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Fuel 188 (2017) 418–426

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Fuel
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fuel

Full Length Article

A comparative study of using diesel and PODEn as pilot fuels for natural
gas dual-fuel combustion
Heping Song a, Changpeng Liu a, Fubai Li a, Zhi Wang a,⇑, Xin He b, Shijin Shuai a, Jianxin Wang a
a
State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety and Energy, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
b
Aramco Services Company: Aramco Research Center – Detroit, Novi, MI 48377, USA

h i g h l i g h t s

 First study on PODEn/CNG dual-fuel combustion.


 Natural gas dual-fuel LTC reduced NOx emissions and improved efficiency.
 PODEn/CNG dual-fuel combustion lowered THC, CO, NOx and soot emissions.
 PODEn/CNG dual-fuel combustion achieved higher efficiency.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Compared to natural gas spark-ignition (SI) combustion, dual-fuel (DF) mode could achieve higher indi-
Received 1 July 2016 cated thermal efficiency (ITE). The major disadvantages of natural gas DF combustion are rough combus-
Received in revised form 21 August 2016 tion at high load, high CO and total hydrocarbon (THC) emissions, and low natural gas substitution rate.
Accepted 8 October 2016
In the present work, a comparison of using polyoxymethylene dimethyl ethers (PODEn) and diesel as
pilot fuels for natural gas DF combustion is presented. The experiments were conducted at two condi-
tions: 1000 rpm 4 bar indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP), and 1000 rpm 12 bar IMEP.
Keywords:
Compressed natural gas (CNG) was injected into the intake manifold and pilot fuel was injected directly
PODEn
Natural gas
into the cylinder. The experiments covered both conventional and low temperature DF combustion.
Dual-fuel Experiments were conducted with 0% exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and 60% CNG substitution ratio
Low temperature combustion at 4 bar IMEP. At 12 bar IMEP, 90% substitution ratio and 30% EGR rate were chosen. The impact of the
start of pilot fuel injection (SOI) on natural gas DF combustion was studied. In comparison with the con-
ventional combustion, low temperature combustion reduced NOx emissions and improved ITE.
Compared to diesel, PODEn achieved lower THC, CO, NOx, soot emissions and higher efficiency, indicating
it is a promising pilot fuel for natural gas DF combustion.
Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction pollutant emissions. Using alternative fuels for automotive engines


has been an important research topic. Natural gas is promising due
Automotive emission regulations became more and more strin- to its low price, high H/C ratio, and capable of achieving engine
gent recently due to the great concerns of air quality and criteria performance comparable to gasoline and diesel fuels. Natural gas
engine technologies mainly differ in two ways: natural gas/diesel
DF engine and SI natural gas engine. SI natural gas engines domi-
Abbreviations: PODEn, polyoxymethylene dimethyl ethers; THC, total hydro- nate the market because of the low cost and little modification
carbon; DF, dual-fuel; CNG, compressed nature gas; SOI, start of ignition; SI, spark from conventional gasoline engines [1–7]. Compared to SI natural
ignition; ATDC, after top dead center; LTHR, low temperature heat release; AHRR,
gas engines, DF engines usually achieve higher thermal efficiency
apparent heat release rate; ITE, indicated thermal efficiency; IMEP, indicated mean
effective pressure; HPDI, high pressure direct injection; LHV, lower heating value; [7–10].
LTC, low temperature combustion; CA, crank angle; EGR, exhaust gas recirculation; Many research institutes have focused on investigating natural
PPRR, peak pressure rise rate; EPA, Environmental Protection Agency. gas/diesel DF combustion. Researches on key control parameters of
⇑ Corresponding author at: Automobile Research Institute, Tsinghua University,
natural gas/diesel DF engines have been conducted, including
Beijing 100084, China.
injection strategy [6,8–13], compression ratio [9], exhaust gas
E-mail address: wangzhi@mail.tsinghua.edu.cn (Z. Wang).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2016.10.051
0016-2361/Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Song et al. / Fuel 188 (2017) 418–426 419

recirculation (EGR) fraction [16,17], and intake temperature [17], ulated emissions including NOx, CO, THC, and CO2. AVL 439
etc. Ogawa et al. [9] investigated the impact of compression ratio opacimeter was used to measure soot emissions. The cylinder pres-
and reported that 16.5 was a better compression ratio compared sure was measured with a Kistler 6125C pressure transducer. The
to 14.5 and 18.5. Liu et al. [10] studied the emission characteristics engine was controlled using a LabVIEW based controller, which
of a natural gas/diesel DF engine with different pilot fuel injection consists of National Instrument real-time system, FPGA, and Driv-
strategies. They reported higher THC and CO emissions but 30% ven modules. The uncertainties of measured parameters are sum-
reduction in NOx emissions in comparison with the conventional marized in Table 2.
diesel combustion. Yang et al. [12] studied the effects of natural Table 3 lists the composition of the CNG used in this study,
gas injection timings and pressure. They concluded that retarding which was measured by gas chromatography (Agilent 7890B).
injection timing achieved stratified air-fuel mixture, which helped The lower heating value (LHV) of the CNG is 48.36 kJ/g. The pilot
to improve efficiency and reduce emissions. Srinivasan et al. [17] fuel properties are shown in Table 4. The diesel used in the exper-
explored the effects of hot EGR on THC emissions. Compared to iment meets the Beijing V diesel fuel standard [31]. The PODEn has
conventional diesel combustion, CNG/diesel DF combustion a mass ratio of PODE2/PODE3/PODE4 = 2.6%/88.9%/8.5%, which was
achieved lower CO2 and soot emissions, but higher CO and HC produced by Shandong Yuhuang Chemical Company. The oxygen
emissions [9–17]. NOx emissions were related to the substitution mass fraction of PODEn is 46.98% and its cetane number is 78.6.
ratio and engine load [9,11]. Although DF mode could maintain The PODEn distillation range is lower than that of diesel, which
efficiency similar to diesel engine, it usually suffered from high indicates PODEn has better volatility.
THC and CO emissions, rough combustion at high load, and low CA05, CA10, CA50, and CA90 are defined as the crank angle (CA)
substitution rate of natural gas [7–16]. The high pressure direct where 5%, 10%, 50%, and 90% of the total heat release occur.
injection (HPDI) system developed by Westport Innovations Inc. Combustion duration is defined as the CA interval between CA10
partly solved the bottlenecks of natural gas/diesel DF engines, and CA90. Ignition delay is defined as the CA interval between SOI
but was limited by the system cost and complexity [18,19]. and CA05. EGR ratio is calculated as the ratio of CO2 mole fraction
For conventional DF combustion, the pilot fuel was typically between intake and exhaust manifolds. Substitution rate is defined
injected near top dead center (TDC). Low temperature combustion as the rate of the total CNG LHV to the LHV of all fuels per cycle.
(LTC) concept utilized more advanced injection timings, which Table 5 shows the experimental conditions. The experiments
increased time interval between the start of injection (SOI) and were conducted at 1000 rpm and two loads. When performing SI
the start of ignition, achieving better fuel air mixing [20,21]. sweeps, the fuel quantities were maintained constant, which
Natural gas/diesel DF mode with LTC concept could achieve low caused slight difference in IMEP due to the variation in engine effi-
NOx emissions and high efficiency [8,17,22]. ciency. Condition 1 represents low load engine operation, which
Various pilot fuels besides diesel have been evaluated. was conducted at approximately 4 bar IMEP and 60% substitution
Shoemaker et al. [23] used biodiesel as pilot fuel to ignite methane ratio without EGR. Condition 2 represents high load engine opera-
and propane. They concluded that lower soot and NOx emissions tion, which was conducted at about 12 bar IMEP with 90% substi-
were observed at high methane or propane substitution ratio with tution ratio and 30% EGR. At both loads, CNG was injected into
the penalty of higher THC and CO emissions. Imran et al. [24] the intake manifold and pilot fuel was injected directly into the
explored the potential of rapeseed methyl ester as a pilot fuel to cylinder in a single pulse with 100 MPa injection pressure.
ignite CNG and reported slight differences in emissions. Compared
to diesel, PODEn has higher cetane number and oxygen content,
which is easier to auto-ignite and potentially achieves better com- 3. Results and discussion
bustion efficiency and lower CO, THC, and soot emissions [25–29].
Zheng et al. [30] invented an industrial process for mass produc- 3.1. Results at low load (1000 rpm, 4 bar IMEP)
tion of PODEn with the capacity of 10,000 ton/year. Liu et al. [27]
tested the diesel and PODEn blend fuels in a diesel engine. They Fig. 2 shows the pressure trace and apparent heat release rate
reported adding PODEn reduced combustion duration. Soot, CO, (AHRR) of PODEn/CNG DF combustion with SOI sweeping from
and THC emissions reduced at higher PODEn rate. Tong et al. [29] 45° to 0° after TDC (ATDC). Fig. 2(a) shows the results of SOIs
reported that PODEn had potential to extend IMEP of gasoline/ from 25° to 0° ATDC, which exhibit single peak heat release com-
PODE DF combustion. bustion. Advancing SOI increased peak cylinder pressure and
In this work, natural gas/PODEn and natural gas/diesel DF com- advanced combustion phasing. For these SOI cases, pilot fuels were
bustions were studied using a single cylinder engine. The impacts injected near TDC and ignition delays were relatively short. The
of pilot fuel SOI timing on emissions and efficiency of DF combus- consumption of the pilot fuel was dominated by diffusion combus-
tion were presented. A comparison between diesel and PODEn was tion due to the short ignition delay. The natural gas was ignited by
performed to demonstrate the advantages of PODEn. the pilot fuel and consumed mostly by flame propagation. For
these SOI cases, it is not possible to separate pilot fuel heat release
from the CNG heat release. Fig. 2(b) shows the results of SOIs from
2. Test method and fuel properties 45° to 30° ATDC. Compared to the cases in Fig. 2(a), different
trends in peak cylinder pressure and combustion phasing were
Fig. 1 shows the schematic of the single cylinder engine test observed. Further advancing SOI retarded combustion phasing
bench. The engine was refitted from a heavy-duty engine called and reduced peak AHRR. The similar phenomenon was observed
DCI11, which was produced by the Dongfeng Motor Corporation. in other engine combustion studies [32–34]. Both local tempera-
Table 1 shows the specifications of the engine. Two 100 L surge ture and equivalence ratio affect the ignition delay. If pilot fuel is
tanks were used to minimize the intake and exhaust pressure fluc- injected too early, the long mixing time makes the local equiva-
tuation. A six-channel sonic nozzle system was used to control and lence ratio overly lean, leading to even longer ignition delay. For
measure the intake air mass flow rate. Exhaust pressure was con- the early SOI cases, two-peak shape heat release curves were
trolled by a back pressure valve. EGR rate was controlled by the observed. The end of the first peak heat release was near CA05,
exhaust pressure and the EGR valve. CNG was injected into the which was considered to be the low temperature heat release
intake manifold and pilot fuels were injected using a common rail (LTHR) of the pilot fuels. Previous researchers have found that
injection system. Horiba MEXA-7200 was used to measure the reg- LTHR caused a fraction of the fuel to be partially oxidized at
420 H. Song et al. / Fuel 188 (2017) 418–426

Fig. 1. Schematic of the engine test bench.

Table 1 Table 5
Specifications of the single cylinder engine. Operation conditions.

Parameter Value Parameter Condition 1 Condition 2


Displacement 1.85 L Speed [rpm] 1000 1000
Compression ratio 17.3 IMEP[bar] (approximately) 4 12
Bore 123 mm CNG LHV [kJ/cycle] 1.18 4.40
Stroke 156 mm Pilot fuel LHV [kJ/cycle] 0.79 0.49
Swirl ratio 1.85 Substitution ratio [%] 60 90
Common rail pressure 0–160 MPa EGR rate [%] 0 30
CNG injection pressure 0.5 MPa Intake pressure [MPa] 0.12 0.16
Intake temperature [K] 299 303

Table 2
Uncertainties of measured parameters. temperatures below 850 K [35,36]. For these early SOI cases, LTHR
was more likely to occur owing to the lower in-cylinder tempera-
Parameter Uncertainty (%)
ture during injection. The similar phenomenon was also observed
Engine speed 0.5 in other studies [8]. Fig. 3 compares the cylinder pressure and
Crank angle 0.1
AHRR between PODEn/CNG and diesel/CNG DF combustions. Cylin-
Gaseous emissions 2.0
Opacity 1.0 der pressure and AHRR were similar for both early SOI and late SOI
Cylinder pressure 1.5 cases. Compared to diesel/CNG, PODEn/CNG combustion exhibited
Air flow meter 1.0 higher peak cylinder pressure and more advanced combustion
Fuel flow meter 1.0 phasing due to the higher cetane number and better volatility of
PODEn.
The impact of SOI on ignition delay, combustion duration, CA50,
and peak pressure rise rate (PPRR) are shown in Fig. 4. Ignition
Table 3 delay generally increased as SOI was advanced. The only exception
The composition of the tested CNG.
is for the case of SOI starting at TDC, which is not surprising
Component Mole fraction (%) because the majority of pilot fuels were injected ATDC encounter-
Methane 93.78 ing lower in-cylinder temperature. CA50 first advanced then
Ethane 4.91 retarded with advancing SOI. The earliest combustion phasing
Propane 0.79 was observed when SOI was 25° ATDC. For DF combustion with
Butane 0.18
60% substitution rate (40% pilot fuel), CA10 is closely related to
Others 0.34
the start of pilot fuel injection, and CA10 and CA50 are mainly
determined by the pilot fuel combustion. CA90, however, is more
related to the combustion of CNG in the squish region due to flame
propagation. Thus, CA90 varies little with respect to the pilot injec-
tion, while CA10 follows the same trend as CA50. As a conse-
Table 4
The properties of pilot fuels [23].
quence, combustion duration becomes longer as CA50 advances.
Higher PPRR was observed as CA50 advanced. The maximum PPRR
Parameter Diesel PODEn
was observed when SOI occurred at 20° ATDC. PODEn/CNG and
Density [g/cm3] 0.829 1.02 diesel/GNG exhibited the similar trends in ignition delay, CA50,
Distillation range [°C] 176–328 156–202 and PPRR. For PODEn/CNG combustion, combustion duration and
Cetane number 56.5 78.6
LHV [kJ/g] 42.68 19.05
ignition delay were generally shorter, CA50 was more advanced,
C [%(mass ratio)] 86.5 44.0 and higher PPRR was observed due to the better volatility of
H [%(mass ratio)] 13.5 8.8 PODEn.
O [%(mass ratio)] 0.06 47.0 Fig. 5 compares the emissions between two pilot fuels at 4 bar
S [mg/L] 4.3 <1
IMEP. The lowest THC and CO emissions were observed at 30°
H. Song et al. / Fuel 188 (2017) 418–426 421

120 900 120 300


o o
SOI= 0 ATDC Speed: 1000 rpm SOI= -30 ATDC Speed: 1000 rpm
o
SOI= -5 ATDC IMEP: 4 bar o
SOI= -35 ATDC IMEP: 4 bar
100 100
o
SOI= -10 ATDC Substitution Ratio: 60% o Substitution Ratio: 60%
SOI= -40 ATDC
o o
Cylinder Pressure (bar)

Cylinder Pressure (bar)


80
SOI= -15 ATDC 80 SOI= -45 ATDC
o 600 200
SOI= -20 ATDC

AHRR (J/deg)

AHRR (J/deg)
o
SOI= -25 ATDC
60 60

40 300 40 100

20 20

0 0 0
0

-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30


O O
Crank Angle ( CA ATDC) Crank Angle ( CA ATDC)

(a) Late SOI (b) Early SOI


Fig. 2. Impact of SOI on pressure and AHRR for PODEn/CNG combustion at 4 bar IMEP (dash lines represent AHRR).

120 800 120 400


Diesel Speed: 1000 rpm Diesel Speed: 1000 rpm
PODEn IMEP: 4 bar PODEn IMEP: 4 bar
100 100
Substitution Ratio: 60% Substitution Ratio: 60%
o 600 o 300
SOI: 0 ATDC SOI: -35 ATDC
Cylinder Pressure (bar)
Cylinder Pressure (bar)

80 80

AHRR (J/deg)
AHRR (J/deg)

200
400 60
60

40 40 100
200

20 20
0
0
0 Injection Signal
0 Injection Signal

-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30


O O
Crank Angle ( CA ATDC) Crank Angle ( CA ATDC)
(a) Late SOI (b) Early SOI
Fig. 3. Comparison of pressure and AHRR between different pilot fuels at 4 bar IMEP (dash lines represent AHRR).

and 25° ATDC, respectively, which were very close to the SOI combustion efficiency and combustion phasing influence ITE. The
achieving the earliest combustion phasing. Sharp increases in peak ITE occurred at 35° ATDC, which was not the same as the
THC emissions were observed when SOI was retarded. CO emis- SOI that achieved peak combustion efficiency ( 30° ATDC). This
sions changed very little when SOI was retarded, but increased is because of the better combustion phasing when the pilot fuel
sharply when SOI was advanced. NOx emissions showed a similar was injected at 35° ATDC. Higher combustion efficiency and ITE
trend to PPRR, which increased first and then decreased with were observed for PODEn/CNG combustion.
advancing SOI. Much lower NOx was observed when SOI was ear- Using 30° ATDC SOI as an example for detailed comparison
lier than 30° CA ATDC, indicating pilot fuels burned in premixed between PODEn/CNG and diesel/CNG. Compared with diesel,
mode. Compared to diesel, PODEn produced lower THC, CO and PODEn reduced THC, CO, and NOx emissions by 52.1%, 28.8%, and
NOx emissions. The lower CO and THC emissions of PODEn are con- 72%, respectively. Combustion efficiency increased by 3.9% and
tributed to the higher cetane number and oxygen content of ITE increased by 3.7%. These indicate that PODEn is a promising
PODEn. The lower NOx emissions are primarily due to the higher pilot fuel for CNG DF combustion.
volatility of PODEn. When injected into the cylinder, PODEn vapor-
izes faster than diesel, achieving better mixing. As a consequence, 3.2. Results at high load (1000 rpm, 12 bar IMEP)
the local equivalence ratio of PODEn is lower due to the higher
volatility and oxygen content of PODEn, causing lower local com- The experiments were conducted at about 12 bar IMEP with 90%
bustion temperature and thus lower NOx formation. substitution ratio and 30% EGR. Fig. 7(a) shows the cylinder pres-
Fig. 6 shows the impact of SOI on combustion efficiency and ITE sure and AHRR of PODEn/CNG DF combustion with SOI sweep from
for the two pilot fuels. The trend of combustion efficiency is similar 20° to 0° ATDC. Similar to those at low load, advancing SOI caused
to THC and CO emissions, which peaks at 30° ATDC. Both higher peak cylinder pressure and earlier combustion phasing. The
422 H. Song et al. / Fuel 188 (2017) 418–426

50 60
(a) Diesel Speed:1000rpm (b) Speed:1000rpm
Diesel IMEP:4bar
IMEP:4bar

Comb. Duration ( CA)


40 PODEn 50
Iginition Delay ( CA)

PODEn Substitution Ratio: 60%


Substitution Ratio: 60%

o
O

30 Enlarged View 40

20 30

10 20

0 10
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0
o o
SOI ( CA ATDC) SOI ( CA ATDC)
20 15
(c) Speed:1000rpm (d)
Diesel Speed:1000rpm
IMEP:4bar Diesel
PODEn IMEP:4bar
PODEn
CA50 ( CA ATDC)

Substitution Ratio: 60% Substitution Ratio: 60%

PPRR (bar/ CA)


10 10

O
O

0 5

-10 0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0
o
o
SOI ( CA ATDC) SOI ( CA ATDC)

Fig. 4. Impact of SOI on ignition delay, combustion duration, CA50, and PPRR for different pilot fuels at 4 bar IMEP.

80 120
(a) Speed:1000rpm (b)
Diesel Speed:1000rpm
IMEP:4bar Diesel
60 PODEn IMEP:4bar
Substitution Ratio: 60% 90 PODEn
THC(g/(kW·h))

Substitution Ratio: 60%


CO(g/(kW·h))

40 60

20 30

0 0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0
o o
SOI ( CA ATDC) SOI ( CA ATDC)
30
(C) Speed:1000rpm
Diesel
IMEP:4bar
PODEn
Substitution Ratio: 60%
NOx(g/(kW·h))

20
Enlarged View

10

0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0
o
SOI ( CA ATDC)

Fig. 5. Impact of SOI on THC, CO and NOx emissions for different pilot fuels at 4 bar IMEP.

AHRR curves exhibited two peaks. The first peak was primarily due and retarded combustion phasing. For these SOI cases, the ignition
to the heat release of PODEn, and the second peak was due to the delay times were very long, and pilot fuels were well mixed with
consumption of CNG. For these SOIs, the combustion can be viewed the rest of the mixture at the start of combustion. The auto-
as pilot fuel auto-ignition followed by flame propagation in natural ignition of pilot fuel/natural gas/air mixture consumed the major
gas/air mixture. No experiment was conducted at SOI between 20 fuels in the cylinder. As a consequence, a one-peak shape heat
and 40° ATDC because PPRR exceeded 12 bar/° CA, which was the release curve was observed.
upper limit imposed in this study. Fig. 7(b) shows the AHRR and Fig. 8 compares the cylinder trace and AHRR between PODEn/
cylinder pressure of PODEn/CNG DF combustion with SOI earlier CNG and diesel/CNG DF combustion. As expected, for the same
than 40° ATDC. Advancing SOI decreased peak cylinder pressure SOI, the combustion phasing of PODEn/CNG was earlier than that
H. Song et al. / Fuel 188 (2017) 418–426 423

110 50
(a) Speed:1000rpm
(b)
Diesel Diesel Speed:1000rpm
IMEP:4bar IMEP:4bar
PODEn PODEn
Comb. Efficiency (%)

100 Substitution Ratio: 60% 45


Substitution Ratio: 60%

ITE (%)
90 40

80 35

70 30
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0
o o
SOI( CA ATDC) SOI( CA ATDC)

Fig. 6. Impact of SOI on combustion and thermal efficiencies for different pilot fuels at 4 bar IMEP.

200 1500 1800


o
SOI= 0 ATDC
o
Speed: 1000rpm 200 SOI= -40 ATDC Speed: 1000 rpm
o
SOI= -5 ATDC IMEP:12 bar o
SOI= -45 ATDC IMEP: 12 bar
160 o Substitution Ratio: 90% o
SOI= -50 ATDC Substitution Ratio: 90% 1500
SOI= -10 ATDC

Cylinder Pressure (bar)


EGR Rate: 30% 160 EGR Rate:30%
Cylinder Pressure (bar)

o
SOI= -15 ATDC
o 1000 1200
SOI= -20 ATDC
AHRR (J/deg)

AHRR (J/deg)
120
120
900
80
80
500 600

40 40
300

0 0 0 0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
O O
Crank Angle ( CA ATDC) Crank Angle ( CA ATDC)

(a) Late SOI (b) Early SOI


Fig. 7. Impact of SOI on pressure and AHRR for PODEn/CNG combustion at 12 bar IMEP (dash lines represent AHRR).

140 600 200


Diesel Speed: 1000 rpm Diesel Speed: 1000 rpm
IMEP: 12 bar PODEn IMEP: 12 bar 1200
120 PODEn 500
Substitution Ratio: 90% 160 Substitution Ratio: 90%
o
o
SOI: -5 ATDC SOI: -45 ATDC
Cylinder Pressure (bar)

100
Cylinder Pressure (bar)

400
900
AHRR (J/deg)

120

AHRR (J/deg)
80 300

60 600
200 80

40
100
300
40
20
0
Injection Signal
0 0 0
-100 Injection Signal
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
O O
Crank Angle ( CA ATDC) Crank Angle ( CA ATDC)
(a) Late SOI (b) Early SOI
Fig. 8. Comparison of pressure and AHRR between different pilot fuels at 12 bar IMEP (dash lines represent AHRR).

of diesel/CNG because of the shorter ignition delay of PODEn. For delay was observed for late SOI cases because the in-cylinder pres-
late SOI cases, PODEn exhibited more pronounced premixed heat sure and temperature were high enough causing very short igni-
release because of its better volatility and thus faster heat release tion delay for all cases. For early SOI cases, ignition delays were
rate. much longer than those of late SOIs owing to the much lower in-
The impact of SOI on ignition delay, combustion duration, CA50, cylinder temperature and pressure when the pilot fuel was
and PPRR are shown in Fig. 9. No significant change in ignition injected. Shorter combustion duration was observed for early SOI
424 H. Song et al. / Fuel 188 (2017) 418–426

75 75
(a) Speed: 1000rpm (b) Speed: 1000rpm
Diesel Diesel
60 IMEP: 12bar IMEP: 12bar

Comb. Duration( CA)


PODEn 60
Iginition Delay( CA)

Substitution Ratio: 90% PODEn


Substitution Ratio: 90%

O
EGR Rate: 30% EGR Rate: 30%
O

45 45

30 30
PPRR Limit
PPRR Limit
15 15

0 0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0
o o
SOI( CA ATDC) SOI( CA ATDC)
30 20
(c) Speed: 1000rpm (d) Speed: 1000rpm
Diesel IMEP: 12bar Diesel IMEP: 12bar
20 PODEn 15 PODEn Substitution Ratio: 90%
CA50( CA ATDC)

Substitution Ratio: 90%

PPRR(bar/ CA)
EGR Rate: 30% EGR Rate: 30%

O
10 10
PPRR Limit
O

0 5
PPRR Limit

-10 0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0
o o
SOI( CA ATDC) SOI( CA ATDC)

Fig. 9. Impact of SOI on ignition delay, combustion duration, CA50 and PPRR for different pilot fuels at 12 bar IMEP.

cases and the majority of fuels were consumed in premixed com- PPRR. No obvious difference in combustion duration was observed
bustion mode as shown in Fig. 8. CA50 and PPRR exhibited the sim- between diesel and PODEn.
ilar trends as those at low load. Earlier combustion phasing led to Fig. 10 shows the impact of SOI and pilot fuel type on pollutant
higher PPRR. In general, compared to diesel, PODEn exhibited emissions. Decreases in THC and CO emissions were observed
shorter ignition delay, earlier combustion phasing, and higher when SOI was advanced for late SOI cases, but an opposite trend

15 8
(a) Speed: 1000rpm (b) Speed: 1000rpm
Diesel Diesel
IMEP: 12bar IMEP: 12bar
PODEn 6 PODEn
Substitution Ratio: 90% Substitution Ratio: 90%
THC(g/(kW·h))

CO(g/(kW·h))

10 EGR Rate: 30% EGR Rate: 30%


4

5
2
PPRR Limit PPRR Limit

0 0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0
o o
SOI( CA ATDC) SOI( CA ATDC)

40 0.10
(d)
Absorption Coefficient(1/m)

(c) Speed: 1000rpm


Diesel
Speed: 1000rpm
Diesel IMEP: 12bar IMEP: 12bar
PODEn Substitution Ratio: 90% PODEn Substitution Ratio: 90%
30
NOx(g/(kW·h))

EGR Rate: 30% EGR Rate: 30%

20 0.05
PPRR Limit

10 PPRR Limit

0 0.00
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0
o o
SOI( CA ATDC) SOI( CA ATDC)

Fig. 10. Impact of SOI on THC, CO, NOx, and soot emissions for different pilot fuels at 12 bar IMEP.
H. Song et al. / Fuel 188 (2017) 418–426 425

105 55
(a) Speed: 1000rpm (b) Diesel Speed: 1000rpm
Diesel IMEP: 12bar PODEn IMEP: 12bar
PODEn
Comb. Efficiency (%)

Substitution Ratio: 90% 50 Substitution Ratio: 90%


EGR Rate: 30% EGR Rate: 30%

ITE (%)
100 45
PPRR Limit PPRR Limit

40

95 35
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0
o o
SOI ( CA ATDC) SOI ( CA ATDC)

Fig. 11. Impact of SOI on combustion efficiency and ITE for different pilot fuels at 12 bar IMEP.

was observed for early SOI cases. Compared to the low load, CO and both conventional natural gas DF combustion and LTC combustion.
THC emissions were much lower but higher NOx emissions were The pressure trace and emissions were recorded and analyzed. The
observed, as expected. NOx emissions were very low for early conclusions can be summarized as the following:
SOI cases. Absorption coefficient directly represents soot emis-
sions. Soot emissions were extremely low at all SOIs (absorption (1) At low load (4 bar IMEP), an optimal pilot fuel SOI was
coefficient <0.025 1/m). Premixed CNG is dominated (90% substitu- observed, which achieved the highest ITE with very low
tion ratio) compared to small amount pilot fuels, which helps to NOx and reasonable THC and CO emissions. At the optimal
reduce rich combustion region and avoid the soot formation penin- SOI, the premixed fuel-air mixture was formed due to the
sula in the u-T map [37]. The high oxygen content and volatility of long ignition delay. The heat release curve exhibited two-
PODEn further decrease soot emissions. The trade-off relationship peak shape with LTHR of PODEn dominated the first peak
between NOx and soot emissions is not obvious. heat release. Further advancing SOI caused higher CO emis-
Fig. 11 shows the impact of SOI and pilot fuel type on combus- sions, while retarding SOI increased THC emissions.
tion efficiency and ITE. Combustion efficiency is closely related to (2) At high load (12 bar IMEP), LTC, enabled by early SOI and
THC and CO emissions, which increased first and then decreased moderate EGR, exhibited overall better engine performance
as SOI was advanced. ITE is influenced by both combustion effi- than conventional diffusion combustion. LTC achieved lower
ciency and combustion phasing. For the late SOI cases, ITE peaked NOx, THC, and CO emissions. A maximum of 47.5% ITE was
at 10° CA ATDC SOI, which achieved an ideal combustion phasing achieved when SOI was 40° ATDC because of the ideal
(CA50) of about 8° CA ATDC. For the early SOI cases, combustion combustion phasing and high combustion efficiency. NOx
efficiency remained high and a one-peak shape heat release curve emissions can be further reduced close to the current EPA
was observed. Compared to late SOI, early SOI exhibited higher ITE NOx standard level with minor penalties in ITE, THC and
due to the overall better combustion efficiency and shorter com- CO emissions. Soot emissions were extremely low at all SOIs.
bustion duration. (3) Compared to diesel, PODEn is a better pilot fuel for natural
Compared to diesel/CNG, PODEn/CNG achieved lower CO, THC, gas DF combustion due to its higher oxygen content, higher
NOx and soot emissions because of the better ignition characteris- ignitability, and higher volatility. It produces significantly
tic and volatility of PODEn. Take 10° ATDC SOI as an example for lower THC, CO, NOx, soot emissions and achieves higher
detailed comparison, PODEn reduced THC, CO, NOx and soot emis- thermal efficiency.
sions by 21.7%, 46.6%, 40.6% and 19.4%, respectively. Combustion
efficiency increased by 0.7% and ITE increased by 3.1%.
Acknowledgment
For late SOI cases, the pilot fuels were injected near TDC when
the pressure and temperature in the cylinder were very high. The
This research work is supported by National Natural Science
combustion process was conventional DF combustion. For early
Foundation Projects (91541206, 51576107) and the National Basic
SOIs, longer ignition delays were observed, which could be con-
Research Program (2013CB228404).
tributed to better mixing. Lower local equivalence ratio decreased
the combustion temperature and thus reduced NOx emissions. At
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