1.

0 Introduction

1.1 General Properties

Magnesium (pronounced /mæɡˈniːziəm/, mag-NEE-zee-əm) is a chemical element with the

symbol Mg, atomic number 12 and common oxidation number +2. It is an alkaline earth
metal and the eighth most abundant element in the Earth's crust, where it constitutes about 2% by
mass, and ninth in the known Universe as a whole. This preponderance of magnesium is related
to the fact that it is easily built up in supernova stars from a sequential addition of three helium
nuclei to carbon (which in turn is made from three helium nuclei). Magnesium ion's
high solubility in water helps ensure that it is the third most abundant element dissolved
in seawater.

Magnesium is the 11th most abundant element by mass in the human body; its ions are essential
to all living cells, where they play a major role in manipulating important biological
polyphosphate compounds like ATP, DNA, and RNA. Hundreds of enzymes thus require
magnesium ions to function. Magnesium is also the metallic ion at the center of chlorophyll, and
is thus a common additive to fertilizers. Magnesium compounds are used medicinally as
common laxatives, antacids (i.e., milk of magnesia), and in a number of situations where
stabilization of abnormal nerve excitation and blood vessel spasm is required (i.e., to
treat eclampsia). Magnesium ions are sour to the taste, and in low concentrations help to impart a
natural tartness to fresh mineral waters.

The free element (metal) is not found naturally on Earth, as it is highly reactive (though once
produced, is coated in a thin layer of oxide (see passivation), which partly masks this reactivity).
The free metal burns with a characteristic brilliant white light, making it a useful ingredient in
flares. The metal is now mainly obtained by electrolysis of magnesium salts obtained from brine.
Commercially, the chief use for the metal is as an alloying agent to make aluminums-magnesium
alloys, sometimes called "magnesium" or "magnelium". Since magnesium is less dense than
aluminum, these alloys are prized for their relative lightness and strength.

General properties
 Name, symbol, magnesium, Mg, 12
number

Pronunciation /mæɡˈniːziəm/, mag-NEE-
zee-əm

Element category alkaline earth metal

Group, period, block 2, 3, s

Standard atomic 24.3050(6) g·mol−1

weight

Electron configuration [Ne] 3s2

Electrons per shell 2, 8, 2

Table 1.1

1.2 Physical and Chemical properties

Elemental magnesium is a fairly strong, silvery-white, light-weight metal (two thirds the density
of aluminium). It tarnishes slightly when exposed to air, although unlike the alkali metals,
storage in an oxygen-free environment is unnecessary because magnesium is protected by a thin
layer of oxide that is fairly impermeable and hard to remove. Like its lower periodic table group
neighbor calcium, magnesium reacts with water at room temperature, though it reacts much more
slowly than calcium. When it is submerged in water, hydrogen bubbles will almost unnoticeably
begin to form on the surface of the metal, though if powdered it will react much more rapidly.
The reaction will occur faster with higher temperatures (see precautions). Magnesium also reacts
exothermically with most acids, such as hydrochloric acid (HCl). As with aluminium, zinc and
many other metals, the reaction with hydrochloric acid produces the chloride of the metal and
releases hydrogen gas.

Magnesium is a highly flammable metal, but while it is easy to ignite when powdered or shaved
into thin strips, it is difficult to ignite in mass or bulk. Once ignited, it is difficult to extinguish,
being able to burn in nitrogen (forming magnesium nitride), carbon dioxide (forming magnesium
oxide and carbon) and water (forming magnesium oxide and hydrogen). This property was used
in incendiary weapons used in the firebombing of cities in World War II, the only practical civil
defense being to smother a burning flare under dry sand to exclude the atmosphere. On burning
in air, magnesium produces a brilliant white light. Thus magnesium powder (flash powder) was
used as a source of illumination in the early days of photography. Later, magnesium ribbon was
used in electrically ignited flash bulbs. Magnesium powder is used in the manufacture of
fireworks and marine flares where a brilliant white light is required. Flame temperatures of
magnesium and magnesium alloys can reach 3,100 °C (3,370 K; 5,610 °F) [7], although flame
height above the burning metal is usually less than 300 mm (12 in).[8] Magnesium may be used
as an ignition source for thermite, an otherwise difficult to ignite mixture of aluminium and iron
oxide powder.

Magnesium compounds are typically white crystals. Most are soluble in water, providing the
sour-tasting magnesium ion Mg2+. Small amounts of dissolved magnesium ion contribute to the
tartness and taste of natural waters. Magnesium ion in large amounts is an ionic laxative, and
magnesium sulfate (common name: Epsom salt) is sometimes used for this purpose. So-called
"milk of magnesia" is a water suspension of one of the few insoluble magnesium compounds,
magnesium hydroxide. The undissolved particles give rise to its appearance and name. Milk of
magnesia is a mild basecommonly used as an antacid, which has some laxative side effect.

Physical properties

Phase solid

Density (near r.t.) 1.738 g·cm−3

Liquid density atm.p. 1.584 g·cm−3

Melting point 923 K, 650 °C, 1202 °F

Boiling point 1363 K, 1091 °C, 1994 °F

Heat of fusion 8.48 kJ·mol−1

Heat of vaporization 128 kJ·mol−1

Specific heat capacity (25 °C) 24.869 J·mol−1·K−1

Table 1.2

1.3 Atomic Properties

Atomic properties

Oxidation states 2, 1 [1]

(strongly basic oxide)
 Electronegativity 1.31 (Pauling scale)

Ionization energies 1st: 737.7 kJ·mol−1

(more)
2nd: 1450.7 kJ·mol−1

3rd: 7732.7 kJ·mol−1

Atomic radius 160 pm

Covalent radius 141±7 pm

Van der Waals radius 173 pm

Table 1.3

1.4 Isotopes

Magnesium has three stable isotopes: 24Mg, 25Mg and 26Mg. All are present in significant

amounts (see table of isotopes above). About 79% of Mg is24Mg. The isotope 28Mg is radioactive
and in the 1950s to 1970s was made commercially by several nuclear power plants for use in
scientific experiments. This isotope has a relatively short half-life (21 hours) and so its use was
limited by shipping times.

26
Mg has found application in isotopic geology, similar to that of aluminium. 26Mg is
a radiogenic daughter product of26Al, which has a half-life of 717,000 years. Large enrichments
of stable 26Mg have been observed in the Ca-Al-rich inclusions of some carbonaceous
chondrite meteorites. The anomalous abundance of 26Mg is attributed to the decay of its
parent 26Al in the inclusions. Therefore, the meteorite must have formed in the solar
nebula before the26Al had decayed. Hence, these fragments are among the oldest objects in
the solar system and have preserved information about its early history.

It is conventional to plot 26Mg/24Mg against an Al/Mg ratio. In an isochron dating plot, the Al/Mg

ratio plotted is27Al/24Mg. The slope of the isochron has no age significance, but indicates the
initial 26Al/27Al ratio in the sample at the time when the systems were separated from a common
reservoir

Iso NA half D DE (MeV D

-life M ) P

24 24
M 78.99 Mg is stable with
g % 12 neutrons

25 25
M 10% Mg is stable with
g 13 neutrons

26 26
M 11.01 Mg is stable with
g % 14 neutrons

Table 1.4

1.5 Mechanical Properties

Miscellanea

Crystal structure hexagonal

Magnetic ordering paramagnetic

Electrical resistivity (20 °C) 43.9 nΩ·m

Thermal conductivity (300 K) 156 W·m−1·K−1

Thermal expansion (25 °C) 24.8 µm·m−1·K−1

 Speed of sound (thin rod) (r.t.) (annealed)
4940 m·s−1

Young's modulus 45 GPa

Shear modulus 17 GPa

Bulk modulus 45 GPa

Poisson ratio 0.290

Mohs hardness 2.5

Brinell hardness 260 MPa

CAS registry number 7439-95-4

Table 1.5

1.6 Occurrence

Although magnesium is found in over 60 minerals, only dolomite, magnesite, brucite, carnallite,
talc, and olivine are of commercial importance.

The Mg2+ cation is the second most abundant cation in seawater (occurring at about 12% of the
mass of sodium there), which makes seawater and sea-salt an attractive commercial source of
Mg. To extract the magnesium, calcium hydroxide is added to seawater to form magnesium
hydroxide bruciteinsoluble in water so it can be filtered out, and reacted with hydrochloric acid
to obtain concentrated magnesium chloride.

Mg(OH)2 + 2 HCl → MgCl2 + 2 H2O

From magnesium chloride, electrolysis produces magnesium.

In the United States, magnesium is principally obtained by electrolysis of fused magnesium
chloride from brines, wells, and sea water. At the cathode, theMg2+ ion is reduced by two
electrons to magnesium metal:

Mg2+ + 2 e− → Mg

At the anode, each pair of Cl− ions is oxidized to chlorine gas, releasing two electrons to
complete the circuit:

2 Cl− → Cl2 (g) + 2 e−

The United States has traditionally been the major world supplier of this metal, supplying 45% of
world production even as recently as 1995. Today, the US market share is at 7%, with a single
domestic producer left, US Magnesium, a company born from now-defunct Magcorp.[9]

As of 2005, China has taken over as the dominant supplier, pegged at 60% world market share,
which increased from 4% in 1995. Unlike the above-described electrolytic process, China is
almost completely reliant on a different method of obtaining the metal from its ores, the
silicothermic Pidgeon process (the reduction of the oxide at high temperatures with silicon).

1.7 History

The name originates from the Greek word for a district in Thessaly called Magnesia. It is related
to magnetite and manganese, which also originated from this area, and required differentiation as
separate substances. See manganese for this history.

Magnesium is the seventh most abundant element in the Earth's crust by mass and eighth by
molarity. It is found in large deposits of magnesite, dolomite, and other minerals, and in mineral
waters, where magnesium ion is soluble. In 1618, a farmer at Epsom in England attempted to
give his cows water from a well. They refused to drink because of the water's bitter taste.
However the farmer noticed that the water seemed to heal scratches and rashes. The fame of
Epsom salts spread. Eventually they were recognized to be hydrated magnesium sulfate, MgSO4.
The metal itself was first produced in England by Sir Humphry Davy in 1808 using electrolysis
of a mixture of magnesia and mercury oxide. Antoine Bussy prepared it in coherent form in
1831. Davy's first suggestion for a name was magnium, but the name magnesium is now used.

1.8 Applications