificance, the principlesgoverning theirinteraction. Con-
attitudesare ascetic,otherworldly, thestyle sequently,literature and otherartsmaybe
is symbolic,formal,and conventional, and an indexofculturalchange,but theyappar-
thetechniques arerelatively simple.Sensate entlycannotaccountforshiftsin "mentali-
literature,on theotherhand,selectssecular, ty."29They are a symptom, nota cause. As
commonplacetopics and events,is sensa- such, they are passive, essentiallystatic
tionaland erotic,individualisticand skepti- agents-a conclusionthat hardlyseemsas
cal; thestyleis sensual,realistic,and natu- inevitableas thisformulation implies.
ralisticand thetechniquesare elaborateand Anotherversionofreflection derivesfrom
complex.25 Tomars,althoughmoresociologi- the dialecticalmaterialism ofMarx and his
cal thanculturalinorientation and avoiding followers, who selectthe economicsystem
the theoriesof change of the above trio, ratherthanethosorsoulas theindependent
comes to almost identicalconclusionsas variable. Literatureand art, along with
theseexpressedby Sorokin.26 other"ideologies,"are determined by "the
This conceptionthat reflectionreveals modeofproductionin materiallife,"30and
theessentialworldoutlookofa cultureobvi- by theideas oftherulingclass,whichare in
ouslyoverlapstheidea expressedearlierthat everyepochtheruling ideas.3'But in thedia-
itrepresents normsandvaluesand thestress lectical process, manifestedin the class
patterns,but reflection of ethosemphasizes struggle,"art expressesthe tendenciesof a
the integrativecharacterof culturesand rising,and therefore revolutionary class."32
theirorganizationarounddominantactivi- The relationship of economicstructure and
ties or beliefs-the concept of cultural ideologicalforms,however,is not causally
focusrecognized and developedbya number direct and mechanical,as Engels points
of anthropologists, though without the out.33Especiallyis thistrueofartisticgreat-
philosophicovertonesso conspicuousin ness,whichMarx admitshas no directrela-
Spengler.27It is questionablewhether litera- 28 Spenglerregardsthe arts as "primephenome-
tureand the artsare alwaysas reliablein- na," while Sorokinincludes otherculturalaspects,
dexesas usuallyassumed.Probablytheyare all of which show essentiallythe same trends.In
only one index among many,whose rele- 1934 Elliott and Merrillregardedliteratureas prob-
ably "the mostsignificant index" ofsocial disorgani-
25 Sorokin,op. cit.,I, 679. zation, but the latest edition of their text fails to
26 Op. cit.,pp. 300-306, 392-95. See also Herbert
mentionliteraryindexes(Mabel Elliott and Francis
Merrill,Social Disorganization[3d ed.; New York:
A. Bloch, "Towards the Development of a Sociology
Harper & Bros., 1950],pp. 45-48).
of Literaryand Art Forms," AmericanSociological
29 Toynbee,op. cit.,IV, 52.
Review,VIII (June,1943), 310-20. Bloch presentsa
classificationof literarypatternsor themeswhich 30 Karl Marx and FriedrichEngels,Literature and
resultwhen artistslack a commonsocial idiom. Art(New York: InternationalPublishersCo., 1947),
27 Ruth Benedict,PatternsofCulture(New York: p. 1. Cf. Louis Harap, Social RootsoftheArts(New
New AmericanLibrary,1948); Ralph Linton (ed.), York: InternationalPublishersCo., 1949), p. 16.
The ScienceofMan in theWorldCrisis (New York: 31Karl Marx and FriedrichEngels, The German
ColumbiaUniversityPress,1945),pp. 164-68; A. L. Ideology(New York: InternationalPublishersCo.,
Kroeber,Configurations ofCultureGrowth (Berkeley: 1939), p. 39. Cf. Harap, op. cit.,pp. 3940.
Universityof CaliforniaPress, 1944), pp. 820-23, 32Harap, op. cit.,p. 112; Marx and Engels, Lit-
826-28. Repudiating the idea of a master-plan,
that any notable cul- erature and Art,pp. 25, 45, 52-55, 116.
Kroeber uses the hypothesis
tural achievementpresupposesadherenceto a cer- 33Karl Marx and FriedrichEngels, Correspond-
tainset ofpatternswhichare limitedand whichmay ence,1846-1895 (New York: InternationalPublish-
develop and becomeexhausted. ers Co., 1936), p. 475. Cf. Harap, op. cit.,pp. 10-11.
 THE RELATIONSHIP OF LITERATURE AND SOCIETY 429

tionto eitherthe degreeof social develop- characterand formof theirliterarypro-

mentor thetypeof economicbase.34 ductions.
Amongthenumerous followers whohave One need not, of course, follow the
elaborated,interpreted, and applied these Marxian systemin investigating the influ-
ideasareVeblen,Caudwell,Fox, Calverton, enceof social classeson literature. Tomars,
Parrington,and Hicks. Some are strict forexample,adoptingMacIver'sconceptsof
Marxists,othersadapt and select Marx's corporateand competitive classes,describes
ideas,ofwhichtheclass influence on litera- and illustrates influence
theirdifferential on
turehas been the mostsuggestive.Veblen the subject matterand styleof literature
shows the intrusionof economicmotives, and otherartsand examinesinterclassrela-
conspicuous waste,and expensiveness on the tionshipsas well.4'More recentlyGordon
characterof aestheticobjects.35Caudwell has been impressedby the accuracywith
and Fox, dealingwithpoetryand thenovel, whichnovelistshave representedthe cul-
respectively,36 attemptto relate economic tural traitsthat distinguishseveralsocial
conditionsand bourgeoisideas to theforms classesin theUnitedStates.42
as wellas thecontentofliterature, and pre- In general,the Marxianorientation has
sume that artisticgreatnesswill arise in a beenwidelyinfluential, thoughsubjectto a
future classlesssociety.37 Parrington, a liber- numberof difficulties. Whether,for ex-
al ratherthana Marxist,describestheeco- ample,"proletarian" literatureactuallycon-
nomicbackground fromwhichspringthere- tributesto lower-class solidarityis question-
gionaland class differences thatdistinguish able,and howin otherrespectsit fosters the
themainperiodsofAmericansocialand lit- class strugglehas not been systematically
eraryhistory.38 More comprehensive and explored.MuchoftheMarxistwriting is full
less doctrinaire thanCalverton39 or Hicks,40 ofdoctrinaire and negativejudgmentsrath-
he tracestheclass and economicpositionof er thanthorough analysisor objectivetest-
writersand showshow these "determine" ing of hypotheses.The conceptof classes
theireconomictheoriesand theirreligious seemsof limitedapplicabilityto American
and political philosophiesas well as the society,and thesystemfailsto includeother
typesof groupsfromwhichcertainvaria-
34Literature and Art,pp. 18-19.
tionsofliteraryformand expression maybe
35Thorstein Veblen, The Theoryof the Leisure
derivedortoconsider theinfluence ondrama,
Class (New York: Heubsch, 1924), pp. 126-66.
forinstance,of groupswithconflicting or
36ChristopherCaudwell, Illusion and Reality divergentinterests.43 The problemof how
(New York: InternationalPublishers Co., 1947);
Ralph Fox, The Novel and thePeople (New York: bourgeoiswriters and artistssucceedin re-
InternationalPublishersCo., 1945). flectingtheideasand aimsoftheproletarian
37Caudwell,op. cit.,pp. 293-98; Fox, op. cit.,pp. classremains obscure.As forthenotionthat
80, 125-26. Cf. Harap, op. cit., pp. 168-82, and the classlesssocietywill providethe ulti-
Lenin,in Clara Zelkin,Reminiscences ofLenin (New mate basis forthe development of literary
York: InternationalPublishersCo., 1934), p. 13. and artisticgreatness,
thereis obviouslyno
38 VernonL. Parrington, Main Currentsin Amer- basis; it is eitherwishful thinking orhopeful
ican Thought(3 vols. in 1; New York: Harcourt,
Brace & Co. 1930). In methodParringtonwas influ-
propaganda-unless,of course,one accepts
enced by bothTaine and J. AllenSmith,fromwhom wholeheartedly the Marxian system.De-
he derived the concept of economic determinism
(III, vii). 41op. cit.,pp. 141-223.
39V. F. Calverton,The NewerSpirit (New York: e MiltonM. Gordon,
"KittyFoyleand theCon-
Boni & Liveright,1925); The LiberationofAmerican cept of Class as Culture," American Journal of
Literature (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, Sociology,
LIII (November,
1947),210-18.
1932). 43LevinL. Schucking
pointsout how hetero-
40 Granville Hicks, The Great Tradition (New geneousaudiencesinfluenced
Elizabethandrama
York: Macmillan Co, 1933); Figures of Transition (Sociologyof LiteraryTaste [London: Kegan Paul,
(New York: Macmillan Co., 1939). 1944],pp. 11-13).
430 THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY
spitetheseand otherlimitations, thefactre- spreadattitudestowardmarriage, love,and
mains that Marx's conceptsare dynamic divorce."47 These conclusionsare largelyin
and have focusedattentionon social rather linewiththefirsttypeofreflection described
thanon themorestrictly culturalaspectsof above, centeringon norms and values,
literaryreflection. thoughdominantpublicinterestsand atti-
Withinthelast fifteen yearsseveralsoci- tudes may not be identical with social
ologistshaveexploredorimpliedanotherva- norms.48 EdgarDale, forexample,analyzing
rietyofreflection whichhas arisenevident- the contentof fifteen hundredmoviescur-
ly fromaccumulatedsociologicaldata and a rentin thetwentiesand earlythirties, finds
concernforsocialproblems.Theirbasic as- thedistortion in thedirectionofsensational
sumptionis that literature, mainlyfiction subjects,mainlycrime,sex,and love,rather
and biographyin "popular"forms,reflects thandesirablesocial values or even typical
social "facts": vocational and divorce or "average" situations.49 In this case the
trends,populationcomposition and distribu- theoryofemotionalneedsand stressesseems
tion. This hypothesisis perhapsthe most implied.Berelsonand Salter,concerned with
mechanistic versionofall,sinceitpostulates majorityand minority Americans,observe
that literarydata somehowcorrespondto that popularstoriesare biased in favorof
certaintypesof statisticaldata; thathero- the eliteand the economically powerful-a
inesinpopularfiction, forexample,arepor- bias whichtheybelieveto be characteristic
trayedas havingthesameoccupations, pro- inliterary history.50 In effect,therefore, they
portionately, as actuallyexistin societyat agreewithMarx thattheideas oftheruling
a particulartime.44Althoughthehypothesis class are in everyepochtherulingideas,al-
seems hardlypromising,the resultshave thoughtheyemphasizeideas less thancer-
been somewhatprofitable, fortheyindicate tain traitsof hero and heroine.Statistical
the directionof the distortion of statistical facts,then,are not reproducedin fiction.
facts.45Storycontent,indeed,seems to be On thecontrary, thesestudies,eventhough
slantedin thedirectionofwidespreadinter- indirectly, supportthe argumentforother
estsand ideals.Inglis,forinstance,discovers typesofreflection, describedearlier.
thatpopularfictionmirrors not actual jobs In viewoftheseseveralversionsofreflec-
of womenor theircircumstances but rather
"certain typical Americanattitudesand 47JamesH. Barnettand Rhoda Gruen,"Recent
Divorce Novels, 1938-1945: A Study in
ideals."46Barnett and Gruen show that Americanthe Sociology of Literature,"Social Forces,XXVI
"divorce" novels are sensitiveto "wide- (March, 1948), 332-37. Barnett's earlier survey
shows more extensiveuse of divorce statisticsand
44Ruth Inglis, "An Objective Approach to the legislationand less awareness of "distortions,"ex-
RelationshipbetweenFiction and Society," Ameri- cept a historicallag between"public attitudes" and
can SociologicalReview,III (August,1938), 526-31. theirrepresentation in fiction.
Cf. Leo Lowenthal,"Biographiesin Popular Maga-
zines," in Radio Research,1942-43, eds. Paul Lazars- 48 FrancisL. K. Hsu believesthatliteratureis an
feldand FrankStanton (New York: Duell, Sloan, & index to repressionin Westernculturesas compared
Pearce, 1944),pp. 507-48. Lowenthalexamineslead- with suppressionin Eastern cultures("Suppression
ing charactersin popular biographyin relationto a versusRepression,"Psychiatry, XII [August,1949],
''cross sectionof sociallyimportantoccupations." 224-27).
41 Guerard,like many literarycritics,recognizes 49 The Contentof Motion Pictures (New York:
that artisticliteratureis "a dangerouslydistorting Macmillan Co., 1933). Like Inglis,Dale findsfiction-
mirror,"buthe failsto perceivepatternsin thedirec- al representationsfavoring unmarried, youthful
tion of distortion(op. cit.,p. 20). people and wealthyratherthan poor. Barnett and
Gruen (op. cit.) discovera bias towardprofessional
46Op. cit.,pp. 530-31.Cf.Richardand Beatrice
people in urban settings.
Hofstadter,who show that Churchill'snovels re-
50BernardBerelesonand Patricia Salter,"Major-
flectedhumanisticvalues in revoltagainst acquisi-
tive and business goals ("Winston Churchill: A ity and MinorityAmericans:An Analysisof Maga-
Study of the Popular Novel," AmericanQuarterly, zine,Fiction,"Public OpinionQuarterly, X (summer
II [spring,1950],12-28). 1946), 188.
 THE RELATIONSHIP OF LITERATURE AND SOCIETY 431

tion,it wouldseem that the theoryis not tives to exclusivelybiographicaland aes-

entirelyuselessbut thatmoreextensivein- theticapproachesand offeredconceptsof
vestigationis needed.The reliability of lit- culturalrelativismin place of absolutist
eratureand art as indexesof the state of aestheticprinciplesand social determinism
societyand culturemightbe checkedagainst in place ofartisticindividualism.
otherindexes,so thatthedangeris avoided The historicalemphasison reflection has
of deducingthe "spiritoftheage" fromits naturallytendedto distractattentionfrom
artand thenrediscovering itin itsart5" the thequestionoftheinfluence ofliterature on
danger which DeVoto calls "the literary society,butthetwoconceptshavefrequent-
fallacy."52It seems evident,also, that to ly been regardedas mutuallyinfluential or
someextentthephrase"reflection of socie- as oppositesidesofthesamecoin.54 Muker-
ty"is a misnomer, sincemuchofwhatlitera- jee holdsthat"artis at oncea socialproduct
turepresumablyreflectsis specifically cul- and an establishedmeans of social con-
turalratherthansocial,as Sorokinexplicitly trol."55 Inglis,finding no evidencethatpop-
Marx and othershave calledatten- ular literature"'shapes" society,believes
states.53
tion to the influenceof social classes,but thatit resultsin a measureofsocialcontrol
manyothersocialaspectsmightbe explored. by supportingthe statusquo of American
It is not clearlyunderstood,forexample, attitudesand ideals.56 In brief,one can for-
what social processesdevelop and sustain mulatetheproposition that,ifliterature re-
differences in aesthetictaste or determine flects,thenit also confirmns and strengthens
whatis calledartisticgreatness.At present culturalnorms,attitudes,and beliefs.
the reflection theoryseems to accountfor This "social control"functionof litera-
some of the contentand certainbroad as- tureis suggestedin the articleby Berelson
pectsofliteraryand artisticstyles,without and Salter,57 and BettyWang findsthat it
comingto gripswiththe problemof what applies to the folksongsof China.58More
social conditionsare responsiblefor the systematically and directly,however,it is
existenceand popularityofspecificliterary supportedby Warnerand Henry'sinvesti-
and artisticforms. Andinevitably it stresses gationof Big Sister, a radioserialdrama.59
the externalproductas an artifact,so that Theyconcludethatthisdramais essentially
some investigators minimizeor deny the a minormoralityplay adaptedto a secular
possibleroleoftheartsin socialchange. society.Psychologically, it does not just
Despite gaps and uncertainties,these "entertain"itslisteners, butit releasestheir
generalorientations showsomepossibilities antisocialimpulses,anxieties,and frustra-
ofultimateagreement. It shouldbe keptin 54See Barnett, op. cit., p. 11; Paul Meadows,
mind,also, that historicallythe reflection "Social Determinationof Art,"Sociologyand Social
theoryhas done valuable servicein chal- Research,XXVI (March-April,1942), 310-13.
lengingolderinsightsand establishedtradi- "I Op. cit.,p. 496.
tions.It has directedattentionto thesocial 56Inglis' use of "social control"as a formof "in-
and culturalcharacteristics of literaturein fluence"seems to lead to some confusion.It seems
additionto its more narrowlyformalas- preferableto restrictthetermto itsmorelimitedand
pects.It has emphasizedthe conceptionof precisecontext.
artistsas agentsofsocialforcesratherthan 57Op. Cit., p. 188.

as individualgeniusesor greatmenwithin- 58 "Folk Songs as a Means of Social Control,"

ventiveimaginations. It has providedsocial Sociologyand Social Research,XIX (September-Oc-

and historicalmodesof analysisas alterna- tober, 1934), 64-69; "Folk Songs as Regulatorsof
Politics," ibid., XX (November-December,1935),
51SchUcking,op. cit.,pp. 4-5. 161-66.
52 BernardDeVoto, The Literary 69 W. Lloyd Warnerand WilliamE. Henry,"The
Fallacy (Bos-
ton:Little,Brown& Co., 1944). Radio Daytime Serial: A Symbolic Analysis,"
GeneticPsychologicalMonographs,XXXVII (Febru-
53Op. cit., IV, 124-28. ary, 1948), 3-73.
 432 THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY
tionsand providesthemwithbotha feeling these women would preferprogramsex-
of beinginstructed and a senseof security pressingdifferent values,as mayothersub-
and importance. Sociallytheprogrampro- groups,such as membersof the upperand
motes understandingof the ideals and lower classes. In short, differentsocial
valuesoffamilylife,and it strengthens and classesor groupsin our societymay select
stabilizesthebasic social institution of our and emphasizedistinctsocial and aesthetic
society,thefamily.60 values,rangingfromcomicbooksto stories
Althoughno mentionis made of Mali- intheNew Yorker, orfrompopularfiction to
nowskiinthisstudy,theseconclusions recall classicalart.
his statementson the roleof mythamong In ourcomplexsociety,then,as contrast-
the TrobriandIslanders.Myth comesinto ed with Trobriandsociety,social control
play, he says, "whenrite,ceremony,or a throughliterature may eitherbe limitedto
social or moralrule demandsjustification, those norms and values commonto all
warrant ofantiquity, and sanctity."6' groupsor appliedto class or groupcontrol,
reality,
Psychologically, mythshelp to stilldoubts eachclassorgroupresponding to theartand
andcalmfears.Mythsofdeath,forexample, literaturethat confirmsits own set of
bringdown"a vaguebutgreatapprehension values, customs,and beliefs.In the latter
to the compassof a trivial,domesticreali- case,ifthesesetsare to someextentin con-
ty."62Myths of originare not "explana- flict,one may logicallyexpectliteraturein
tions," as some anthropologistshave somedegreeto further theirantagonism and
thought, but waysofinstruction in and jus- thuscontribute not to social solidaritybut
tificationof thesocialsystem.Such a myth to intergroup conflictand to socialdisunity.
"conveys,expresses,and strengthens the Groupdifferences, forexample,may be ex-
fundamental fact of the local unityof the posed and attacked.Writerssatirizebusi-
groupofpeopledescendentfroma common nessmenand businessethics,opposingcer-
ancestress."63 It thus contributes to social tainwidespreadsocialbeliefsand practices.
solidarityand supportsthe existingsocial Or, as Marxiantheoryindicates,literature
order. maytendtoperpetuatethestatusquo ofthe
Malinowski'sfindings and thoseof War- "common man," yet operate simulta-
ner and Henry are apparentlyconsistent neously,thoughperhapsunintentionally, to
and essentiallythe same, both in psycho- confirm and strengthen an intrenched eco-
logical and in social functionsof certain nomicpowerelite. Maintainingthe status
typesof literature. Both investigations up- quo in thefamilysystemand in otherinsti-
holdthetheoryofsocialcontrol.It shouldbe tutionsat various social class levels may
recognized, however,thatBig Sisterapplies also helpto impedeorreducesocialchanges
to onlya singlesocialinstitution, thefamily, thatare adaptiveto newconditions, so that
whereasTrobriandmythsaffectthe total theliterature whichsupportstheolder,tra-
society.Moreover,theradiolisteners to Big ditionalsocial formsmay serve as a con-
Sisterare confined to the"commonman" of servativeratherthanas a dynamicforce.64
modernAmericansociety;theydo not in- Some literature, however,may minimize
clude careerwomenfromthe uppermiddle
class (thecontrolgroup),forwhomthepro- 64 This conservativeeffectof literaturemay be

gram has littleor no appeal. Presumably conspicuousin periods of rapid social change, as
seems demonstratedin L. K. Knight's Drama and
60Ibid.,p. 64.
Societyin the Age of Jonson (London: Chatto &
61 Bronislaw Malinowski, "Myth in Primitive Windus,1937) and in WalterTaylor's The Economic

Psychology," in Magic, Science and Religion and Novelin America(Chapel Hill: Universityof North
OtherEssays (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1948), pp. Carolina Press, 1942). Conservativeaspects ofradio
84-85. programs are pointed out by Paul Lazarsfeld in
Print,Radio, and Film in a Democracy,ed. Douglas
62Ibid.,p. 113.
Waples (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
63 Ibid., p. 93; cf.
pp. 85-89, 109. 1942), pp. 66-78.
 THE RELATIONSHIP OF LITERATURE AND SOCIETY 433

or reconcileintergroup like humor judgmentsratherthan theories,but they

conflict,
fordifferent racial groups,65and somemay have been widelyheld. The theory,forin-
contribute to socialmobility,whichis an im- stance,thatsomeliterature, ifnotall, tends
portantculturalvaluein oursociety.Litera- to disruptor to corruptsocietyhas been a
tureand art,as Fearingstates,mayrevealto hardyperennialin the historyof Western
an individuala wide varietyof patternsof civilization.Its traditional formwas set by
behaviorwhichhe mayacceptorreject.66 In Plato in TheRepublic,wherehe fearedthat
eithercase, his awarenessof the rangeof thefundamental laws of thestatewouldbe
the degreeof freedomforac- alteredby shiftsin modesof"music."68
possibilities, This
tion,wouldbe increased, theareasofsignifi- conceptwas lateradoptedby the Christian
cantmeaningsenlarged,and hishorizonex- church,remainedcurrentthroughoutthe
panded.It seemspossiblethat,ifaccepted, MiddleAges,and founditsstrongest expres-
someofthenewvalueswouldpromotesocial sion in sixteenth-century Catholicismand
mobilityratherthanreconciling one to his in Puritanism.69Today, in similarfashion,
"place."67 the SovietUnionstrictlycontrolsthe char-
In theseand probablyotherwaystheso- acterofaestheticoutput,whilein theUnit-
cial controltheoryseemsinadequateforex- ed States censorshipis morelimited.70 All
plaininga numberof directand "hidden" suchmeasureshave beendirectattemptsto
socialeffects ofliteraturein a complexsoci- prescribeartisticproductionor preventits
ety-effectsthatawaitfurther testing.Nev- circulation,on the assumptionthat some
ertheless,recognitionand supportof this works extend and perpetuatevalues an-
theory,particularly by Malinowskiand the titheticalto an emerging socialorder,as in
Warner-Henry study,indicatesits impor- Russia,or introduce and displayvaluesdis-
tanceto studentsof thegeneralproblemof ruptiveofan existingsocialorder,as in the
thefunction ofliterature and artin society. UnitedStates.
Its significance is increasedby thefactthat This was the orientation of the seriesof
it articulatesso closelywithwhatis proba- investigations on moviessponsoredin the
bly the commonest so 1930'sby thePayne Fund and ofa number
versionof reflection,
thateachtendsto reinforce theotherand to of more recentindependentstudies.Since
upholdinparttheproposition statedearlier. manyoftheseare wellknown,we shallcon-
The conceptof socialcontrol,then,may fineourdiscussionto a fewaspects.In gen-
wellbe consideredas separateand distinct eral,it was assumedthatpeople,especially
fromtheinfluence theorywhichemphasizes children,are moreor less passive and can
literatureas "shaping" society.Actually, easily be swayed by the stimuliof the
theidea ofliterature as shapingor molding moviesorotherartisticfornsto act in given
society seems to have taken two broad directions, usuallytowardimmoralorcrimi-
forms,dependingon whetherthe influence nal behavior.A popularaccount pictured
has beenregardedas beneficial or detrimen- childrenas "moldedby movies,"as "movie-
tal to society.Both are obviouslyvalue made criminals,"thougha fewwereinflu-
65 Milton Barron,"A ContentAnalysisof Inter- 68 Op. Cit., pp. 140, 186-87.
group Humor," AmericanSociologicalReview,XV
(February,1950),88-95; RichardStephenson,"Con- 69 Lernerand Mims, op. cit.,pp. 537-38.

flictand Control Functions of Humor," American

70 For Soviet controlof the arts see Tomars, op.
JournalofSociology,LVI (May, 1951), 569-75.
66Op. cit., p. 74.
cit.,pp. 299-301, 370-71; Max Eastman, Artistsin
Uniform(New York: A. A. Knopf,1934),pp. 33-38;
67 Cf. Richard Wright,Black Boy (10th ed.; New JuriJelagin,Taming of theArts (New York: E. P.
York: WorldPublishingCo., 1945),pp. 217-22,226- Dutton & Co., 1951), p. 76. For Americancensor-
28: "I hungeredforbooks,new ways of lookingand ship see Ruth A. Inglis, Freedom of the Movies
seeing.... It had been my accidental reading of (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947);
fictionand literarycriticismthat had evoked in me Charles A. Siepmann,Radio, Televisionand Society
vague glimpsesof life'spossibilities." (New York: OxfordUniversityPress, 1950).
 434 THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY
enced to adopt more ideal attitudesand tion of the negative impact of filmson
goals.7' societyor cultureis stillunanswered, to say
The bulkoftheevidencefromthePayne nothingof theinfluence ofliterature or art.
studies,however,is to the contrary.That The complexity oftheproblemas yetdefies
moviesdo have measurableeffects on atti- adequate testing,although certainlythe
tudes of childrenThurstoneand Peterson naive assumptionof a one-directional type
clearly demonstrate,72 and that conduct of influenceis thoroughlydiscredited,at
mayalso be affected is evidentfromseveral leastamongsocialscientists. Amonglaymen
of the investigations.73 But the influence is andsome"experts"theideapersistsand has
not a simplecause-effect relationship,as again foundexpression recentlyconcerning
commonly assumed;it is selective, beingde- television.
termined primarily by an individual'sback- The very persistenceof the idea that
groundand needs.74 A personmayfocuson moviesor otherformsof literatureand art
particularitemssuchas hairor dressstyles, are sociallydisruptiveapparentlyindicates
manners,methodsor robbery,or courtship an enormous respectforthepowerofartistic
techniques, but opposingforcesmayalso be media-a respectdeeplyintrenched in tra-
presentto cancel or modifythe effectof dition.The conceptionalso seemsto mani-
theseinfluences. The consensusof all these festfearswhichariseandbecomewidespread
studiesseemsto be thatmovieshave differ- duringperiodsof rapid social and cultural
entialeffectsdependingon moviecontent, change,whena societyis moreorless disor-
on an individual'sneeds,and on his social ganized.Whenunderlying causesof change
and culturalbackground.75 WhenHulettat- are obscured or unrecognized,pervasive
temptedto discovertheneteffect ofa com- anxietiesseemto findone outletby attack-
mercialmotionpicture,SisterKenny,upon ing movies or otherartisticforms,or by
publicopinionin a wholecommunity rather curbing their publishersand producers.
than on specificindividuals,he obtained That this processis a channelingif not a
negativeresults.76 displacement ofanxietyseemspossible,but
It mustbe admittedthatthelargerques- it leaves unresolvedtheproblemof the ex-
tentto whichartisticproductsmaynotonly
71HenryJ. Forman,OurMovieMade Children reflectsocial change but also contribute
(New York: Macmillan Co., 1935), passim.
to it.
72 Ruth C. Petersonand L. L. Thurstone,Motion If the detrimental effectsof moviesor
Pictures and theSocial Attitudesof Children(New literature on societyare stillundetermined,
York: Macmillan Co., 1933).
thebeneficial effectsare evenlessso, though
73Herbert Blumer, Movies and Conduct (New the traditional claimshave been manyand
York: Macmillan Co., 1933); HerbertBlumer and
exceedinglygreat. Historically,one such
Philip M. Hauser, Movies,Delinquency,and Crime
(New York: Macmillan Co., 1933); Paul G. Cressey claim refersto the "moral"value of litera-
and FrederickM. Thrasher,Boys, M4lovies, and City ture,alreadydealt within connection with
Streets(New York: Macmillan Co., 1933). the social controltheory,but the effects of
74Mildred J. Weise and Steward G. Cole, "A theartsbeyondtheirsocialcontrol function
Study of Children'sAttitudesand the influenceof a may moreappropriately be classifiedas in-
CommercialMotionPicture,"JournalofPsychology, fluencein "shaping"society,a powerwhich
XXI (1946), 151-71.
Toynbeeand othershave deniedto thearts.
75Paul G. Cressey,"The Motion PictureExperi- Whenone examinesvariousclaims,they
ence as Modified by Social Backgroundand Per- prove to be a curious mixture.Albert
sonality, "American SociologicalReview,III (August,
1938), 516-25. Guerard,forexample,states that literary
76J. E. Hulett,Jr.,"EstimatingtheNet Effortof
works have set fashions,such as a "fatal
a CommercialMotion Picture upon the Trend of
pallor," and thatGoethe'sWerther was "re-
Local Public Opinion," AmericanSociological Re- sponsible for" a wave of suicides.77He be-
view,XIV (April,1949), 263-75. 77 Op. cit., p. 337.
 THE RELATIONSHIP OF LITERATURE AND SOCIETY 435

lievesthatliterature has producedthecon- then,be involvedin socialchange.However,

ceptionsof nationaltypesand thatliterary whetherliteratureor any otherkindof art
ideasprecededand "guided"politicalmove- "penetrates"firstin timeor moresuccess-
mentsand reforms.78 Similarclaims have fullythanotherculturalobjectsor ideas is
been made about particularworkssuc-has doubtful;even if true,it is clearlynot the
UncleTom'sCabinand TheJungle,by Up- functionmerelyof the workof art itself.83
ton Sinclair,which is supposed to have Much the same difficultyis encoun-
"broughtabout" the reform of thepacking teredin othertraditionalassertionsabout
houses in 1906. In fact, however,these the "shaping" influenceof art, especially
claimshavenotbeensubstantiated.79 Essen- thosepertainingto personalcharacterand
tially,theyreston thesamekindofsimpli- to ideal humanexistence.JohnDewey,for
fied notionof causation as those for the example,insiststhat,whenwe enterintothe
"bad" influence ofthemovies. spiritof Negroor Polynesianart, "barriers
Some of theseso-called"influences," in- are dissolved, limiting prejudices melt
deed,are mainlyproblemsofculturaldiffu- away."84Developingthisthought, Gotshalk
sionas relatedto socialchange,whichhave declaresthatthefineartsare "an indispen-
beendealtwithby bothTomarsand Sorokin, sable foundationof congruity of feelingor
amongothers.Tomarshas concentrated on social solidaritybetweenindividualsand
interclasscurrentsand fashionsof art in a peoples."85Consistent withthesejudgments
competitive societyas contrastedto a cor- is theevaluationoftheartsas thecrowning
poratesociety.80 Sorokinhas morecompre- achievement ofcivilization,
thechiefmeans
hensively statedsomeapproximate uniform- ofmeasuring thestatureofa society,a sym-
ities of spatial displacement,mobility, bol of its internalpowerand worth.88
circulation,and diffusion of culturalphe- These statementsreferto the "highest"
nomena, including literatureand art." culturalideals forindividualsand forhu-
Again,both emphasizethe complexityof manity,essentiallythe religiousconception
such processes. As Sorokin points out, ofbrotherhood. Obviouslytheyare notfor-
whetherliteraryor art forms"penetrate" mulated in ways that would lend them-
anothersocialclass or a different
culturein- selvesto scientific
test.Perhapstheartshelp
volves a numberof conditions,whichin- to perpetuatesuch ideals or contributeto
cludeat leastthedegreeof"refinement" and theiracceptanceby othercultures.To the
complexity ofa work,thenatureofthecul- extentthat theyreinforcethesevalues in
ture or subculturebeing "influenced," the our culture,they would presumablyper-
typeof communication systembeingused, formthe social controlfunction,though
and sometimes theamountand characterof probablyforcertainelitegroupsmorethan
coercionorforcethatis applied.82The diffu- forothers.As Eastmanpointsout,thepres-
sionofcertaintypesofliterature orartmay, ent attemptsat maintainingthis supreme
evaluationoftheartsareprimarily directed
78Ibid.,pp. 338-40.
83 Ibid., pp. 268-79, 282-88.
In American Outpost (New York: Farrar &
791
Rinehart, 1932) Sinclair acknowledgesthat he is 84Artas Experience(New York: Minton,Balch
supposed to have helped clean up the stockyards & Co., 1934), p. 334 ff. Cf. Albert R. Chandler,
but insists"this is mostlydelusion." Donald Grant Beauty and Human Nature (New York: Appleton-
came to similarconclusionsin "The Jungle:A Study CenturyCo., 1934), pp. 294-95; Daiches, op. cit.,
of LiteraryInfluence"(unpublishedpaper, Univer- p. 10.
sityofBuffalo).Materialson Uncle Tom's Cabin are
86D. W. Gotshalk, Art and the Social Order
well known.
(Chicago: Universityof Chicago Press, 1947), pp.
80 Op. cit.,pp. 141-23. 210, 212-13.
81 Op. cit., IV, 197-289. 86Dewey, op. cit., p. 345; Gotshalk,op. cit., p.
203; Edman, op. cit., p. 51; Auguste Rodin, Art
82 Ibid., pp. 202 ff. (New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1928), pp. 7-9.
436 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY
at preserving the highstatusof embattled
men-of-letters,who seek to recapturethe
positiontheyenjoyedinthepast,whentheir
association with religionand "superior"
knowledge gaveto theartssingularprestige.
Today theirpositionis beingundermined by
the encroachments of experimental science,
once rated low in the social scale as "the
vulgarpursuitofusefulknowledge."87
To definetheproblemin thisway would
be to investigatethe historicaloriginsand
thesocialstructures thatsupportand main-
tain the highculturalvalue placed on the
arts-the finearts especially,but popular
arts as well-and to assess theireffects on
socialbehaviorin manygroups,in compari-
son to otherkindsofculturalinterest.Lund-
bergthinksthat "social relationsare today
managedon the basis ofwhat poets,play-
87 Max Eastman, The LiteraryMind (New York:
CharlesScribner'sSons, 1932), pp. 36-53.
wrights,journalists,preachersand radio
commentators assume,on thebasis off4k-
lore,literature,and highlylimitedpersonal
experience, ofhumannature
to be principles
and humanrelations."88 Futureresearch will
no doubtdetermine the truthof thisstate-
ment,and eventually we mayalso be able to
tracemoreclearlythe extentto whichart
has become,as Max Weberstates,a cosmos
ofindependent values,whicharein dynamic
tensionwithreligionand whichtake over
"the functionof a this-worldlysalvation,"
especiallyfromthe increasingpressuresof
theoreticaland practicalrationalism.89
UNIVERSITY OF BUFFALO
88 George A. Lundberg, Can Science Save Us?
(New York: Longmans,Green& Co., 1947), p. 63.
89 H. H. Gerthand C. WrightMills (eds.), From
Max Weber:Essays in Sociology(New York: Oxford
UniversityPress, 1946), p. 342.