Slides - Compressors Pumps Turbines 3+2 Slides

14/10/2013
Ron Frend
Senior Consultant
Compressor Pumps & turbines (c)

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 Boyles Law
Robert Boyle
1627-1691

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 Boyles Law
◦ The volume of a gas varies inversely with
its pressure
◦ PV=k
◦ If the temperature is constant
Robert Boyle
1627-1691

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 Boyles Law
◦ V  1/P
Robert Boyle
1627-1691

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 Charles Law
Jacques Charles
1746-1823

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 Charles Law
◦ VT
Jacques Charles
1746-1823

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 Combine Boyles Law & Charles Law
PV = R (per mole)
T
Only true for a perfect gas

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 Van der Waals Equation

◦ Nobel Prize for Physics 1910
◦ He said:
 Real gases do not behave exactly as predicted
 PV=RT is only an approximation
Johannes Diderik
van der Waals
1837 - 1923
a & b adjustable parameters

Determined by experiment

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 Some van der Waals Constants
Substance a b Pc Tc
(J. m3/mole2) (m3/mole) (MPa) (K)
Air .1358 3.64x10-5 3.77 133 K
Carbon Dioxide .3643 4.27x10-5 7.39 304.2 K

Johannes Diderik
(CO2) van der Waals
Nitrogen (N2) .1361 3.85x10-5 3.39 126.2 K 1837 - 1923
Hydrogen (H2) .0247 2.65x10-5 1.30 33.2 K
Water (H2O) .5507 3.04x10-5 22.09 647.3 K
Ammonia (NH3) .4233 3.73x10-5 11.28 406 K
Helium (He) .00341 2.34x10-5 0.23 5.2 K
Freon (CCl2F2) 1.078 9.98x10-5 4.12 385 K

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 Van der Waal’s Equation

◦ The parameter b is related to the size of each
molecule.
◦ The volume that the molecules have to move around in
is not just the volume of the container V, but is
reduced to ( V - nb ).
◦ The parameter a is related to intermolecular attractive Johannes Diderik
force between the molecules, (n/V is density of van der Waals
molecules). The net effect of intermolecular attractive
force is to reduce the pressure for a given volume and
1837 - 1923
temperature.
◦ When the density of the gas is low the van der Waals
equation reduces to that of the ideal gas law.
◦ Works best where temperatures just above critical
temperature Tc of a substance

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 The deviation from ideal-gas behavior can

be properly accounted for by using the
compressibility factor Z, defined as
Z represents the volume ratio

or compressibility.
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Ideal Real
Gas Gases
Z > 1 or
Z=1 Z<1
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 Pv = ZRT or
 Pv = ZRuT, where v is
volume per unit mole.
 Z is known as the compressibility factor.

 Real gases, Z < 1 or Z > 1.

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Molar Volume
At STP, 22.4 dm3 of any gas contains one mole of molecules.
 Ideal gas equation: PV=nRT

◦ P = Standard pressure (kPa)
◦ V = Molar volume
◦ n = Number of moles
◦ R = 8.31 dm3 kPa / mole K
◦ T = Standard temperature (K) = Celsius + 273
 Ideal gas Equation modification
◦ Substituting for n (number of moles)

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 Some definitions:
◦ enthalpy - (thermodynamics) a thermodynamic quantity equal to
the internal energy of a system plus the product of its volume and
pressure; "enthalpy is the amount of energy in a system capable
of doing mechanical work"
◦ entropy - (thermodynamics) a thermodynamic quantity
representing the amount of energy in a system that is no longer
available for doing mechanical work; "entropy increases as matter
and energy in the universe degrade to an ultimate state of inert
uniformity"
◦ isentropic - with unchanging entropy; at constant entropy
◦ adiabatic - occurring without loss or gain of heat; "adiabatic
expansion"
 isothermal - occurring at the same temperature

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 Thermodynamic Systems and

Processes:
◦ Polytropic Process
 Reversible process
 Heat is transferred
 Graph of Log (pressure) –v- Log
(volume) is straight line
 PV = a constant
 E.g. expansion of combustion gas
cooling
in water cooled reciprocating
engine

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 Ideal Cycles

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 Applying the ideal gas law (PV=mRT) we get:
Ratio of specific heats

γ= Cp
Cv
• 1.66 - Ideal monoatomic gas
• 1.4 - Air (diatomic)
• Used in adiabatic expansion calculations

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 f – Schultz real gas

correction factor
 h - enthalpy

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 The polytropic efficiency is calculated

based upon the polytropic head and
the polytropic exponent, nP,

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Consider compressor :
Ps = 300psia
Ts = 140’F
Pd = 1000 psia
Assume Isentropic
Compression
TdIdeal = 300’F
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Consider compressor :
Ps = 300psia
Ts = -160’F
Follow entropy line up to:

Pd = 1000 psia
ad = 85%
TdIdeal = - 40’F
h(ideal) = ((-1675) – (-1640))

= -35 Btu/lb-mol
h(actual) = h(ideal)/ ad

h(actual) = (-35 / 0.85) = -41 Btu/lb-mol
h2(actual) = (-1675 – (-41)) = -1634
Plotting Actual Process

… Tdactual = -25’F
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 Reciprocating compressor
 Turbo compressors, Axial, centrifugal
compressors
 Screw compressors
 Rotary sliding vanes
 ‘Funny’ compressors

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 Positive Displacement
◦ Reciprocating
◦ Rotary
 Centrifugal

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Compressors
Centrifugal Axial Flow Positive Displacement
Roto-jet Multi-stage Single Stage Rotating Reciprocating
Vane Linear
Gear Diaphragm
Scroll/Screw Piston
Lobe Axial
Radial
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Pumps/Compressors
Multi-stage Single Stage Rotating Reciprocating
Vane Linear
Gear Diaphragm
Scroll/Screw Piston
Lobe Axial
Radial
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Pumps/Compressors
Vane Linear
Scroll Diaphragm
Screw Piston
Lobe Axial
Radial
Pumps/Compressors
Vane Linear
Gear Diaphragm
Scroll/Screw Piston
Lobe Axial
Radial
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 As the load decreases,

pressure will rise.
 An increase in process
pressure above the set
value will cause the
signal to reach the
governor and reduce
speed, maintaining the
desired system
pressure

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 For constant volume

delivery
 An increase in flow over

set point would cause a
signal to reach the
governor and reduce the
speed to maintain the
desired system flow.

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 A process pressure
increase over a set
value would cause a
signal to reach the
suction throttle
valve (STV) and
would partially
close the valve in
order to reduce the
inlet pressure.

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 The final element is the

compressor guide-vane
mechanism.
 The guide vanes are

adjusted by means of a
positioning cylinder.
This cylinder is operated
by a servo-valve (SRV)
that receives a signal
from the now controller.
 Here, an increase in flow

above the set point
causes a signal to reach
the final element, which
will result in the closing
of the guide vanes to
decrease flow.

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Compressor regulation
Away from surge limit In surge region
Control parameters Control elements Control parameters Control elements
Speed delta p/p Exhaust

Final pressure
valves
Suction pressure Suction throttle differential Blow back
valve pressure valves
Volume
Inlet guide vanes Final
pressure
Guide vanes
The airborne vibrations changes
as function of actual control parameters!
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 Centrifugal Compressors
◦ A multi-wheel (multistage) - 500 and 200,000 inlet acfm.
◦ A single-wheel (single stage) - 100 and 150,000 inlet acfm.
◦ A multi-wheel compressor = many single wheel compressors in single casing
◦ Velocity < Mach 0.8 to 0.85

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 Energy Transfer from the impeller to the fluid

 Centrifugal Force
 Exchanging Pressure and Velocity

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 For a flowing gas there are two types of energy involved:

– Kinetic Energy (Velocity)
– Potential Energy (Static Pressure)*
 They are interchangeable, i.e. static pressure can be converted
into velocity and vice versa

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Velocity Velocity
Pressure Pressure
Mass Flow Mass Flow
Diffusors always increase the available flow area.
Continuity thus requires a reduction in flow velocity*
Bernoullis law thus leads to an increase in static pressure
Too much diffusion (=deceleration) leads to flow separation
Flow does not ‘naturally’ flow against pressure rise
* ….in subsonic flow

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Velocity
Velocity
Pressure Pressure
Mass Flow Mass Flow
Acceleration due to reduced available flow area Continuity

thus requires a increase in flow velocity* Bernoullis law thus
leads to an reduction in static pressure
* ….in subsonic flow

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 Ok, we now know how to trade, but

how do we increase the overall energy?
 Obviously, if the impeller were in a black box, we
would expect that the gas coming out is at a
higher velocity and/or a higher pressure
 So, how does the impeller do this?

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 Spinning an Object
– Causes a force trying to accelerate away from center –
Requires effort
 Impeller
– Spinning causes gas to move from inlet to outlet
– Additionally, the blades push the gas
– Requires power to maintain stream of gas

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 Velocities Triangle
◦ Vectors
 Length denoted by [a]
 A is the tail, base, start or origin
 B is head, tipm endpoint or destination
 This example can be written or AB

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◦ Vector Addition
 Let a=a1i + a2j + a3k and b=b1i + b2j + b3k.
 The sum of a and b is:
Or we can show it graphically using the

paralellogram rule
Note; this is only true if a and b have the same
base point

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◦ Vector Subtraction
 Let a=a1i + a2j + a3k and b=b1i + b2j + b3k.
 The difference of a and b is:
to subtract b from a, place the ends of a and b at

the same point, and then draw an arrow from the
tip of b to the tip of a.
That arrow represents the vector a - b, as
illustrated below:
Note; this is only true if a and b have the same
base point

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 Shape of the impeller blades depends on the gas design

◦ A centrifugal compressor operates on a principle of imparting an angular
momentum to a fluid
◦ exchange of energy, as a mechanical torque is transmitted from the drive shaft
to the fluid
◦ designers refer to this as “velocity triangles”: one at the impeller blade inlet, and
another at the exit.
◦ A velocity triangle has peripheral velocity (U), absolute velocity (V), and relative
velocity (W)

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 Centrifugal Compressors
◦ As most impellers discharge directly
into a volute, or a diffuser, without
having a special recovery turbine wheel
following the pump impeller, the
majority of the designs have backward-
leaning blades
◦ Centrifugal compressors can use a
variety of blade orientation including
both forward and backward curves as
well as other designs.
◦ There may be several stages to a
centrifugal air compressor and the
result would be the same; a higher
pressure would be produced.

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Idealized radial-flow impeller

(a) impeller; (b) velocity diagrams.

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 Pressure and velocity are increased

 We now want to convert at least some of the velocity into
pressure:
•We need a diffuser

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Velocity
Velocity
Pressure
Pressure
Volute
Diffuser
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1) ABSOLUTE PRESSURE is the pressure measured from an absolute vacuum. It equals the algebraic sum of
barometric pressure and gage pressure.
2) STATIC PRESSURE is the pressure in the gas measured in such a manner that no effect is produced by the
velocity of the gas stream. It is the pressure that would be shown by a measuring instrument moving at the same
velocity as the moving stream and is the pressure used as a property in defining the thermodynamic state of the
fluid.
3) STAGNATION (Total) PRESSURE is the pressure which would be measured at the stagnation point when a
moving gas stream is brought to rest and its kinetic energy is converted to an enthalpy rise by an isentropic
compression from the flow condition to the stagnation condition. It is the pressure usually measured by an impact
tube. In a stationary body of gas, the static and stagnation pressures are numerically equal.
4) VELOCITY PRESSURE (DYNAMIC PRESSURE) is the stagnation pressure minus the static pressure in a gas
stream. It is the pressure generally measured by the differential pressure reading of a Pitot tube

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1) ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE is the temperature above absolute zero. It

is equal to the degrees Fahrenheit plus 459.69 and is stated as degrees
Rankine.
2) STATIC TEMPERATURE is the temperature that would be shown by a
measuring instrument moving at the same velocity as the fluid stream. It is
the temperature used as a property in defining the thermodynamic state of the
gas.
3) STAGNATION (Total) TEMPERATURE is that temperature which would
be measured at the stagnation point if a gas stream were brought to rest and
its kinetic energy converted to an enthalpy rise by an isentropic compression
process from the flow condition to the stagnation condition.

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1) CAPACITY (Actual Flow) of a compressor is the volume rate

of flow of gas compressed and delivered referred to conditions
of pressure, temperature and gas composition prevailing at the
compressor inlet.
2) STANDARD or NORMAL FLOW is the rate of flow under
certain ‘standard’ conditions, for example 60degF and 30”Hg
(US Standard) or 0degC and 1013.25 mbar (SI Normal).
3) MASS FLOW is the rate of flow in mass units

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 Head is a measure of energy (or work) transferred to the gas.

 The amount of energy transferred is shown in the temperature
increase of the gas
 Head is defined as the energy added to each pound mass of the gas
by one or more rotating impellers.
 Head is expressed in units of foot-pounds-force per poundmass
(ft-lbf/lbm)
An ideal process, that generates no losses, would achieve the

pressure increase with a certain amount of energy transfer, that is
lower than the actually required transfer (isentropic head)

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The compression in a slow running recip is almost

isentropic, but usually not adiabatic. Losses usually occur
mainly due to the gas exchange (valves etc.)
In a centrifugal, friction losses occur along the entire
compression process. They are usually related to friction
between the gas and the walls, or to friction between non
uniform gas streams

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SCFM – Standard Cubic Feet per Minute

PSIA – lb/Sq. In.
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Less flow
gives
more head
Distinct Area of High
Efficiency
Surge and Choke

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The head versus flow map is

by far the most universal map,
because changes in suction
temperature or gas composition
will only slightly alter the map.
It allows determination of
operating speed, distance from
surge , and the expected
isentropic efficiency

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The faster it spins, the more work (head) gets imparted, but
also the more flow is processed, and the more power is
consumed.
Twice the speed yields four times the work, twice the flow,
and eight times the power

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 How the fan speed and diameter of the

fan wheel influence on the volume, head
and power
Volume delivered varies directly as speed q1 / q2 = n1 / n2
Head developed varies as the square of speed dp1 / dp2 = (n1 / n2)2
Power absorbed varies as the cube of speed P1 / P2 = (n1 / n2)3
If the speed increase with 10%:

- volume increase 10%
- head increase 21%
- power increase 33 %
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 Note! This mean that if we want to increase the

volume flow in an existing system by 10% we
have to increase the power by 33%. In general
the motor and the power supply must be
changed.

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 A compressor operating with an inlet flow of

550,000 cfh and a power demand of 6500hp
has the speed increased from 15,000rev/min
to 16,000 rev/min.
 What is the power demand at the higher

speed?
n1 15000 rpm
n2 16000 rpm
p1 6500 hp
p2 7888.593 hp
Q1 550000 icfh
Q2 586666.7 icfh

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 Changing the Impeller Diameter

Volume delivered varies with the cube of the q1 / q2 = (d1 / d2)3
diameter
Head developed varies as the square of diameter dp1 / dp2 = (d1 / d2)2
Power absorbed varies as 5th power of the P1 / P2 = (d1 / d2)5

diameter

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•Specific Gravity
•Temperature
•Pressure Ratio

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If this property And these Then the

changes… remain constant required head
will
Increase T1 PR,SG Increase

Reduce T1 PR,SG Decrease
Increase PR T1,SG Increase

Reduce PR T1,SG Decrease
Increase SG T1,PR Decrease

Reduce SG T1,PR Increase

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 The point at which the impeller(s) can not add additional power to overcome the
discharge pressure.
· Surge is an oscillation of the entire compressor flow.
· Reversal of flow rapidly increases gas temperature into the impeller, reducing
pressure ratio and aggravating surge, pressure fluctuation and rotor vibration.
· The vibration and rapid change in axial thrust can result in damage to labyrinth
seals, thrust bearings and in severe cases can also damage the rotor components and
stators.
Sudden changes in load may also cause damage to the driver.

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Diffuser, centrifugal compressor, flow/pressure
No Surge
Pre surge
Pre surge
Full Surge

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>>
Anti surge
Control

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Recommended Full Stroke Times

Size Close to Open Time Open to Close Time
1" to 4" 1 second < 3 seconds
6" to 12" 2 seconds < 5 seconds
16" and up 3 seconds < 10 seconds

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 The maximum flow that the compressor staging can handle at a given
speed.
· Choke (or Stonewall) may occur at the impeller inlet or at the vaned
diffuser inlet.
· Choke occurs because of sonic velocity or excessive negative incidence.
· All the power is dissipated in incidence and frictional losses and is a
very inefficient mode of operation.
Generally not detrimental to the Centrifugal Compressor.

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 Mach Number
◦ ratio of speed to the speed of sound in the
medium
◦ it is a dimensionless number
◦ of sound increases as the temperature
increases the actual speed of an object
traveling at Mach 1 will depend on the fluid Ernst Mach 1838 - 1916
temperature

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 Flow Around High Speed Objects

◦ At transonic speeds flow around object
includes sub & supersonic parts
◦ Ma>1 - flow increases towards both leading
and trailing edges.
◦ Ma=1
 the normal shock reaches the trailing edge and
becomes a weak oblique shock
 normal shock is created ahead of the object
 only subsonic zone in the flow field is a small
area around the object's leading edge

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 High Speed Flow in a Channel

◦ As a flow in a channel crosses Ma=1 becomes supersonic, one
significant change takes place
◦ the relationship of flow area and speed is reversed: expanding the
channel actually increases the speed.
◦ result is that in order to accelerate a flow to supersonic, one needs a
convergent-divergent nozzle
◦ the converging section accelerates the flow to Ma=1, and the
diverging section continues the acceleration to supersonic.
◦ Such nozzles are called Laval nozzles

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Choke flow: Gas Flow at mach 1
The compressor convert rotational energy into velocity and then pressure.
A sudden pressure drop lead to increased velocity.

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 Typical GT Size: 1 – 30MW

 Often Two Casing Applications (no back-to-back)
LP and HP compressor usually have different staging

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Components
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Compressors for Hydrocarbon, chemical processing and gas reinjection,

normally goes up to several hundred bars.
The compressors are typical designed to work through and above several
critical bending speeds.

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•Labyrinth Seals
•Oil Film Seals
•Dry Gas Seals

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Centre hung compressors

require 2 seals
Overhung compressors
have a single seal directly
behind the impeller

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A tandem seal consists of a

primary seal and a secondary
seal, contained within a single
cartridge. During normal
operation, the primary seal
absorbs the total pressure drop
to a vent system, and the
secondary seal acts as a back-
up, should the primary seal fail.

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Dry gas seals are basically mechanical

face seals, consisting of a mating
(rotating) ring and a primary (stationary)
ring

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During operation, grooves in the mating

ring generate a fluid-dynamic force
causing the primary ring to separate from
the mating ring, thus, creating a "running
gap" between the two rings.
A sealing gas is injected into the seal,

providing the working fluid for the running
gap and the seal between the
atmosphere or flare system and the
compressor internal process gas.

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Inboard of the dry gas seal is

an inner labyrinth seal, which
separates the process gas
from the gas seal. Outboard of
the dry gas seal is a barrier
seal, which separates the gas
seal from the compressor shaft
bearings .

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Flow control systems control

the supply of seal gas to the
seal by regulating the seal gas
flow through an orifice
upstream of the seal. This can
be accomplished with a simple
needle valve, or through the
use of a differential pressure
control valve monitoring
pressures on either side of the
orifice.

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Since DP systems basically

control the flow of seal gas
through a labyrinth seal, this
can sometimes result in high
seal gas flows through the
inner seal labyrinth. Variations
in the inner seal labyrinth
clearance can result in high
variations of seal gas flow.

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 Process gas (from the inboard or high-pressure

side of the seal)
 Bearing lubrication oil (from the outboard or low-
pressure side of the seal)
 Seal gas supply itself (injected into the seal).

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 Contamination from process gas can occur when

there is insufficient sealing gas pressure to
overcome the reference pressure, allowing
process gas to come into direct contact with the
seal ring faces.
 Contaminants existing within the process gas can
then damage the seal.

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 Typically, the sealing gas must be dry

and filtered of particles 3 micron
(absolute) and larger.
 Filters are normally provided in the gas
seal system to address this
requirement.
 While typical systems are supplied with
coalescing-type filters, such devices
may be inadequate depending on the
source of seal gas supply.
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Components of the gas seal system such

as filters, valves, orifices, and the seal
faces, will cause seal gas pressure drops
during operation. As the seal gas expands
across these components, the Joule-
Thomson effect will result in a
corresponding decrease in the gas
temperature.
if the seal gas passes through a liquid

phase, special liquid separation and
filtration equipment, and possibly heating of
the sealing gas may be required.

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Recently labyrinth seals have been

replaced by segmented carbon ring seals in
most barrier seal applications.
Segmented carbon ring barrier seals are

available in two designs - shaft contacting
and non-contacting.
The contacting barrier seal has zero

clearance, riding tight on the shaft. The
non-contacting, bushing type barrier seal
has a small shaft clearance.

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•Diaphragms
•Inlet/Discharge Walls
•Interstage Seals

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Troubleshooting &
Potential Failure Analysis
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Tips for correct troubleshooting:
 Keep record of machine condition

 Assuring correct calibration of
instruments
 Making a check list for faults
 Following the diagnosis flow charts

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PROPABLE CAUSE(S):
1. Compressor not up to speed.
2. Excessive compressor inlet temperature.
3. Low inlet pressure.
4. Leak in discharge piping.
5. Excessive system demand from compressor.

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PROPABLE CAUSE(S):
1. Inadequate flow through the compressor.
2. Change in system resistance due to obstruction in
the discharge piping (intercoolers??) or improper
valve position.
3. Deposit buildup on rotor or diffusers restricting
gas flow.
4. Change in process gas analysis
5. Error in flow measurement
6. Inoperative recycle or blow off valve

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PROPABLE CAUSE(S):
1. Faulty lube oil pressure gauge or switch.
2. Low level in oil reservoir.
3. Oil pump suction plugged.
4. Leak in oil pump suction piping.
5. Clogged oil strainers or filters.
6. Failure of both main and auxiliary oil pumps.
7. Operation at a low speed without the auxiliary oil
pump running (if main oil pump is shaft-driven).
8. Relief valve improperly set or stuck open.
9. Leaks in the oil system.
10. Incorrect pressure control valve setting or operation.
11. Bearing lube oil orifices missing or plugged.
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PROPABLE CAUSE(S):
1. Piping Strain.
2. Warped bedplate, compressor or driver.
3. Warped foundation.
4. Loose or broken foundation bolts.
5. Defective grouting.

165 Ron Frend 2013
PROPABLE CAUSE(S):
1. Inadequate or restricted flow of lube oil to
bearings.
2. Poor conditions of lube oil or dirt or gummy
deposits in bearings.
3. Inadequate cooling water flow lube oil cooler.
4. Fouled lube oil cooler.
5. Wiped bearing.
6. High oil viscosity.
7. Excessive vibration.
8. Water in lube oil.
9. Rough journal surface.
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Tip !
Lube oil temperature

leaving bearings should
never be permitted to
exceed 180ºF (82°C)

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PROPABLE CAUSE(S):
1. Improperly assembled parts.
2. Loose or broken bolting.
3. Piping Strain.
4. Shaft misalignment.
5. Worn or damaged coupling.
6. Dry coupling (if continuously lubricated type is used).
7. Warped shaft caused by uneven heating or cooling.
8. Damaged rotor or bent shaft.
9. Unbalanced rotor or warped due to severe rubbing.

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PROPABLE CAUSE(S):
10. Uneven build-up of deposits on rotor wheels,
causing unbalance.
11. Excessive bearing clearance.
12. Loose wheel(s) (rare case).

13. Operating at or near critical speed.
14. Operating in surge region.
15. Liquid “slugs” striking wheels.

16. Excessive vibration of adjacent machinery
(sympathetic vibration)

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Tip !
Vibration
maybe transmitted
From the coupled machine.
To localize vibration disconnect
coupling and operate driver alone. This
should indicate whether driver or driven
Machine is causing vibration

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PROPABLE CAUSE(S):
1. Condensation in oil reservoir
2. Leak in lube oil cooler tubes or tube-sheet
3. Misplaced sump cover

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PROPABLE CAUSE(S):
1. Gas contamination from seal oil system
2. Oxidation (overheating)
3. Age deterioration

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Bearing Problems
Vibration Analysis
173
 Rolling Element Bearings

 Plain Bearings
 Tilt Pad Bearings

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 Hydrodynamic & Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication

 Rolling Element Bearings
 Plain Bearings
 Pad Bearings

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 Lubricants provide a protective film that separates the two

rubbing surfaces and reduces the level of friction in the two
rubbing surfaces.
 Lubricants also provide cooling

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 Direct results of lubrication

◦ Retardation of wear
◦ Minimisation of temperature rise
◦ Reduction of friction
◦ Longer machine life
◦ Reduction in downtime

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 Hydrodynamic Lubrication
◦ Fluid film (plain) bearings
 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication
◦ Rolling element bearings

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 Fluid film bearings

◦ Absorb energy (vibration)
◦ Have a long life (no rolling contact stresses)

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 As the shaft is forced

from its centred
position under the
downward load, the
bearing clearance
becomes a converging-
diverging wedge with
very high pressures

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 The lubricant wedge is very

small but is large enough to
keep the roller physically
separated from the race by a
small distance (in the micron
range).
 THERE IS NO METAL TO METAL
CONTACT IN A PROPERLY
LUBRICATED BEARING RUNNING
AT NORMAL LOAD.
Compressor Pumps & turbines (c) Ron

Frend 2013
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Examples
187

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 Offset
◦ How far along is pivot
 >0.5
◦ Increase film thickness
◦ Increase load capacity
◦ Typically 0.5 – 0.7
◦ Most common 0.6

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 Saturated Steam Pounds Per Square Inch Degrees

◦ At water drum Absolute (psia) Fahrenheit (°F)
 Superheated Steam 11 .198
◦ After superheater
14.7 .212
110 .335
◦ Saturated Steam 340 .429
heated again 630 .567
Supercritical Fluid
1200 .596
 2000 .636
◦ Above 3206.2 psia, 3000 .695
705.4ºF
3206.2 .705.40
◦ CRITICAL POINT Water saturation temperatures & pressures

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 Superheater
◦ Saturated steam passes
through the superheater
tubes
◦ Combustion gases pass
over the superheater tubes,
further heating the steam
ABOVE ITS SATURATION
POINT
◦ i.e. the steam becomes
superheated.

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 Condenser
◦ Feed water used over and over again
◦ As the steam leaves or exhausts from the LP turbine, it
enters the CONDENSATE system.
◦ The condensate system is that part of the steam cycle in
which the steam is condensed back to water. Then it
flows from the main condenser toward the boilers while
it is being prepared for use as feed water
◦ The components of the condensate system are
 (1) the main condenser,
 (2) the main condensate pump,
 (3) the main air ejector condenser, and
 (4) the top half of the deaerating feed tank (DFT).

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 Condensate
◦ The main condensate pump takes suction from the
main condenser hot well.
◦ It delivers the condensate into the condensate
piping system and through the main air ejector
condenser.
◦ The air ejector removes air and non-condensable
gases from the main condenser that leak or are
discharged into it during normal operation.
◦ The condensate is used as a cooling medium for
condensing the steam in the inter and after
condensers of the main air ejector

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 Feed
◦ The DFT is the dividing line between condensate
and feed water. The condensate enters the DFT
through the spray nozzles and turns into feed water
in the reservoir section of the DFT. The DFT has
three basic functions:
 To remove dissolved oxygen and non-condensable
gases from the condensate
 To preheat the water
 To act as a reservoir to store feed water to take care of
fluctuations in feed water demand or condensate
supply

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 Dearator Feed Tank

◦ The condensate enters the DFT
through the condensate inlet. There
it is sprayed into the dome of the
tank by nozzles. It is discharged in
a fine spray throughout the steam-
filled top. The fine spray and
heating of the condensate releases
trapped air and oxygen. The gas-
free condensate falls to the bottom
of the tank through the water
collecting cones, while the air and
oxygen are exhausted from the
tank vent.
◦ The collected condensate in the

storage section of the DFT is now
called feed water and becomes a
source of supply for the main feed
booster pump. The main feed
booster pump takes suction from
the DFT and maintains a constant
discharge pressure to the main feed
pump.

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 Some saturated steam may be tapped off for:

◦ Air ejectors
◦ Pumps
◦ Fans
◦ Auxiliary Alternators
◦ Gland sealing
◦ General purpose heating

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Steam turbines are found on

any rotating equipment.
Steam turbines have

◦ Very high starting torque,
◦ Good high speed control and also
◦ Good variable speed capability.
Generallywhen steam is available, motors in excess of 50

hp can be replaced by steam turbines at a weight savings.
Reasons for using steam turbines instead of electric

motors are as follows:
◦ Power density or weight/hp advantages over 50 hp
◦ High rotational speed requirements
◦ Good control of variable speed devices

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 History
◦ Hero of Alexandria
◦ The aelophile
◦ 2000 years ago
◦ A REACTION
TURBINE

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 Impulse
Turbines

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 Impulse Turbines
◦ Curved blades on outer rim of
rotor
◦ Nozzles direct steam onto
blades
◦ Rotational energy derived
from steam kinetic energy
◦ Steam nozzles at turbine inlet
◦ Steam potential (pressure)
energy turned into kinetic at
nozzle
◦ Steam velocity reduces as it
passes over rotor blades
◦ Impulse turbines used to
drive
 FD fans
 Pumps
 Alternators

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◦ Optimum efficiency occurs when the
blade is moving at half the speed of the
jet stream.
 To achieve this very high rotational speeds
would be required ( in the order of 15000
rpm). High centrifugal stress, high journal
speed and excessive gearing requirements
prohibits the use of such system for
propulsion by itself.
◦ This system is often found as the first
stage of a HP turbine were a large
pressure drop is required to allow for a
smaller turbine.
 Only the nozzle box has to cope with full
boiler pressure and temperatures
simplifying design especially of gland
boxes. Special material requirements are
again restricted to nozzle box. Reduced
pressure within the following stages
reduces tip leakage
◦ The steam leaving the blades has a high De Laval Impulse Turbine-Single Stage
kinetic energy indicating high leaving
loss.
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◦ The overall heat and pressure
drop is divided between the
stages.
 The U/Ci ratio is 0.5 for each
stage. By careful design the rotor
mean diameter may be kept to a
minimum.
◦ Excessive number of stages Pressure Compounding (Rateau)

produces an overly long rotor,
 this leads to problems of critical
vibration, increased rotor
diameter, increased stage losses
due friction and windage and
increased gland leakage both at Ci
the main glands and the steam
diaphragm plate glands. absolute
W
 This due to the increased number velocity steam
of glands and the increased rotor relative
diameter. velocity
U
rotational
Compressor Pumps & turbines (c) speed
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◦ Stage mean diameter and nozzle height are
increased at the LP end as the steam
expands to the limits of centrifugal stress.
 Nozzle and/or blade angles may be altered to
accommodate the increase in volume reducing
the requirement to increase blade height
excessively. This is referred to as taper-twisting
◦ The blade height increase towards the LP end
means that the rotational velocity also
increases.
 Hence for the same value of U/Ci they can deal
with higher inlet steam velocities and hence
higher enthalpy drops.
 The design produces a short lightweight turbine Pressure Compounding (Rateau)
used where size, weight and strength are more
important than efficiency.
 E.G. feed pumps , astern turbines and the inlet
portion of HP turbines where it provides a large
initial drop in temperature and pressure,
lightening the rotor and reducing the need for
high grade alloys for remaining stages

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◦ For a two stage system U/Ci = 1/4,
for a three stage system U/Ci = 1/6
◦ There is no pressure drop except in
the nozzle ( although in practice
some drop occurs due to losses as
the steam passes over the blade). Velocity Compounded (Curtis)
 Dividing the velocity drop across the
stages leads to a loss of efficiency but
gives a more acceptable blade speed
reducing centrifugal stress and
simplifying gearing arrangement.
◦ For a three row system, the steam
speed at inlet to the first row is 6
times the blade speed, reducing the
velocity makes the conditions at the Ci
final stages close to ideal. W
steam
steam
absolute
relative
velocity
velocity
U
rotational
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◦ To maintain the same mass flow for
the reducing velocity, blade height is
increased to the limit of centrifugal
forces. Taper-twisting and flattening
of the blade angle is then given to the
final stage blades.
◦ Some reheating occurs due to friction
of the fixed blades associated with a
loss of velocity of about 12%
◦ Theoretically efficiency is
independent of the row number.
However in practice efficiency and
work done in final stages reduces and Velocity Compounded (Curtis)
therefore overall efficiency drops with
increase rows.
◦ Typical values for efficiency are
 two wheel curtis 68%
 three wheel curtis 50%
 Single wheel rateau 85%

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◦ This system gives the
advantage of producing a
shortened rotor compared to
pure velocity compounding.
In addition it also removes
the problem of very high inlet
steam velocities and the
reduction in efficiency and
work done in the final stages.
Pressure - Velocity Compound
◦ In this design steam velocity

at exit to the nozzles is kept
reasonable and thus the
blade speed (hence rotor
rpm) reduced.

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 Reaction Turbines
◦ Newton’s 3rd Law of
Motion
◦ FOR EVERY ACTION
THERE MUST BE AN
EQUAL AND OPPOSITE
REACTION

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◦ A forward force is applied to the
steam to increase its velocity as it
passes through the nozzle.
◦ From Newton’s third law of motion,
you see that the steam jet exerts a
force on the nozzle and an equal
reactive force on the turbine blades
in the opposite direction.
◦ THIS IS THE FORCE THAT DRIVES
THE TURBINE.
◦ The reaction turbine has all the
advantages of the impulse-type
turbine, plus a slower operating
speed and greater efficiency. The
alternating rows of fixed and
moving blades transfers the heat
energy of the steam to kinetic
energy, then to mechanical energy.

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◦ The original blade design was thin
section with a convergent path. Blohm
& voss designed blades similar to bull
nose impulse blades which allowed for
a convergent-divergent path.
 However due to the greater number of
stages the system did not find favour over
impulse systems
 U/Ci = 0.9
 If the heat drop across the fixed and
moving blades are equal the design is Parsons Impulse-Reaction
known as half degree reaction.
 Steam velocity was kept small on early
designs.
 Increased boiler pressure and temperature
meant that the expansion had to take Ci
place over multiple rotors and gear-sets. steam
absolute
velocity
W
steam
relative
U velocity
rotational
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◦ As there is full admission
over the initial stage,
blade height is kept low.
 This causes a decrease in
blade and nozzle efficiency
at part loading.
 Although clearances at the
blade tips are kept as small
as practical, steam leakage
causes a proportionally
higher loss of work
extracted per unit steam
◦ Blade tip clearances may

be kept very tight so long
as the rotor is kept at Parsons Impulse-Reaction
steady state.

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 Blade Sealing
◦ End Tightening
This is seen particularly on
reaction turbines.
 It requires accurate
positioning of the turbine
rotor and is normally
associated with lengthy
warm up periods during
which the position of the
rotor is carefully monitored.
 Operational limitations on
rapid power changes may be
in place.
◦ Tip Tightening
Clearance is governed by
maximum blade centrifugal
stretch

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 Components
◦ For Impulse & Reaction Turbines
◦ Foundations
◦ Casings
◦ Nozzles
◦ Rotors
◦ Bearings
◦ Shaft Glands

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Condensing turbines
are ones that exhaust
at below 14.7 psia or
sub atmospheric
pressures.
◦ Condensing turbines
exhaust into a vacuum,
which is mainly caused
by the reduction in
volume of steam as it
turns back into water.
◦ An air ejector or
vacuum pump will
begin the process and
assist in maintaining
the negative pressure
by removing air and
non-condensable
gasses from inside the
condenser.

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Non-condensing turbines exhaust at or above 14.7psia.

Most auxiliary turbines exhaust at around 25-35 psig and
are non-condensing units.

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 Radial, axial or
tangential flow
refers to the
direction of
steam flow in
relationship to
the axis of the
rotor or shaft.
 Radial flow
turbines have
steam flowing
perpendicular
to the shaft
axis.

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 Foundations
◦ Turbine foundations are built up from a structural
foundation to provide a rigid supporting base.
 All turbines are subjected to varying degrees of temperature—
from that existing during a secured condition or standby
operation to that existing during full-power operation.
 Therefore, means are provided to allow for expansion and
contraction.
◦ At the forward end of the turbine, there are various ways to

give freedom of movement.
 Elongated bolt holes or grooved sliding seats are used so that
the forward end of the turbine can move fore and aft as either
expansion or contraction takes place.
 The forward end of the turbine may also be mounted with a
flexible I-beam that will flex either fore or aft

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 Casings
◦ The materials used to
construct turbines will vary
somewhat depending on the
steam and power conditions
for which the turbine is
designed.
◦ Turbine casings are made of
cast carbon steel for non-
superheated steam
applications.
◦ Superheated applications use
casings made of carbon
molybdenum steel.
◦ Each casing has a steam chest
to receive the incoming high-
pressure steam. This steam
chest delivers the steam to the
first set of nozzles or blades

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 Nozzles
◦ The primary function of the nozzles is to
convert the thermal energy of steam into
kinetic energy.
◦ The secondary function of the nozzles is to
direct the steam against the blades.
 Rotors
◦ Rotors (forged wheels and shaft) are manu-
factured from steel alloys.
◦ The primary purpose of a turbine rotor is to
carry the moving blades that convert the
steam’s kinetic energy to rotating mechanical
energy.
 Bearings
◦ The rotor of every turbine must be
positioned radially and axially by bearings.
◦ Radial bearings carry and support the weight
of the rotor and maintain the correct radial
clearance between the rotor and casing

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 Bearings
◦ Axial (thrust) bearings limit the
fore-and-aft travel of the rotor.
 Thrust bearings take care of any
axial thrust, which may develop on
a turbine rotor and hold the
turbine rotor within definite axial
positions.
◦ All main turbines and most

auxiliary units have a bearing at
each end of the rotor.
 Bearings are generally classified as
sliding surface (sleeve and thrust)
or as rolling contact (antifriction
ball or roller bearings).

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 Shaft Packing Gland

◦ Shaft packing glands prevent the
leaking of steam out of or air
into the turbine casing where the
turbine rotor shaft extends
through the turbine casing.
◦ Labyrinth and carbon rings are
two types of packing. They are
used either separately or in
combination.
 Labyrinth packing consists of rows
of metallic strips or fins.
 The strips fasten to the gland liner
so there is a small space between
the strips and the shaft.
 As the steam from the turbine
casing leaks through the small
space between the packing strips
and the shaft, steam pressure
gradually reduces

227 Ron Frend 2013
 Shaft Packing Gland

◦ Carbon packing rings restrict the
passage of steam along the shaft in
much the same manner as labyrinth
packing strips.
 Carbon packing rings mount around the
shaft and are held in place by springs.
◦ 3 or 4 carbon rings are usually used

in each gland.
 Each ring fits into a separate
compartment of the gland housing and
consists of two, three, or four segments
that are butt-jointed to each other.
 A garter spring is used to hold these
segments together. The use of keepers
(lugs or stop pins) prevent the rotation
of the carbon rings when the shaft
rotates.
 The outer carbon ring compartment
connects to a drain line.

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Auxiliaryturbines use throttling

control valves and hand operated
nozzle control valves to vary the
speed and power of the turbine.
◦ Nozzle control valves can be
opened and closed by either bar lift
devices, cam devices or manually.

229 Ron Frend 2013
Auxiliaryturbines
driving pumps will
use constant
pressure governors
Turbines driving
generators or
compressors will
use constant speed
governors.

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 Speed limiting
governors are used to
prevent the turbine from
going into an over-
speed condition and are
usually direct acting fly-
ball type units.
 The speed limiting
governor takes over
control of the steam
admission valve when
the rotor speed reaches
about 107% of the rated
speed of the turbine.

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Depending upon the

size and cost of the
turbine, other
protective devices are
used as follows:
◦ Low Lube oil pressure trip
◦ Relief valves and Sentinel
valves
◦ High back pressure trip
◦ High vibration protection
◦ High Exhaust Temperature
protection
◦ Hand trip

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Inthe event that the

primary governor and
the speed limiting
governor fails to control
the speed of the rotor,
the over-speed trip is
designed to stop steam
flow into the turbine
and thus protect the
unit from over-speed
damage.
 The overspeed trip is actuated by centrifugal force and

consists of a spring loaded pin attached to the end of the rotor.

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Atabout 110-115% of the rated

speed of the rotor the pin pops out
and trips a mechanical device that
completely shuts off the steam
supply to the turbine steam chest.
The rotor speed will automatically

slow down but in order to restart
the turbine, the trip mechanism
must be manually reset.

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MULTI-VALVE MECHANICAL GOVERNOR

WITH MECHANICAL FEEDBACK
End view of multi-valve steam turbine. The blue areas are removed when converting
to electronic governor.

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BENEFITS:
Provide reliable control to turbine speed and/or process parameters. Replace hydraulic or
mechanical governors.
Features:
•Speed control
•Load control
•Inlet and exhaust pressure control
•Hand valve control
•Remote auto-start
239 Ron Frend 2013
MULTI-VALVE TURBINE
WITH ELECTRONIC GOVERNOR
ALARM
RELAY
SHUTDOWN RELAY
OVERSPEED
RELAY
COMPUTER/PERIPHERAL
INTERFACE
PROGRAMMABLE RELAYS (5 AVAILABLE)
4-20mA PROGRAMMABLE ANALOG OUT (4

AVAILABLE) RAISE/LOWER
LOAD FUNCTIONS
SIGNAL
SWITCH
INPUTS ANY
IN THIS APPLICATION YOU MAY CONTROL
ACTUATO ONE OF THE FOLLOWING FUNCTIONS:
R * INLET PRESSURE
T/T
* EXHAUST PRESSURE
* GENERATOR LOAD CONTROL
LOAD:
INLET PRESSURE PUMP
COMPRESSOR
SPEED GENERATOR
ETC.
POWER
EXHAUST
SOURCE PRESSURE
24VDC,
115VAC,
OR
125VDC

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 Electronic Trip
◦ API recommends two speed sensors where:
 “A” or “B” trip signal is seen, then the turbine trips.
 “A” or “B” loss of signal or power, an alarm is given but the
turbine remains running.
 “A” and “B” loss of signal or power, the turbine trips.
◦ If a turbine is determined to be in a critical service, a

fault tolerant overspeed trip system should be utilized.
In this case a minimum of three speed sensors is
required where:
 Any combination of two trip signals will result in a turbine
trip, i.e., “A” and “B,” “B” and “C,” or “A” and “C.”
 The loss of power signal or power of any one of the speed
sensors will result in an alarm.
 The loss of power or signal of any two of the speed sensors
will result in a turbine trip.

241 Ron Frend 2013
 Mechanical Trip
◦ Inside a mechanical overspeed trip mechanism
there are four basic components.
 The internal components consist of two bushings, a
plunger, and a spring.
◦ One of the bushings is screwed completely into the
overspeed trip body at a set depth.
 Controls the position when the turbine is not rotating.
 Then a bushing is installed over the plunger and spring,
and then tightened down.
 The spring pushes against the plunger “stopper disk”
and the adjustable bushing where the plunger extrudes
from the body.
 Now the spring is in compression holding the plunger
inside the mechanism body.
 The overspeed trip is then attached, typically bolted, to
the outboard end of the rotor.
◦ As the speed of the rotor increases, centrifugal
force pulls the plunger to the outside, against the
spring. As the rotor speed increases, the force from
the plunger increases on the spring.

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 Mechanical
Trip
◦ Once the
centrifugal force
increases from
the speed, rpm,
the plunger
overcomes the
spring force
causing the
plunger to
protrude
outward.

243 Ron Frend 2013
 Mechanical Trip
◦ Once the centrifugal force increases from the
speed, rpm, the plunger overcomes the spring
force causing the plunger to protrude outward.
◦ A stationary lever, set with a relatively tight
clearance, is positioned such that when the
plunger moves out, the lever is struck.
 The lever is integral with the emergency
mechanical trip device.
 When the mechanical trip is actuated, the
hydraulic oil is dumped to the drain, which
results in the immediate closing of the valve
rack and trip valve.
◦ The overspeed trip device is critical to the
safety of the turbine.
 Without the overspeed protection, the turbine
would run to destruction when the load
(compressor, pump, or generator) was lost.

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 Mechanical Trip
◦ How fast the turbine accelerates determines how fast the
overspeed trip system must respond.
 Rotor Time Constants

◦ The fundamental measure of rotor response is the rotor
time constant. From the equation for horsepower, the
rotor time constant can be calculated by substituting the
speed and time for acceleration. The rotor time constant
is:
 TC = 0.619((N/1000)2)((WR2)/ HP)
 where:
 TC = Rotor time constant, seconds
 N = Rated speed, rpm
 WR2 = Rotor inertia, lbs-ft2
 HP = Rated horsepower

245 Ron Frend 2013
 Testing
◦ A steam turbine solo is the testing of the turbine
with the turbine uncoupled from the machine
train.
◦ The soloing of the turbine is required to:

 Determine the actual critical speed
 Define minimum governor set point (low speed
stop)
 Determine maximum governor set point (high
speed stop)
 Test the emergency trip systems

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 Testing
◦ The preliminary steps to validate the safety protection
systems function prior to the physical testing of the
turbine overspeed are:
1. Signal generator is used to test the overspeed set
points, if an electronic governor is used and/or an
independent electronic overspeed protection system
is used.
2. Oil trips.
3. Emergency trips, mechanical, electronic, and manual,
on the turbine platform and in the control room.
4. When possible the mechanical overspeed plunger
assembly should be removed from the turbine rotor
and tested in a spin pit if the mechanical trip is to
provide primary or secondary overspeed protection.

247 Ron Frend 2013
 Testing
◦ After all the initial checks are made, the turbine rotor can be
brought up to a slow roll state, typically between 100 rpm and
1000 rpm.
 The slow roll speed varies based on the design of the turbine. Once
the turbine is up to the temperature desired, the oil trips should be
tested again in addition to all the emergency trips before ramping
up the turbine speed.
 Functionality of the trip devices should also be checked at this time.
◦ The next step is to validate or set the minimum governor
speed and the maximum (high speed stop) governor speed.
 This step can be quite difficult when the governor is a
mechanical/hydraulic system.
◦ It is now time to test the overspeed trip protection system in
earnest.
 The electronic protection systems are the easiest to validate. The set
points should have already been verified.

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 Testing
◦ The electronic overspeed trip set point must be set below the
mechanical overspeed trip assembly.
 If the electronic overspeed trip point is set above the mechanical set
point, then the only way to test the set point is with a signal
generator, because it should be impossible to run past the
mechanical set point.
◦ On a mechanical overspeed trip, the only adjustment that can

be made is to the spring force as all other components are set.
◦ Some problems that can (and have) occur

 Trip plunger improperly machined
 The end of the plunger was flared out preventing the trip plunger
from moving. (human error damage)
 The plunger and guide bushing had a build-up of varnish.
 The installed spring was too strong.
 The installed spring was too weak from either an old spring that had
lost some of its force or a spring with too low a spring constant.
 The millwright turned the adjustment nut in the wrong direction.

249 Ron Frend 2013
 Comparison of Mechanical – v – Electronic Overspeed

Trips

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◦ A 22 Megawatt, 3600 rpm unit

oversped to at least 5400 rpm as a
result of the disk and bolt, from an
upstream extraction nonreturn
valve, coming loose and moved
into a position that resulted in the
nonreturn valve sticking open
(Figures 14, 15, and 16).

251 Ron Frend 2013
◦ An incident showing a turbine

driving a generator with an
instantaneous loss of load is
shown in Figures 17, 18, 19,
and 20.

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 Incident 3
◦ On 02/24/01, a condensing steam turbine driving a
blower in a steel plant went past the overspeed set
point.
 One individual was killed and another individual was
injured.
 The turbine developed about 8500 hp and was
designed to run at 4100 rpm with the overspeed trip
set at 4500 rpm.
 The first overspeed trip test was successful.
 On the retest, the highest logged speed was 4988 rpm,
but eyewitness accounts say the reed tachometer
showed 5300 rpm.

253 Ron Frend 2013
 Incident 3
◦ A catastrophic failure of a 300 hp, 3600 rpm, boiler
feed water pump drive turbine occurred on
05/30/00.
 The turbine disintegrated due to overspeed following a
coupling failure and a governor oil pump shaft failure.
 The overspeed trip valve closed, but not fast enough to
prevent a very severe overspeed.
 No one was injured during this event.

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 Incident 5
◦ On 01/01/98, a condensing steam turbine driving a water pump in the
United Kingdom failed during an overspeed trip test. The turbine was
rated for 600 hp at 4643 rpm, with a steam inlet pressure of 40 psig. Two
reed tachometers were used to measure the turbine speed, and the first
trip test was successfully completed at 5400 rpm.
◦ On the second test, the operator reported the reed tachometer reading
was 4900 rpm and heard the trip mechanism start to “clatter” as the
turbine disintegrated.
◦ The operator at the trip throttle valve died on the way to the hospital from
the injuries sustained; two other employees received severe injuries
requiring multiple surgeries. Debris from the turbine was scattered over a
wide radius, and adjacent equipment was damaged.
◦ Calculations show that the blades should not have been overstressed and
thrown below 8000 rpm. The incident investigation concluded that there
may have been a misinterpretation of the turbine speed on the reed
tachometer, the overspeed trip mechanism malfunctioned, and excessive
steam flow was available for the test.

255 Ron Frend 2013
 Incident 6
◦ In 1997 an operator was putting a steam turbine driven
refrigeration compressor online, and he was reading the speed
with a reed tachometer setting on the auxiliary oil pump turbine,
which was normally off.
◦ The lube oil pump was running because the shaft driven governor
oil pump had failed. The lube oil turbine ran at 3600 rpm and the
main turbine was designed to run at 3800 rpm.
◦ The operator kept giving the main turbine more steam because he
believed the turbine would not speed up past 3600 rpm.
◦ Calculations showed that the compressor impellers actually flew
apart at 5400 rpm. Pieces of the compressor were thrown
throughout the building barely missing the operator. The
overspeed trip valve should have prevented the turbine from
overspeeding, but the valve was stuck open from steam deposits.

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Compressor Pumps & turbines

(c) Ron Frend 2013
 1808
◦ John Dumball envisioned a multi-stage turbine. Unfortunately his idea
consisted only of moving blades without stationary airfoils to turn the flow
into each succeeding stage.1,3,4
 1837
◦ Bresson’s idea was to use a fan to drive pressurized air into a combustion
chamber. Here, the air was mixed with fuel gas and burnt. These
combustion products were cooled by the addition of more air, and this
final product was used to drive turbine blades.
 1850
◦ England, Fernimough suggested a mixed steam and gas turbine, in which
air was blown through a coal grate while water was sprayed into the hot
gases. The gas and steam mixture then acted to drive a two-bladed rotor.
 1872
◦ Franz Stolze combine the ideas of Barber and Dumball to develop the first
axial compressor driven by an axial turbine.
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 1903, Rene Armengaud and Charles

Lemale built and successfully tested a
gas turbine using a Rateau rotary
compressor and a Curtis velocity
compounded steam turbine.
 Armengaud and Lemale went on to build
and test several experimental gas
turbines.
 Originally they used a 25 HP de Laval
steam turbine driven by compressed
gases from a combustion chamber,
which was fed from a compressor.
 The turbine and compressor ran at
4,000 rpm and, in another early example
of steam injection, temperatures were
kept down by injecting steam upstream
of the turbine nozzle.1
Impulse turbine
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(c) Ron Frend 2013
 1905 – Brown Boveri builds first commercial Gas Turbine

(5,300 kW)
 1930 – Frank Whittle files patent for compound axial flow
compressor & turbine
 1937 – Whittle’s engine tested
 1938 – Brown Boveri builds first electricity generating turbine
(4,000 kW)
 1939 – First flight of turbojet aircraft - Heinkel
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 The world’s first

industrial gas
turbine-generator,
a 4,000-kilowatt
unit, was presented
at the Swiss
National Exhibition
in Zurich in 1939.
Afterwards it was
installed at
Neuchatel,
Switzerland
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(c) Ron Frend 2013
 metallurgical advances that have made possible the

employment of high temperatures in the combustor and
turbine components,
 the cumulative background of aerodynamic and
thermodynamic knowledge, and the utilization of computer
technology in the design and simulation of turbine airfoils
and combustor and turbine blade cooling configurations.
 Combining the above has led directly to improvements in
compressor design (increases in pressure ratio), combustor
design (regenerators, low NOx), turbine design (single crystal
blades, cooling), and overall package performance.
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 Cooper-
Bessemer teamed
up with Pratt &
Whitney Aircraft
to employ a
modified J57 jet
engine (later
identified as a
GG3) as the hot
gas generator for
the RT-248
power turbine.
 J57 turbojet
engines were
used extensively
on the Boeing
707 jet aircraft.
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 Jet engine
◦ expand their hot gases only through a nozzle to produce
thrust
 Turbofan
◦ expand some of the hot gas through a nozzle to create
thrust and the rest of the gas is expanded through a
turbine to drive a fan
 Turboprop
◦ expands virtually all of its hot gases through the turbine
driving the compressor and the attached propeller and no
thrust is created from the gas exiting the exhaust nozzle
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 The JT8D turbofan engine was one of the early “bypass”

engines (BPR 1.7:1). The JT8D-200 series produces over
20,000 pounds “take-off” thrust and powers the McDonnell
Douglas MD-80.
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 The PW4000 turbofan engine is a high “bypass ratio” engine (BPR

5.1:1). This engine produces 68,000 pounds “takeoff” thrust and
currently powers the Airbus A330 wide body twinjet aircraft
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 The PT6/ST6 turboprop engine is a 1,500 shaft horsepower unit

used primarily in aircraft, helicopter, and marine applications.
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 Mechanical drive gas turbines include the steam turbine

derived heavy industrial gas turbines, aero-derivative gas
turbines, and the hybrid industrial gas turbines.
 Typical of the steam turbine derived heavy industrial gas

turbine is the Solar MARS hybrid industrial gas turbine.
 Available in three configurations:

◦ single spool-integral output shaft,
◦ single spool-split output shaft, and
◦ dual spool-split output shaft.
◦ The output shaft may be an extension of the turbine shaft or it
may be an extension of the compressor shaft. When the output
drive shaft is an extension of the turbine component shaft it is
referred to as a “hot end drive.” When the output drive shaft is an
extension of the compressor component shaft it is referred to as a
“cold end drive.”
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 The LM2500 stationary gas turbine was derived from the CF6 “high bypass
ratio” flight engine that powered the C5A, the largest military cargo aircraft
built in the USA. The LM2500 is ISO base load rated at 23 megawatts. This
cross section of the LM2500 includes the six stage power turbine. This power
turbine was derived from the six stage fan-turbine used in a CF6 flight
engine
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 The General Electric Model Series (MS)7000 heavy frame

industrial gas turbine is currently in service throughout the
world. The various models of this machine are ISO base load
rated from 80 megawatts to 120 megawatt
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 The Solar Centaur 50 is an industrial hybrid gas turbine

with an ISO base load rating of 4.35 megawatts.
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 In this configuration the output shaft extension is at the

turbine end where exhaust gas temperatures can reach 800°F
to 1,000°F (427°C to 538°C).
 These temperatures affect bearing operation and life. Also,

this configuration is difficult to service as the assembly must
be fitted through the exhaust duct.
 The designer is faced with a number of constraints such as:

output shaft length, high temperatures (800°F-1000°F
426°C-536°C), exhaust duct turbulence, pressure drop, and
maintenance accessibility. Insufficient attention to any of
these details, in the design process, often results in power
loss, vibration, shaft or coupling failures, and increased
down-time for maintenance.
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 In the cold end drive configuration the output shaft extends

out the front of the compressor.
 Here the driven equipment is accessible, relatively easy to

service, and exposed to ambient temperatures only.
 The single drawback to this configuration is that the

compressor inlet must be configured to accommodate the
output shaft and the driven equipment (electric generator,
pump, compressor, or speed increaser/ decreaser as
necessary).
 This inlet duct must be turbulent free and provide uniform,

vortex free, flow throughout the operating speed range.
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(c) Ron Frend 2013
single spool gas turbine

with a hot end drive
power turbine
dual spool gas

turbine and
free power
turbine
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(c) Ron Frend 2013
 The primary distinction is in the bearing selection where the hybrids

use hydrodynamic bearings (similar to the heavy industrial) and the
aero-derivatives use anti-friction bearings.
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 The key to maintainability is the modular concept, which

provides for the removal of component
◦ Compressor
◦ Combustor
◦ Turbine
The Solar MARS

100 is an industrial
hybrid gas turbine
with an ISO base
279 load rating of 11
megawatts

(c) Ron Frend 2013
 The flexibility of the aero-derivative unit is “weight” and “size”

related.
 For example, an application convenient to a large source of

experienced manpower (with a well-defined base load
requirement, and good quality fuel) is considerably different
from an application in a remote environment (away from
skilled labour, good roads, and subject to varying qualities of
fuel and loading conditions).
 The user must weigh his needs and requirements against the
variety of machines offered.
 The preference has been to place the aero-derivative units in

remotely located applications and to place the heavy
industrial unit in easily accessible base-load applications.
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 Exploded view of the modules that make up the

FT8 aero-derivative gas turbine.
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 Compressors are either the axial design (with up to 19 stages) or the

centrifugal design (with one or two impellers). In the axial
compressor designs, beam and cantilever style stator vanes are
utilized.
 Compressor pressure ratios have increased significantly over the

past forty years with the aero-derivative consistently leading the way
to higher levels. Pressure ratios, which were 5:1 at the start of World
War II have increased to 12:1 for the newer industrial gas turbines.
 Through the use of increased stage loading (variable geometry and

dual-spool techniques), compressor pressure ratios of most recent
aero-derivatives have been increased to greater than 30:1.
 This advancement in the state of the art is a prime contributor in the

overall increase in simple-cycle thermal efficiency to 35% for aero-
derivative gas turbines.
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 Gas turbine problems may be detected by

concentrating on four general areas:
◦ the thermodynamic gas path,
◦ vibration of bearings, rotors, etc.,
◦ lubrication, and
◦ controls.
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 For free power turbine configurations, regardless of the

application, the power is determined by the heat balance
across the power turbine
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 Indications and Corrective Action

◦ 25.5% of gas turbine failures
 Turbine blade oxidation, corrosion and erosion - long
time to failure
 Foreign object damage is usually sudden
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(c) Ron Frend 2013
 Increases the area size of the

turbine nozzle.
 The increased area size is seen

as a decrease in turbine
efficiency
 Parameter changes that can

readily be seen by the operator
are (at constant power):
◦ an increase in fuel flow,
◦ exhaust gas temperature, and
◦ compressor discharge pressure.
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 Once a fault has been isolated

it can be tracked or trended
using both gas path analysis
 Verify by a boroscope
inspection
 Corrosion/erosion affects
blades initially in the airfoil
mid-span. Because blade
loading is more severe than
nozzle loading, less blade
material loss can be tolerated.
 Trailing edge losses are more

tolerable than leading edge
losses.
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(c) Ron Frend 2013
 Usually first noticed as an increase in vibration.
 If the vibration is not severe and stabilizes after the initial

increase, a gas path analysis may help define the extent of
the damage
 This should be followed by a visual or boroscope inspection.

If a boroscope inspection verifies that the damage is
◦ the result of a blade or nozzle being impacted by an object
originating upstream of the turbine section and the
compressor or combustor is not the source of the object
damage, or
◦ the impact damage area is at or near the blade tip, and
vibration is stable and not over limits,
 then the unit can be run until repairs/replacement can be
made
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 Damage or material
loss occurring at the
blade tip will
increase the natural
frequency.
 Damage occurring at
or near the blade
root weakens the
blade structurally
and decreases the
blades natural
frequency
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 A compressor efficiency drop of 2 percent is

indicative of compressor fouling.
 Another indication of fouling is a 3 percent

to 5 percent reduction in load capacity at
constant compressor inlet temperature or
ambient air temperature.
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 Typically, carbo-blast and water-wash are specified,

with water-wash being the first method
recommended.
 Care should be taken in cleaning compressors that

are salt-laden, since the cleaning process will
dump huge quantities of salt into the turbine
resulting in accelerated sulfidation corrosion.
 In some cases, it is recommended that the turbine

also be washed after the compressor is washed.
 Note: Impact damage to compressor blades can
mimic compressor fouling
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 Plugged nozzles and/or combustor and

transition piece failures will always result in
distorted exhaust gas temperature patterns.
 Sometimes an increase in fuel flow can be

seen, depending on the severity of the
damage.
 Changes in burner efficiency produce no

appreciable change in other parameters
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 Distortion in the temperature pattern or

temperature profile not only affects
combustor performance but can have a far
reaching impact on the turbine.
 Turbine blades can be excited both thermally
and structurally by radial variations in
temperature or flow.
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(c) Ron Frend 2013
 Failure of a gas turbine with 800 operating hours was due to

the failure of a portion of the combustor liner.
◦ The failed liner material lodged against the first stage turbine
nozzle and blocked airflow to that quadrant of the turbine.
◦ The subsequent cycling, with each revolution of the turbine wheel,

led to thermal fatigue failure of forth stage turbine blades at the
blade root.
◦ The failed blades so unbalanced the rotor as to dynamically fail

the bearings resulting in further damage and fire.
 The damage, after the liner had failed, could have been
avoided if operations had been monitoring the exhaust gas
temperature profile. Fortunately disaster was averted on a
similar unit when the distortion in the temperature profile led
to the shutdown and inspection of this unit. The combustion
liner had failed in the same place and lodged against the first
stage turbine nozzles.
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 FOD
◦ defined as material (nuts, bolts, ice, etc.) ingested
into the engine from outside the engine envelope.
 DOD
◦ defined as objects from any other part of the
engine itself
 Foreign or domestic object damage accounts
for 10.5% of gas turbine failures
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 Worn or damaged seals may result in oil leaking into the gas path.
◦ Sometimes this leakage will only occur during start-up and shut-down,
when the air pressure is at its lowest and the oil pressure at its normal
level.
 The first clue to oil leakage, depending on the size of the lubrication
oil system, could be a decrease in lube oil level.
◦ For large, combined, lube oil systems, this may not be easily detected.
Internal engine leaks can be detected by smoke in the exhaust during
operation.
◦ Detection is also possible when the engine is shutdown by inspecting for
oil streaks in the exhaust duct and along the compressor ID hubs.
 During operation, worn or damaged seals are more likely to leak hot
air or gas into the oil system. This is normally detected by an
increase in oil temperature and possibly oil frothing.
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Starting
Running
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(c) Ron Frend 2013
 “hot starts” and “hung starts

 Hot Starts
 So called because they produce excessive exhaust gas or
turbine inlet temperatures.
 Sometimes associated with compressor surge.
 Caused by too rich a fuel schedule.
◦ Other causes might be bleed valve malfunction or
variable geometry malfunction or an “out of
calibration” condition.
◦ may be the result of FOD in the compressor
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 Evidenced by very slow acceleration and a

slow increase in exhaust gas or turbine inlet
temperature.
 Usually results from insufficient starter motor
torque or too lean a fuel schedule.
 Failure to start due to a fuel mixture that is
too lean or too rich is not an unusual problem.
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 inability to accelerate (or increase load), or

accelerate too rapidly.
 There are also numerous running problems (such
as miscellaneous trips, aborts, etc.) that are
specific to the type of control method employed.
◦ Pneumatic and hydraulic controls are very susceptible to
leaks and contamination.
◦ In addition pneumatic controls are sensitive to moisture in
the lines, that can result in erratic operation. This often
leads to erratic or otherwise unstable operation.
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 Systems control master selector switch to

local
◦ Engine control circuits armed
◦ On vibration monitor
 Reset Switch depressed
◦ Summary start circuits armed
◦ Red & Amber lights illuminate
◦ Engine READY TO RUN light illuminates
 Reset Switch released
◦ Red & Amber lights extinguish
◦ READY TO RUN remains illuminated
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 Start Switch – Pressed/Released

◦ Start circuits energised – start sequence starts
◦ Green light illuminates
◦ Aux lube pumps starts
◦ Aux seal oil pump starts
 Gas compressor yard valves sequence
◦ Bypass yard valve closes
◦ Loading valve opens (to purge compressor)
 >30 secs vent valve closes & compressor begins to pressurise –
green light illuminates
◦ On pressurisation, suction, discharge & bypass valves open
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 Four minutes after start switch depressed

◦ 1) Pre lube completed
◦ 2) Starter begins crank
◦ Fuel System activated
 Ten seconds after 15% speed
◦ 1) Light off occurs & combustion begins
◦ 2) Engine temperature increases
 Ten seconds after light-off, ignition shut off
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 Engine reaches 60% speed

◦ 1) Start system deactivated
◦ 2) Hour meter starts
 Engine reaches idle speed (~62%)
 Engine speed increased to selected loading
speed
◦ 1) Speed setting indicated on speed setting meter
◦ 2) Bypass valve closes
◦ 3) Aux seal oil pump off
 Compressor now on line
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Traditionally preventive maintenance strategy has focussed on Period based

maintenance. Period based maintenance, although an essential part of a
maintenance programme, can lead to over maintenance of some equipment.

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Life - Replace after failure.
Reactive - Fix it when it breaks.
Preventive - Repair or replace after a set number of hours,

miles or cycles.
Predictive - Carry out work as and only when the equipment

needs it.

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Lamps
Tyres
Alternator

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Water
leaks
Clutch
Window
winder repair
Body corrosion &

damage repair

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Tappets Chassis
lubrication
Wheel
Engine oil alignment
change

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Engine tune-up when

performance drops Emissions test
Wheel bearings
changed when noisy

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 Improved availability
◦ you only work on the machine when needed
◦ fewer unforeseen stoppages
 Avoided secondary damage
 Reduced inventory costs
 Increase in bottom line
profits
Profit
Loss
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 By taking measurements which will tell us

what is going on inside the machine
 Measurement types include:
◦ Vibration analysis
◦ Infrared thermography
◦ Passive ultrasound
◦ Tribology (oil analysis)
◦ Process – temperature, pressure etc

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 How do we start?
 We carry out a
 POTENTIAL FAILURE ANALYSIS

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 The PFA Tree
 The tree is structured in the following way:
Setup

 Interval
 Analysis
 Parameter
 Technology
 Symptom
 Failure Type
 Base Cause

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PFA Press
forMain
anDrive
electric motor
Motor PFA Tree
External
Base Cause Failure Type Technology Parameter The applicableInterval
Analysis parameters Set Up
Manifestation In the last column we specify
Using our experience, we
For example, spalled We then This example
identify for
how will
detecting
that require spalled bearings
We first
Bearing decide what the some
The detectionof the finer details
of spalled to
now
On Linedecide
Fmax =onBPFIthe
x 8 specifics
Dry/Marked Failure High frequency
bearings will lead
Vibration
failure a Demodulation
measurement
to mechanism are
will based
Spikesvelocity
@ Brg defect
show onspectrum and
bearings resonance
possible failuresdefectcould
@ bearing
beintervals bearingsensure
(Ultra Sound) good,
should
frequencies
be practical
(20
carried
dBG) Radial
when carrying out the analysis
frequency
a bearing failure a
itself as somethingvibration we See time
sect. 2.5 waveform in G’s
technology
can detection
measure
G acceleration
out failure
Time continually (On-Line)
Peaks in waveform On Line = 3 revs
Waveform
Spalled Bearing Failure Harmonics of bearing Vibration Velocity Spikes @ Brg defect On Line Fmax = BPFI x 8
bearings defect frequencies freqys. & harmonics (higher if not using
and/or sidebands. resonance parameter)
See sct. 2.5 Radial
Time Peaks @ 12 G (roller) On Line = 3 revs

Waveform 7 G (ball brg) G acceleration
Misalignment Bearing Failure/ High axial vibration Vibration Velocity Multiples of run speed On Line Fmax = 10 x rpm
Shaft Failure axial > radial Axial
Looseness Bearing Failure/ Run speed harmonics Vibration Velocity Multiples of run speed On Line Fmax = 10 x rpm
Shaft Failure/ & subharmonics up to 15x. Possible Vertical
Structural Failure sub-harmonics
Bad S.C.R.s Reduced Power Vibration @ SCR Frqys Vibration Velocity 240 Hz, 1/3 DC pulse, On Line Fmax = 120 kcpm
Motor Burnout s/band on DC(Sect.2.5) Drive End
Changes in SCR temps. Thermography Thermal Image Bad SCR is colder 6 month Compare SCR to SCR
Different current / Current Draw Amps Unbalanced supply 6 month Compare phase to phase
input phase
Winding Motor burnout Stator temp. rise/ Thermography Thermal image Hot spot on stator 6 month 1 baseline
defects Uneven temp. distribution (spot temp)
Earth current leakage Insulation test Megger Should be > 1.5 M  6 month Motor de-energized
Rotor Rotor failure Line frequency + Motor load Motor current Sidebands of slip x No. 6 month Press idling
defects sidebands current analysis frequency of poles around 60 Hz
(Sect. 2.2)
Motor burnout Vibration @ rotor bar Vibration Velocity Sidebands of 1x On Line Fmax = RBPF x 3
pass frequency (Sect 2.2) Radial
319 Ron Frend 2013 c. Ron Frend - PreDiCon
 First define your PFAs

◦ Decide on applicable technologies
◦ Decide on measurement intervals
◦ Decide on measurement strategy
 Maintain copies of PFAs for ISO 9002 audit

compliance

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Easy to collect
Difficult to analyse
Contact measurements

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Compression mode Shear mode

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 Imbalance
 Looseness

Bad Bearings
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 Unbalance
 Misalignment
 Eccentricity
 Bent Shaft
 Shaft Crack
 Mechanical Looseness
 Journal Bearing Faults
 Rolling Element Bearing Faults
 Rotor Rub
 Cavitation
 Electrical Motor Problems
 Gear Faults

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Static Unbalance
•Equal phase on Typical
each bearing Unbalance
•Mainly radial Spectrum
vibration
RPM
Dynamic Unbalance Radial
• Phase changes 180 ° Strong

across bearing unbalance
• Mainly radial may cause
vibration harmonics
Overhung Rotor Unbalance

• Both Radial and horizontal vibration
• Often both Static and Dynamic unbalance
are seen together

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imbalance
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mm/s
A. Parallel misalignment
10
3.1
0.31
mm/s1X 2X 3X
Radial Vibration approx. 180 ° phase shifted

10
2X often highest peak
3.1
B. Angular misalignment 1
0.31
1X 2X 3X
Please Note:
Misalignment usually appears on 1X
Axial Vibration approx.. 0 ° phase shifted component only
1XPumps
Compressor , 2X& or 3 X(c)highest
turbines
327 Ron Frend 2013
misalignment
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mm/s
10
3.1
0.31
1X 2X
• Axial And Radial Vibration

• 180 ° Phase shift in Axial Vibration
• 0 ° Phase shift in radial vibration

329 Ron Frend 2013
10
3.1
0.31
Fan Motor
RPM RPM
• Center of rotation different

from geometrical center
•Vertical an horizontal phase
either equal or 180 ° different

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mm/s
Loose Foundation
10
2X often high
Sub-harmonics 3.1
0.31
.5X 1X 1.5X 2X 3X
Loose shaft mm/s

Often series
of sub harmonic 10
components 3.1
½, 1/3, ... 1/n
1
0.31
.5X 1X 1.5X 2X 3X

331 Ron Frend 2013
looseness
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14/10/2013
mm/
10
3.1
0.31
Truncated Wave form

.5X 1X 1.5X 2X 3X
• Symptoms same as Mechanical

Looseness
• Subharmonics ½ ,1/3 etc.
• Strong Harmonic pattern
Caused by truncation

333 Ron Frend 2013
wo= 0
Oil Instability
10
• normally 42 %- 47 % of
running speed 3.1
wo= ws • May appear from 0.3 -0.7X
1
in some occasions 0.31

• Non Synchronous
wo ~ 0.3 - 0.5 ws 0.43X 1X 2X
mm/
Wear 10
Clearance Problems 3.1
• Harmonic Series 1
of Rotation Speed 0.31
1X 2X 3X 4X 5X 6X 7X 8X 9X 10X...

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Faults in Rolling Element Bearings

are Detected in the High
frequency range or using
enveloping
Envelope Spectra can be used

both for Detection and Diagnosis
of Rolling Element Bearing Faults
No Defects on Rolling Element

Bearing
“Flat” Envelope Spectrum.

335 Ron Frend 2013
Bearing defects
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Rotor Misalignment
1*RPM
Rotor Unbalance
RPM
Radial Tension 2*RPM

of Bearing
2*RPM
Misalignment of
2*BPFO
outer Race
2*BPFO
Slip of Race in Harmonics

the Mounting Seat of RPM
RPM
Increase of
Lubrication Defect Background
level
337 Ron Frend 2013
Fitted Orthogonally
 X-Y @ 45° from
perpendicular
 Orbits
 Axial Displacement of shaft
 Radial displacement of shaft
contains both:
◦ Stationary
◦ Dynamic Vibration (orbit &
spectrum)

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 A 2 dimensional display of time channel 1 versus

time channel 2
 Good for seeing the actual movement of the shaft
centreline
 Usually only used with displacement transducers
 Often requires a low pass or band pass filter

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Easy to use
Good for air leaks and contact measurement
Trouble shooting tool

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 Passive
◦ Air/Vacuum leak detection
◦ Mechanical Condition
 Dynamic
◦ Thickness Checks Bad Brg
◦ Crack Detection
Good Brg

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 Non contact temperature measurement

 Intuitive, easy to understand results
 Extremely sensitive (<0.1C)
 Works on many different types of
equipment (electrical, mechanical,
hydraulic etc.)

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Radiation
Convection
Conduction

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 Non contact
 Non intrusive
 Radiometric capability
 Images stored for history
Visible
Gamma Ultra- Radar TV
X-rays Infra-red Radio
rays violet Microwave FM
10pm 0,1nm 1nm 10nm 1nm 0,1m 1m 10m 100m 0,1cm 1cm 10cm 1m 10m 100m
• As an object gets hotter, it emits more radiation in the infrared part of the
electromagnetic spectrum. With a device that could measure infrared radiation you
could indirectly measure the temperature of an object. We call this device an infrared
camera and we call the science of its use “Infrared Thermography”.

347 Ron Frend 2013
50 1,45 m 2000 K
40
30
20 1,61 m 1800 K
Radiant emittance
10 1,81 m 1600 K
5 105 Solar spectrum

4 (5800 °C)
3 2,29 m 1300 K
2 104
Radiant emittance
1 2,9 m 1000 K
103
0,5
0,4 Visible
0,3 3,62 m 800 K
102 region
0,2
0,1
10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Glowing metal
(600 °C)
Wavelength (m)
1
Human body
(37 °C)
10-1
0,4 0,8 3 5 9,3 50 100
Wavelength (m)

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*>37.1°C
35.0
30.0
25.0 Spot 1 Spot 2
29.6 20.0 Spot 3
20.0
20.1
*<17.2°C

349 Ron Frend 2013
*>49.7°C
Spot 1
• Bearings with lubrication problems, dry 45.2
Area1
push rods or screws, slipping belts, bad 45.0 Min Mean Max
24.8 39.7 49.3
compressor valves, insulation defects,
40.0
bad steam traps - the list goes on and
on. If the defect causes a temperature 35.0
change, we can see it and tell you about
30.0
it.
25.0 Spot 2
45.4 Spot 3
45.6
*<20.0°C

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*>74.0°C
70.0
60.0
• Switch room and bus 50.0
surveys are quick and 40.0 Area4
extremely effective. Min Mean Max

31.0 51.2 73.7
30.0
*<25.3°C

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353 Ron Frend 2013
If it has a wear pattern – we can monitor it so

that maintenance can fix it before it breaks!
354 Ron Frend 2013
177

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14/10/2013

Compressor Pumps & turbines (c)

Compressor Pumps & turbines (c)

Compressor Pumps & turbines (c)

Compressor Pumps & turbines (c)

Compressor Pumps & turbines (c)

Compressor Pumps & turbines (c)

 Combine Boyles Law & Charles Law

Compressor Pumps & turbines (c)

 Van der Waals Equation

a & b adjustable parameters

Compressor Pumps & turbines (c)

 Some van der Waals Constants

Air .1358 3.64x10-5 3.77 133 K

Carbon Dioxide .3643 4.27x10-5 7.39 304.2 K

Water (H2O) .5507 3.04x10-5 22.09 647.3 K

Ammonia (NH3) .4233 3.73x10-5 11.28 406 K

Helium (He) .00341 2.34x10-5 0.23 5.2 K

Freon (CCl2F2) 1.078 9.98x10-5 4.12 385 K

Compressor Pumps & turbines (c)

 Van der Waal’s Equation

Compressor Pumps & turbines (c)

 The deviation from ideal-gas behavior can

Z represents the volume ratio

 Z is known as the compressibility factor.

Compressor Pumps & turbines (c)

 Ideal gas equation: PV=nRT

Compressor Pumps & turbines (c)

Compressor Pumps & turbines (c)

 Thermodynamic Systems and

Compressor Pumps & turbines (c)

Compressor Pumps & turbines (c)

 Applying the ideal gas law (PV=mRT) we get:

Ratio of specific heats

Compressor Pumps & turbines (c)

Compressor Pumps & turbines (c)

Compressor Pumps & turbines (c)

Compressor Pumps & turbines (c)

 f – Schultz real gas

Compressor Pumps & turbines (c)

 The polytropic efficiency is calculated

Compressor Pumps & turbines (c)

Compressor Pumps & turbines (c)

Compressor Pumps & turbines (c)

Follow entropy line up to:

h(ideal) = ((-1675) – (-1640))

h(actual) = h(ideal)/ ad

h2(actual) = (-1675 – (-41)) = -1634

Plotting Actual Process

Compressor Pumps & turbines (c)

Compressor Pumps & turbines (c)

Centrifugal Axial Flow Positive Displacement

Roto-jet Multi-stage Single Stage Rotating Reciprocating

33 Compressor Pumps & turbines (c) Ron Frend 2013

Centrifugal Axial Flow Positive Displacement

Multi-stage Single Stage Rotating Reciprocating

34 Compressor Pumps & turbines (c) Ron Frend 2013

Centrifugal Axial Flow Positive Displacement

Multi-stage Single Stage Rotating Reciprocating

35 Compressor Pumps & turbines (c) Ron Frend 2013

Centrifugal Axial Flow Positive Displacement

Multi-stage Single Stage Rotating Reciprocating

36 Compressor Pumps & turbines (c) Ron Frend 2013