New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research

ISSN: 0028-8233 (Print) 1175-8775 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tnza20

A GIS‐based expert system for pastoral

agricultural development in Gansu Province, PR
China

Liang Tiangang , Chen Quangong , Ren Jizhou & Wang Yuansu

To cite this article: Liang Tiangang , Chen Quangong , Ren Jizhou & Wang Yuansu (2004) A
GIS‐based expert system for pastoral agricultural development in Gansu Province, PR China, New
Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, 47:3, 313-325, DOI: 10.1080/00288233.2004.9513600

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00288233.2004.9513600

Published online: 17 Mar 2010.

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New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, 2004, Vol. 47: 313-325
0028-8233/04/4703-0313 © The Royal Society of New Zealand 2004
A GIS-based expert system for pastoral agricultural development
in Gansu Province, PR China
LIANG TIANGANG
CHEN QUANGONG*
REN JIZHOU
Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-ecosystem
Ministry of Agriculture
College of Pastoral Agriculture Science
and Technology
Lanzhou University
Lanzhou City
730020, PR China
WANG YUANSU
Department of Grassland Science
Gansu Agricultural University
Lanzhou City, 730070, PR China
Abstract This paper describes the research meth-
ods, basic design, contents and structure of database,
model base, knowledge base and major functions of
an expert system for Gansu Pastoral Agricultural
Development (GPAD). The system, created at
Lanzhou University, can show users the knowledge,
experience, and techniques accumulated by pasto-
ral agriculture specialists, both in theory and prac-
tice over many years. This is achieved using
multimedia information (e.g., text, graphics, pic-
tures, and video), as well as expert system, network,
Geographic Information System (GIS) and remote
sensing (RS) technologies. The system includes 19
spatial databases related to agricultural resources and
ecological environments, and 540 images of grass-
land species and grassland landscapes. It is com-
posed of five major modules including cultivation
of productive or ecologically important grasses and
legumes, adaptability of cultivated species, vegeta-
tion classification, diagnosis of the disease, and
management strategy. The eight assistant modules
*Author for correspondence. Email: chenqg@lzu.edu.cn
A03021; Online publication date 17 August 2004
Received 2 April 2003; accepted 16 January 2004
313
include: spatial database query, knowledge base
query, model base query, turf establishment advice,
Global Positioning System (GPS) based information,
China's pastoral agriculture database (used for con-
sultation on suitability of cultivated grasses, leg-
umes, and herbs for the whole of China), literature
search, and system maintenance. The system pro-
vides the answers to users' questions related to grass-
land management and pastoral agriculture
development in the following main areas: (i) loca-
tion of a particular area of interest, (ii) natural con-
ditions and resource base of different areas, (iii)
suitability of introduced and local grassland species
for different geographic areas, and (iv) suitable
management strategies for pastoral agriculture de-
velopment. The expert system software is a useful
tool for land managers, agricultural technicians,
environmental specialists, teachers, students, policy
makers, land administrators and for practical advice
to land users. It has an important role in improving
environmental conditions and pastoral agriculture in
Gansu Province and western China.
Keywords pastoral agricultural development;
expert system; geographic information system;
remote sensing
INTRODUCTION
Expert systems (ES) emerged in the mid 1960s as a
part of the artificial intelligence (AI) technology that
stepped onto the commercial stage. At the beginning
of the 1970s, expert systems adapted for agriculture
were developed for cropping, horticulture, livestock
management, plant protection, and economic deci-
sion making (Mckinion & Lemmon 1985;
Doluschitz & Schmisseur 1988; Shi Chunyi et al.
2000). However, in the management and utilisation
of grassland resources, their use has been limited
(Wu Quanyuan & Liu Jiangning 1995; Shi Chunyi
et al. 2000). The ES for grassland management de-
veloped in Gansu integrates the accumulated knowl-
edge, experience and techniques, which can be used
314 New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, 2004, Vol. 47
for economically and ecologically sustainable grass-
land management (Ren Jizhou et al. 2001). In the ES
developed in Gansu, professional knowledge is de-
livered on the administrative level of a province,
county, and township/village. It can answer the ques-
tions relevant to grassland development, such as
regional suitability for particular development, the
most suitable plant species, and pest management
including rodent and weed control. The research and
programming of an ES described in this paper is
useful for managers, producers and decision mak-
ers to solve existing problems, and guide ecologi-
cally sustainable use of grassland resources in
western China and help with the implementation of
the national program of "Returning steep croplands
into forests and grasslands" (Ren Jizhou et al. 2001).
The Government of the People's Republic of
China (GOPRC) is aware of the need for a stable
ecological environment to provide the basis for sus-
tainable economic and social development. Since
implementing economic reforms in the late 1970s,
the Government has launched a series of ecological
programs such as the "Three North" Shelterbelt
development program, shelterbelt development pro-
gram along the Upper and Middle Reaches of the
Yangtze River, and programs for integrated control
of soil and water erosion along the seven major riv-
ers including the Yellow River and Yangtze River.
However, despite these efforts, the ecological con-
dition in the middle and upper reaches of these riv-
ers remains fragile, and the trend of environmental
degradation continues. This directly affects millions
of people in these areas who depend on the river for
irrigation water, in industry, and for domestic con-
sumption. Accordingly, the government has deter-
mined that by 2010, the highest priority for national
eco-environmental improvement will be in the up-
per and middle reaches of the Yangtze and Yellow
Rivers and has designated these as key areas. In order
to achieve this objective, the GOPRC started the
National Cropland Conversion Program (NCCP)
from 1999. The NCCP, concerned with 12 western
provinces mainly covering the areas of the upper and
middle reaches of the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers,
which includes the whole of Gansu Province, focuses
on conversion of cultivated land on steep slopes back
to grassland and forest, integrated control of water
and soil erosion, development of sustainable forestry
and grassland management, development of sustain-
able horticulture, animal husbandry and processing
industries for agricultural products to alleviate pov-
erty and enhance prosperity of local farmers (Ren
Jizhou 2000; Ren Jizhou et al. 2001).
Gansu Province is located on the conjunction of
Loess Plateau, Inner Mongolia Plateau, and Qinghai-
Tibetan Plateau. It has harsh natural conditions and
a complicated social structure. Increased population
pressures and intensive grazing coupled with the
vulnerable, arid, high altitude environment has re-
sulted in a number of ecological problems includ-
ing widespread soil erosion and deterioration of
grasslands (Guo Zhenggang et al. 2003). Although
the province has launched the implementation of the
national policy of returning cropland into forest and
grassland in recent years, there are still many cru-
cial problems that need to be solved both in theory
and practice (Ren Jizhou et al. 2001; Liang Tiangang
et al. 2002). In 2000, the Gansu Agricultural Com-
mittee set up a special fund for development of an
"Expert System for Gansu Pastoral Agriculture
Development (GPAD)", which has been undertaken
by the College of Pastoral Agriculture Science and
Technology of Lanzhou University. By the end of
2001, the first version of the ES software was fin-
ished, and distributed to many pastoral agriculture
specialists and grassland management agencies for
comments in order to increase accuracy and useful-
ness of incorporated information. The second ver-
sion of the software was formally published and
distributed by the Chinese Publishing House of Elec-
tronics Industry in August 2003 after revising and
updating the first version. This paper provides po-
tential users with information on research methods,
design, and main functions of this improved version
of the expert system software for GPAD.
RESEARCH METHODS AND
TECHNOLOGY
Structure of the spatial database
The basic spatial database consists of a series of data
related to pastoral agricultural science. It is based on
the Geographic Information System (GIS) within
which spatial and non-spatial data are related to each
other. In pastoral agriculture, specific knowledge and
technical information is usually related to a particu-
lar location with distinct geographic and environ-
mental characteristics. In the ES this type of
information is extended to other areas with similar
characteristics. Typically, variation of natural envi-
ronments and impact of land management results in
a significant spatial variation, which requires a great
deal of support by background spatial databases
(Ritchie 1989; Liang Tiangang et al. 2002).
Liang Tiangang et al.—Expert system for pastoral agricultural development 315

Construction of basic GIS database: Results from analysis of GIS

database:
1) Digital elevation model (DEM) 1. Algebra calculation
2) Rainfall spatial database (Vector) 11) Slope spatial database
3) Cumulative temperature spatial 12) Aspect spatial database

GIS 4) Natural grassland type spatial 2. Interpolation analysis

technology database 13) Rainfall spatial database (GRID)
(Arc/Info 5) Soil type spatial database 14) Cumulative temperature spatial
software) 6) Soil nutrient (N P K) spatial database (GRID)
database
7) Soil organic matter 3. Overlay analysis
8) Administrative region 15) Humidity index spatial database
9) Herbage regionalisation 16) Vegetation classification spatial
10) Ecological economy classification database

GIS database management system:

1) Administration region (at township/village, county, region and province levels)

ArcView 2) Topography (DEM, slope, aspect)
3) Climate (rainfall, temperature, cumulative temperature and humidity index)
software
4) Soil (N, P, K, organic matter and soil type)
5) Vegetation (grassland type, natural vegetation classitlcation type)
6) Herbage regionalisation
7) Ecological economy classification for pastoral agriculture

Fig. 1 Procedures of establishing Geographic Information System (GIS) database analysis and management system.

In this study, in addition to the existing relational
databases of relevant domains like pasture
agronomy, physiology, and ecology, new spatial
databases covering the whole province were created
using ARC/INFO GIS software (ESRI Inc. 2001)
(Fig. 1). The spatial database consists of five types
of databases, comprising: 1) Administrative regions
database providing spatial information at three lev-
els (region, county, and township/village); 2) Mete-
orological database created from records collected
over 30 years (1961-90) at 550 meteorological sta-
tions. It includes the spatial database of rainfall,
cumulative temperature, and humidity; 3) Soil da-
tabase consisting of a map of soil types and indi-
vidual maps representing content of nitrogen,
phosphorous, potassium, and soil organic matter—
all these maps are at the scale of 1:500 000; 4) Topo-
graphic database, including the Digital Elevation
Model (DEM) database generated from terrain con-
tour maps at a scale of 1:250 000; and 5) Grassland
types spatial distribution database based on the
1:500 000 scale inventory map, in accordance with
the National Grassland Investigation Classification
System (Su Daxue 1997). For some of the counties
and townships/villages with severe ecological prob-
lems, the more detailed terrain, soil, and land use
maps at the scale of 1:50 000 were used to create
databases by GIS and remote sensing (RS) technolo-
gies (Liang Tiangang et al. 2002).
Analysis of the spatial database
Spatial databases are important components of the
ES for GPAD. Analysis of the spatial database is
performed using GIS or the image processing soft-
ware. The analysis involves integration of spatial
data layers, extensive manipulation, and simulation
modelling. In the process of spatial analysis, new
information is generated by means of spatial inter-
pretation, spatial overlay analysis of the vector da-
tabase, and algebraic calculation method of the raster
316 New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, 2004, Vol. 47
database (Huang Bo & Wang Yingjie 1996; Gong
Jianya 2001). The examples of information gener-
ated through the spatial analysis include the devel-
opment of the aspect and slope databases using DEM
database, the grid-based spatial database (grid cell
size is 1 x 1 km for region and county level, and
100 x 100 m for township/village level) of average
annual temperature and precipitation created by spa-
tial interpolation analysis, and the natural vegetation
classification databases prepared by analysing grid
rainfall and temperature databases, following the
Ren-Hu theory (Ren Jizhou 1995; Hu Zizhi 1997)
(Fig. 1) .
Integrated application of RS, GIS, and GPS
technologies
The aim was to create software that would integrate
available knowledge and technology to be used for
reversing land degradation and initiating sustainable
grassland management. The most important impli-
cation of this information is related to the National
Cropland Conversion Program. Criteria for imple-
mentation of this program have been developed at
the provincial and county levels, covering a variety
of geographic and environmental conditions. Appli-
cation at the county and township/village level re-
quires much more detailed criteria considering local
geography, ecology, and impact of management on
land resources. In order to achieve this, an integrated
use of RS, GIS, and Global Positioning System
(GPS) technologies was needed. Combination of
these technologies considerably enhances the visual
appreciation and inference of traditional expert sys-
tems. It also makes it possible to deal with dynamic
and variable features on spatial and temporal scales.
In the course of land conversion planning, the most
important issue is to define the location and spatial
distribution of the steep croplands. In Gansu Prov-
ince this involved 87 counties and nearly 1500 town-
ships/villages where this distribution has been
identified in terms of the national land conversion
standards (Liang Tiangang et al. 2002). In this study,
the spatial distribution of steep cropland was calcu-
lated using RS and GIS technologies for the areas
with severe environmental problems. Figure 2 de-
picts the technical procedure consisting of three
steps: 1) Processing satellite images (Landsat TM
and SPOT data) using ERDAS (Earth Resources
Data Analysis System) IMAGINE software to pro-
duce a geographic referenced image of land use; 2)
Creating a spatial database including land use, soil
type, soil erosion, economic forest distribution,
county and township/village boundaries, DEM
databases and attribute information at sampling lo-
calities for helping image interpretation based on
GIS and GPS technologies, coupled with field inves-
tigation; and 3) Calculating the area and spatial dis-
tribution of steep cropland by overlay analysis using
the land use database and the slope spatial database
generated by the DEM from a terrain map at 1:5000
scale. Generating the database of the spatial distri-
bution of steep cropland, using the above procedure,
has a significant effect on the decision-making
and practical implementation of the program for re-
turning steep croplands into forests and grasslands
(Fig. 2).
Knowledge base
In the ES for GPAD the knowledge base is organ-
ised in the form of the rules, hypertext, relational tree
and process databases. The rules based on the IF-
THEN principle expresses the experience knowl-
edge. Hypertext involves common text, graphs,
pictures, video, and audio information. The ES can
comprehensively display the consultative results,
inferred conclusions and relevant domain knowledge
to the users by the mode of a vivid graphical user
interface. The process database is expressed by re-
lational tree and mathematic models (Hochman et al.
1991; Park & Wilkins 1992; Du Yunyan et al. 2002).
The knowledge base is the core of the ES for
GPAD. It consists of three main areas of subjects
including natural grassland resources, cultivated
pasture species, and grassland protection. These are
classified into seven categories:
1) Vegetation classification knowledge base. There
are two classification systems employed to create the
vegetation type knowledge base: the National Grass-
land Resources Investigation Classification System
(NGRIC) and the Natural Vegetation Classification
System (NVC). The NGRIC (Su Daxue 1997), based
on field investigation of soil, terrain, climate and
vegetation, is a type of inventory classification
within which a great deal of grassland information
has been organised by class name, group name, type
name, classification coding, grassland condition,
areas available for grazing, productivity (fresh yield,
carrying capacity), dominant species, and sub-domi-
nant species and their characteristics. The NVC (Ren
Jizhou 1995) is based on data for rainfall and tem-
perature, and provides information on all types of
vegetation including grasslands, forest, wetlands,
etc., in their natural condition. According to the Ren-
Hu theory, the vegetation in China is classified into
48 types in terms of mean annual precipitation and
humidity index (Ren Jizhou 1995; Hu Zizhi 1997).
Liang Tiangang et al.—Expert system for pastoral agricultural development 317

Satellite image processing Database for image interpretation

1) Image geometric rectification 1) Land use
2) Image spatial registration 2) Soil type and soil erosion
3) Image enhancement 3) Economic forest distribution
RS 4) Image fusing processing 4) Administrative region
technology 5) Image clipping processing 5) Attribute information at GIS and GPS
(ERDAS 6) Image classification sampling localities technologies
software) 7) Image interpretation 6) DEM

Study results:
1) Interpretation of present arable land distribution
2) Calculation of slope database for arable land
3) Calculation of area of arable land at different slope levels using DEM
and slope database
4) Mapping for conversion cropland in different administrative regions

Fig. 2 Flowchart of analysing the spatial distribution of steep croplands using Geographic Information System (GIS),
remote sensing (RS), and Global Positioning System (GPS) technologies. DEM, Digital Elevation Model; ERDAS,
Earth Resources Data Analysis System.

In the vegetation classification knowledge base, each
vegetation type is recorded by a type name and type
code associated with information on climatic con-
dition, soil type, dominant species, and suitable live-
stock types. A picture of a characteristic landscape
is also provided.
2) Herbage regionalisation knowledge base. In this
knowledge base, based on simulation and field in-
vestigation, information on suitable herbage species,
climatic conditions, soil types, and topographic fea-
tures for nearly 1500 townships/villages is assem-
bled. Herbage refers to grasses, forbs, shrubs, and
legumes introduced or originally grown in China. It
does not include cereal or root crops.
3) Herbage characteristics knowledge base. It in-
cludes more than 50 herbage species, organised by
scientific name, origin, distribution, morphological
features, biological characteristics, utilisation value
(yields, years of potential productivity, re-growing
ability, nutrition status, ecological function),
cultivating techniques (cultivation, topdressing,
and field management), and disease and insect
management.
4) Herbage disease management knowledge base.
This records the names, symptoms, manifestation
characteristics, mechanisms of spread, character of
damage they cause, and control methods for 110
common diseases related to the herbage species used
for cultivation.
5) Herbage insect control knowledge base. It in-
cludes 38 insect species, organised by the fields of
their scientific and common names, appearance,
behaviour, distribution pattern, damage they cause,
and control methods.
6) Rodents control knowledge base. It includes 50
rodent species with pictures, biological characteris-
tics, distribution pattern, and control methods.
7) Weed control knowledge base. It involves 45
weeds with pictures, biological characteristics, dis-
tribution pattern, and control methods (Hochman et
al. 1991; Wang Xi et al. 1991; Ren Jizhou et al.
2001).
Model base
In recent years much progress has been made in the
development of computer models that integrate
318 New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, 2004, Vol. 47
User Interface
Information
base
Jr^~—"" ^ < ^~~~~~~~~~~~~~~±
Database Knowledge base
Data analysis and query
>t
Data input / output
Fig. 3 Basic structure of the expert systems for pastoral agricultural development.
ecological and biological theories and principles to
provide simulations of natural resource system re-
sponses. New concepts and techniques developed in
the fields of artificial intelligence, GIS, and RS of-
fer the opportunity to develop expert system com-
puter programs to assist resource managers in the use
of complex models that simulate and monitor natu-
ral resource systems (Ritchie 1989; Stout 1994;
Kreuter et al. 1996; Moor et al. 1997; Hill et al.
1999). Information provided by ES, based on GIS
and RS technologies, have the potential to dramati-
cally improve land-use planning and monitoring of
grassland resources, and make it easier to integrate
model simulation, observational data, and the knowl-
edge of experts to help grassland resource manage-
ment agencies and land users make better decisions.
Expert systems often take the form of "rule +
model" to infer, identify, and assess problems. This
form is especially useful to resolve the problems
existing in pastoral agriculture and address changes
at spatial and temporal scales (Liang Tiangang et al.
2002). Simulation is recognised as a method that
helps better understanding of the complex natural
systems through identification of their major
• * .
Intel •preter
\ •
Model base Inference engine
>
,t Storage unit
K
components and showing in a model how these are
integrated in a functioning system. Simulation mod-
els allow incorporation of the dynamics of changes
into an expert system. The ES for GPAD includes
four simulation models based on existing experience
and latest research findings:
1) The NVC model, which utilises ecological under-
standing included in the natural vegetation classifi-
cation in China. This classification itself is a
simulation model which is the ES for GPAD trans-
formed into a digital form. Each type in this classi-
fication system relates to a substantial amount of the
attribute data, such as the biological properties of
ecosystems and physical environment, vegetation
composition, dominant plant species, and grazing
management (Ren Jizhou 1995; Hu Zizhi 1997).
2) Cultivated species growth model, is used to simu-
late the growth processes, properties at different
growth stages, and relationships between yield, com-
position, soil nutrients, and seedling sowing density
(Ren Jizhou 1998).
3) Spatial variation models of environmental fac-
tors (e.g., rainfall, temperature) are used to create
Liang Tiangang et al.—Expert system for pastoral agricultural development 319

Fig. 4 Flowchart for study on the

Results from GIS &
expert system for pastoral agricul- RS technologies > Spatial Database
ture development. ES, expert sys-
tem; GIS, Geographic Information t
System; GPS, Global Positioning
System; NVC, National Vegeta- Model base Procedures of ES
tion Classification System. reasoning & analysing
Summarising
knowledge >
K n o w l e d g e base

Computer Systematic
programming integration
technology

GIS and Internet ES software for ES software for

technologies Windows OS Network

Functions of the Expert System

I) Model base query 2) Knowledge base query
3) Database query 4) Herbage cultivation
5) Herbage regionalisation 6) Disease diagnosis
7) Management strategy 8) Turf establishment
9) Literature search 10) GPS
I1) NVC consultation 12) System maintenance
13) China's pastoral agriculture

grid-based data layers of climatic factors as input
parameters for estimating and simulating species
suitability for different environments and their
growth (Liang Tiangang et al. 1999; 2000).
4) Regional suitability model of cultivated species
is a spatial distribution model using cell-based data
to identify the areas suitable for growing different
species. During this process the following factors are
taken into consideration: range of elevation, average
annual rainfall, average annual temperature, cumu-
lative temperature, extreme maximum temperature,
extreme minimum temperature, annual humidity,
frost-free days, and sunshine hours (Ren Jizhou
1998; Liang Tiangang et al. 2001a). These models
are designed to simulate and find relationships be-
tween the physical environment and biological proc-
esses that are important in the utilisation and
management of converted croplands.
Programming of the expert system
Expert systems are computer programs designed to
simulate the course of action that an expert or a group
of experts (model developers) would take in mak-
ing decisions. Thus, ES is a technology to extend the
expert knowledge of the model developers to assist
the resource manager in the application of a specific
simulation model. Expert systems are also a poten-
tial way to extend the field knowledge of a good
resource manager to aid other resource managers,
and even to assist a model developer in improving
model performance and applicability (Karp &
Wilkins 1989; Ritchie 1989; Park & Wilkins 1992).
A traditional ES is usually a knowledge-based com-
puter software that can answer a series of questions
related to a specific subject by inference on the ba-
sis of a large body of accumulated knowledge and
experience (Plant 1989; Gillard et al. 1997; Hill et
al. 1999). The ES for GPAD, coupled with GIS, RS,
and GPS technologies, consists of knowledge base,
database, model base, inference engine, working
storage, and interpreter (Fig. 3). The knowledge base
is fundamental to the system operation which pre-
serves a great deal of professional knowledge of
relevant domains; the database, which consists of the
320 New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, 2004, Vol. 47
relational database and the spatial database, mainly
stores experimental and observational data used in
spatial calculating and analysing. This improved ES
based on spatial data is more suitable for solving
complicated problems related to grassland environ-
ment characterised by variations in space and time.
The model base stores the four types of mathematic
models including the NVC model, cultivated species
growth model, spatial variation models of environ-
mental factors, and regional suitability model of
cultivated species. The working storage temporar-
ily stores original facts, inference results or empiri-
cal knowledge, as well as final conclusions. The
inference engine is a computer procedure that can
reason and calculate according to the original facts
contained in the working storage, search for related
knowledge from the knowledge base, input the in-
ferred results into the work storage, and deduct and
calculate the known facts and the inferred results
repeatedly until a conclusion is reached; the inter-
preter is used for recording the deductive directory
in order to make searching more convenient for us-
ers (Liang Tiangang et al. 2002). Figure 3 depicts
the basic structure of the expert system.
The inference processes of the ES are usually
based on the accumulated knowledge and specific
mathematical formulae. Especially in those ques-
tions related to the spatial distribution planning and
regionalisation, ES depends heavily on the spatial
databases (e.g., DEM, land use, etc.) created by GIS,
RS, and GPS technologies. The development of an
applicable and effective pastoral agriculture expert
system involves major production processes based
on the interaction of soil, vegetations, and livestock.
Integration of GIS, RS, and GPS technologies re-
solves the spatial problem.
The functions of the ES for GPAD are realised
by computer programming, with a user-friendly in-
terface being an important component. The program
of the ES for GPAD consists of five major parts,
including menu bar, tools bar, browser content win-
dow, browsing windows, and status bar. The main
menu includes file, view, strategy consultation, pas-
toral agriculture information, system maintenance
and help. The strategy consultation menu includes
the modules of herbage cultivation, herbage region-
alisation, NVC consultation, disease diagnosis, and
management strategy consultation, etc., (Fig. 4).
In our study, the ES for GPAD was developed by
MS Visual Basic (VB 6.0), and MapObjects LT. This
provided a comprehensive collection of tools for
program developers to acquire information on map
features, perform spatial queries, pan and zoom
through multiple map layers, and to display data
using classifications, graduated symbols, and label-
ling. MapObjects LT allows access to various spa-
tial data formats ranging from standard GIS formats
(ARC/INFO coverages and ESRI shape files) to
CAD formats (DXF, DWG, and DGN), as well as a
variety of image formats, including MrSID.
MapObjects LT is also a collection of components
for application developers, consisting of an ActiveX
control (OCX) and other programmable ActiveX
automation objects (ESRI Inc. 2002). By means of
the combination of VB 6.0 and MapObjects LT 2.0,
it became possible to integrate relevant knowledge
and spatial data layers created by GIS and RS soft-
ware into the ES for GPAD. With the capabilities of
managing spatial and attribute data, the ES for
GPAD represents a powerful tool for inference at
cell-based levels, which is useful for planning and
regionalisation of pastoral agriculture resources.
The major functions of the expert system
Herbage cultivation consultation module
By the use of this module, the natural environment
conditions (e.g., terrain, climate, soil, vegetation,
etc.) and herbage species recommended for a par-
ticular location can be identified and shown to the
users by either point or polygon mode. Point mode
allows a user to access information about natural and
cultivated plant species and their physical environ-
ments based on information available at the pixel
level. This makes the system capable of providing
the detailed information at any given point (e.g., lo-
calities positioned by GPS). Polygon mode provides
the function for enquiring about an area of interest,
such as any county or township/village in Gansu
Province. The output results for both modes can be
displayed in exploring windows of the system in the
form of hypertext using information from a multi-
layer spatial database and knowledge base produced
by inference. This provides the user with the elemen-
tary information on ecological environment and
potential cultivated species at a given point or within
any administrative unit in Gansu Province.
This module was developed to ask a wide range
of questions. For example it can be asked: What kind
of species are suitable for a given area? How should
these species be cultivated? An example of the use
of the point mode is as follows. When a user selects
herbage cultivation consultation from the menu bar
or from the browser content window, the spatial
database of Gansu county level administrative unit
will be displayed in the exploring window. The user
Liang Tiangang et al.—Expert system for pastoral agricultural development
can enlarge, pan and choose a county from this map.
Thus, the county level administrative electronic map
with township/village boundary and locality names
will be displayed as the default top layer, and from
this map a township/village can be selected. When
any spot on the map is pointed to, the following in-
formation will be revealed from database and knowl-
edge base by inference: 1) Location (locality name,
longitude and latitude); 2) Climate conditions (with
details of rainfall, temperature, etc.); 3) Topography
(elevation, aspect and slope); 4) Soil condition (type,
content of P, K, N, and organic matter); 5) Grass-
land type and NVC categories; 6) The name list of
cultivated species which can live at the site; and 7)
Plant species recommended as the most suitable for
growing on the particular site.
If the species name in items 6) or 7) is clicked on,
then the following information will be displayed: 1)
Characteristics of individual species, advice on cul-
tivation and harvest, possible pests and diseases, etc.;
and 2) if a pest/disease name is clicked on, further
information, such as diagrams of the pest/disease and
control measures, etc., will be displayed.
In the polygon mode, the system can also provide
comprehensive consultations on the terrain, climate,
soil, and natural grassland types from the spatial
databases, as well as consultation suggestions ac-
cording to the model base and knowledge base for
the recommended cultivated species, and the control
methods of possible diseases, insects, rodents, and
weeds of the selected species for a county or town-
ship/village. In addition to the above information, the
social and economic information in 2001 could be
displayed.
Herbage regionalisation module
In this module the regional suitability of 20 major
cultivated pastoral species, including Medicago
sativa, Trifolium pratense, Loliumperenne, Festuca
sinensis, Phleum pratense, Sorghum vulgare,
Onobrychis viciaefolia, Coronilla varia, Caragana
intermedia, Agropyron cristatum, Melilotus albus,
Astragalus adsurgens, Artemisia sphaerocephala,
Elymus sibiricus, and Elymus nutans is simulated
using the regional suitability models and cell-based
climatic data layers covering the whole Gansu Prov-
ince (Liang Tiangang et al. 2001a).
This module differs from the herbage cultivation
consultation module in the output display method
and content. The herbage cultivation consultation
module only shows what kinds of fodder species are
suitable for cultivation in a particular spot or in an
area (e.g., county, township/village). However, the
321
herbage regionalisation module is developed to ask
questions regarding the cell-based spatial distribu-
tion of areas suitable for cultivation of given herb-
age species. When the user selects a species name
from the explorer content window, the areas suitable
for cultivation of given species appear on the scale
of the whole province. This is achieved by the means
of calculation and inference, and can be displayed
in the explorer window at the Gansu township/vil-
lage level administrative map based on cells with
locality names. This module can provide Gansu
governments and pastoral agriculture development
enterprises with information about the regional suit-
ability of cultivated species and support their deci-
sion making.
Natural vegetation classification consultation
module
In a point or polygon mode using the NVC model
and the cell-based spatial data layers of rainfall and
temperature, it is possible to show the user a theo-
retically ideal environmental condition as this would
be in the absence of human influence, including the
absence of grazing by domestic animals. A series of
pictures is used to show the character of a natural
ecosystem with a particular vegetation type defined
by dominant species and typical landscape features.
By comparing this ideal condition with the present
condition, it is possible to determine the level of
environmental degradation at any chosen location.
The NVC system takes account of vegetation suc-
cession, which includes information on causes of
degradation. With the use of comparative analysis
of an existing and ideal condition it is possible to
determine for a given point or area whether the eco-
logical environment is deteriorating and to what
degree. This is important for development of strate-
gies for environmental rehabilitation and sustainable
management of vegetation resources. In the 1960s,
the method for generating the NVC system was put
forward as a general principle applicable anywhere
in the world. In this system, grasslands in any place
in China can be classified into one of 48 types. Ta-
ble 1 shows the classification rules (Ren Jizhou
1995; Hu Zizhi 1997). Each vegetation type is de-
termined by local mean annual rainfall (r) and hu-
midity index (k) calculated by the following
equation:
£ = r/(0.1xS9)
Where, EG is the average annual cumulative tem-
perature over 0°C.
In our software this principle is used through the
NVC consultation module to determine level of land
322 New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, 2004, Vol. 47

degradation at any spot within the whole province.
Our study showed that there are 31 vegetation types
in Gansu Province, and 48 categories in China
(Liang Tiangang et al. 2001b,c).
Disease diagnosis module
Gansu is one of the 12 western provinces where,
under the National Cropland Conversion Policy, a
large proportion of steep croplands is being returned
into grasslands by sowing productive grass species
and legumes such as lucerne. These newly estab-
lished grasslands frequently suffer from diseases
(Wang Shuying et al. 2001). The ES for GPAD in-
cludes a module enabling the user to diagnose 15 of
the most common diseases affecting agricultural
grasslands in Gansu Province. The disease diagno-
sis process includes the following optional items: 1)
A part of the plant affected by disease (e.g., leaf, leaf
bud, leafstalk, stem, and root); 2) the size, shape, and
colour of pathologic spots; 3) the simple depiction
of typical symptoms; 4) a series of typical pictures
at varied stages; 5) the detailed information of dis-
ease; and 6) the control measures. Based on the
above procedure, the system can make a quick di-
agnosis and display the control measures commonly
used in the traditional expert system inference ap-
proach (Wang Shuying et al. 2001).
Grassland management strategy consultation
module
This module is concerned with management of ag-
ricultural grasslands established by sowing. It is
designed to provide a user with information on
management under the following five sub-modules:
1) Recommendations prior to sowing, which in-
cludes information about selected cultivars, sowing
time, sowing density, fertiliser, and prediction of
yield; 2) Management decision making before win-
ter, including cutting, irrigation, fertilising, seed
harvest, stubble height for various crop species; 3)
Management measures for a growing period, in-
volves irrigation, fertilising, weeding, cutting, etc.;
4) Control methods of diseases, pests, rodents, and
weeds; and 5) Crop processing technology and eco-
nomic benefit analysis (Liang Tiangang et al. 2002).
In addition to the above five major modules, the
ES for GPAD also provides other assistant modules,
which involve: 1) System maintenance, used to edit
the knowledge bases and model bases; 2) Three
query modules, designed to query the knowledge

Table 1 The natural vegetation types of the Natural Vegetation Classification System (NVC). The code of
vegetation type is depicted by the combination of character and number, and the bold code represents the vegetation
types existing in Gansu Province.

Humidity 0-0.28 0.28-0.85 0.85-1.18 1.18-1.45 1.45-1.82 >1.82

index (k)1 (k1) (k2) (k3) (k4) (k5) (k6)
Thermal grades (EG)2 Extrarid Arid Semi arid Sub-humid Humid Perhumid
0-1100(91) IA1 IB9 IC17 ID25 IE33 IF41
Frigid
1100-1700(02) IIA2 IIB10 IC18 ID26 IE34 IIF42
Frigid temperate
1700-2300(03) IIIA3 IE35II IC19 IID27 IIE35 IIF43
Cold temperate
2300-3700(04) IVA4 IVB12 IVC20 IVD28 IVE36 IVF44
Cool temperate
3700-5000(05) VA5 VB13 VC21 VD29 VE37 VF45
Warm temperate
5000-7200(06) VIA6 VIB14 VIC22 VID30 VIE38 VIF46
Warm
7200-8000(07) VIIA7 VIIB15 VIIC23 VIID31 VIIE39 VIIF47
Sub-tropical
>8000 (08) VIIIA8 VIIIB16 VIIIC24 VIIID32 VIIIE40 VIIIF48
Tropical

1k = r/(0.1 xE0) where r = mean annual rainfall.

2
£0 = average annual cumulative temperature over 0°C.
Liang Tiangang et al.—Expert system for pastoral agricultural development
bases, spatial databases, and model bases; 3) Turf
establishment and management module; 4) Litera-
ture search, designed to access a large number of
publications concerned with pastoral agriculture in
China; 5) GPS module, provides an interface used
to import data from GPS devices to the ES for
GPAD, and to create a polygon layer, which could
be used to define the areas of interest in the module
of herbage cultivation consultation; and 6) China's
pastoral agriculture database, a module similar to the
grass species cultivation consultation module, but
used for the whole of China. This last module can
provide a user with the information related to the
NVC types, cultivated species and turf species suit-
able for cultivation according to inventory data lay-
ers at a point mode. It is planned to add more
information into this module in an updated version
of ES for GPAD.
DISCUSSION
The integration of multiple subjects and techniques
is the distinguishing feature of the development of
science and technology in the new century. Remote
sensing data provide information on the earth's sur-
face at a given area and in time, which is the source
of data for building dynamic spatial databases. GIS
technology provides the capability of overlaying,
integrating, and analysing spatial data, often assem-
bled from a wide variety of sources. In the last 30
years, this technology has expanded rapidly and
found a home in a number of new applications, es-
pecially in environmental assessments and planning,
natural resource management, ecological research,
and much more (Li Jianlong et al. 1998; Liang
Tiangang et al. 2002). Expert systems, coupled with
RS and GIS technologies, provide an opportunity for
understanding and analysing many pressing issues
we face today, for example: pastoral agricultural
development, grassland degradation, tropical defor-
estation, and the impact of global climate change.
The ES for GPAD employs GIS, RS, and GPS tech-
nologies, integrated spatial data, attribute data, pic-
tures, and hypertext. It combined many subjects
including computer programming, geosciences,
agronomy, and ecology. It is a powerful tool for
information consultation, queries, and inference. In
2001, this software developed in the College of Pas-
toral Agriculture Science and Technology of
Lanzhou University was distributed with the assist-
ance of the Gansu Agricultural Committee to every
county in Gansu, with the aim of building capacity
323
of land managers to implement the national cropland
conversion program and achieving ecological reha-
bilitation of grasslands. By the use of this system
managers and farmers can make practical decisions
on selection of suitable plant species for use in the
improvement and rehabilitation of grasslands. This
software also provides advice on an appropriate
grassland management, which can be used as a guide
in environmental rehabilitation, sustainable develop-
ment and utilisation of natural grasslands.
There is a strong demand for modern scientific
research to introduce new technical measures and
ideas to accomplish the task of information integra-
tion. This particularly applies in grassland ecology
where the interactions and relationships between
environment and species have always been the main
component. Traditional methods can provide eco-
logical information on individual species or vegeta-
tion types, but there has always been a problem with
simultaneous consideration of multiple factors re-
garding vegetation, physical environment and man-
agement, development of site specific information,
and making this information available in an accept-
able form to land managers. Lack of routine and easy
to use methods for generating and using ecological
information in practice has been a major impediment
in development of sustainable land management.
The introduction of ES, GIS, and multimedia
technologies have brought about a revolution in
grassland ecological research leading to more com-
prehensive, deep and systematic studies. Combina-
tion of GIS and multimedia technologies allowed
transformation of complex ecological information
into a spatial visual level, in which form it is acces-
sible at a site-specific level for use in sustainable land
management. The ES for GPAD is one of the useful
attempts to realise the visualisation of information
in the domain of digital pastoral agriculture through
combination of ecology and modern GIS/RS tech-
nology in a comprehensive expert system where
expert knowledge is accessible through a geographic
framework.
From the use of the ES for GPAD in practice for
nearly 2 years, the following issues were found in
the first version of the software and partly also in the
updated published software:
(1) Due to the differences in scales of the original
maps, some compromises needed to be made in
preparation of the spatial database. It is difficult to
make all spatial data layers from thematic maps have
the same scale in an area. In our research, the maps
used to create the spatial database and integration
analyses were available at two map scales. One type
324 New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, 2004, Vol. 47
was at a map scale of 1:250 000 and 1:500 000 at
the provincial and regional level, respectively. The
other scale was from 1:10 000 to 1:50 000 at the
county and township/village level. Considering
problems with the data availability, storage and ac-
cess, only some databases, for several counties and
townships/villages with severe ecological and envi-
ronmental issues, were created using the maps at
1:50 000 scale.
(2) GIS provides a framework within which spatial
information regarding ecological environment can
be calculated and analysed at any point of a region.
The combination of GIS and RS enables ES to have
the capabilities to interpret the complicated interac-
tions and relationships among ecological environ-
mental factors. However, how to correctly extract the
knowledge used to infer solutions in the expert sys-
tems is a difficult subject. The key to solving this
problem is further development of the simulation
models and their integration with theories known in
respect to a given subject. The use of the NVC model
and theory in the ES for GPAD is a successful ex-
ample. Since the 1960s the vegetation types at the
vicinity of climatic stations have been identified
using the NVC method resulting in the accumula-
tion of a large amount of correlative information
between vegetation types and environmental factors.
By the end of 2001, the spatial distributions of 31
vegetation types present in Gansu Province out of
48 categories of the whole of China, were identified,
studied, and classified for the first time using data
from over 2300 climatic stations from 1961 to 1990
by GIS and NVC theory (Liang Tiangang et al.
2001c).
Further research is anticipated to improve the
NVC consultation module in the ES for GPAD. A
great deal of field work and the improved interpola-
tion method for using GIS technology to calculate
mean annual rainfall and cumulative temperature in
the areas among climatic stations need to be devel-
oped to ensure that the vegetation categories in China
are correctly defined in order to identify the envi-
ronmental problems existing in the different ecosys-
tems (Liang Tiangang et al. 2001b,c). This would
make it possible to use the NVC method in the whole
of China.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We thank Hu Zizhi of Gansu Agricultural University who
made constructive instructions on our research. We es-
pecially thank two anonymous reviewers, the editor, and
Marta Treskonova, an AusAID project adviser and land-
use planning specialist from New Zealand for helpful
revisions.
This research was supported by the Gansu Agricul-
tural Committee from 2000 to 2002, and also in part sup-
ported by the Key Laboratory of Grassland
Agro-ecosystem Foundation Project, Ministry of Agricul-
ture (CYZDSYS0307), and the National Key Basic Re-
search Special Foundation Project, Ministry of Science
and Technology (2003BA901A20).
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