GTU102.2 ING - Vers 2011

OVERHEAD LINE MODEL
DL GTU102.2
Electrical Power Engineering

DL GTU102.2
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CONTENTS
1. THEORETICAL SECTION Page 1
1.1 Introduction Page 1
1.2 Nominal voltages and line cross-section Page 2
1.3 Electrical properties and equivalent circuit diagrams Page 4

1.3.1 Equivalent resistance Page 5
1.3.2 Equivalent inductance Page 6
1.3.3 Equivalent capacitances Page 6
1.3.4 Equivalent circuits Page 7
1.4 Performance characteristics Page 11

1.4.1 No-load operation Page 12
1.4.2 Matched load Page 13
1.4.3 Short-circuit Page 15
1.5 Neutral point connection Page 16

1.5.1 Isolated neutral point system Page 17
1.5.2 Earth fault neutralizer Page 18
1.5.3 Low resistance neutral earthing Page 19
1.6 Asymmetrical short-circuits Page 20

1.6.1 Two-phase to earth fault Page 22
1.6.2 Phase-to-phase unearthed fault Page 23
1.6.3 One-line to earth fault Page 24
1.7 Reactive power compensation Page 25

1.7.1 Parallel compensation Page 25
1.7.2 Series compensation Page 27
1.7.3 Other types of compensation Page 28
2. INFORMATIONS Page 29
2.1 Experiment components Page 29

2.2 Model scale Page 29
2.3 Instruments and equipments Page 30
2.4 Safety procedures Page 30
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EXPERIMENTS
EXPERIMENTS N°1
No-load performances Page 33
EXPERIMENTS N°1.1: No-load operation Page 34

EXPERIMENTS N°1.2: Concept of operating capacitance Page 36
EXPERIMENTS N°1.3: Line with increased operating capacitance Page 38
EXPERIMENTS N°2
Matched-load performances Page 41
EXPERIMENTS N°3
Three-phase short-circuit Page 45
EXPERIMENTS N°4
Ohmic-inductive load Page 49
EXPERIMENTS N°5
Ohmic-capacitive load Page 53
EXPERIMENTS N°6
Isolated neutral point system: fault-to-earth Page 57
EXPERIMENTS N°7
Petersen suppression coil Page 61
EXPERIMENTS N°8
Asymmetrical short-circuits Page 65
EXPERIMENTS N°8.1: Two-phase short-circuit with earth contact Page 66

EXPERIMENTS N°8.2: Two-phase short-circuit without earth contact Page 68
EXPERIMENTS N°8.3: Single-phase short-circuit Page 70
EXPERIMENTS N°9
Parallel compensation Page 73
EXPERIMENTS N°10
Series compensation Page 77
EXPERIMENTS N°11
Zero-phase impedance Page 81
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1. THEORETICAL SECTION
1.1 Introduction
For economic reasons, overhead power lines are mainly used to transmit electrical energy from the
power stations to the consumer, whereas in densely populated urban areas the power can only be
supplied via cables.
Both means of transmission, overhead lines and cables, are included in the general term "line". In
addition to the different costs, the respective technical properties also play a considerable role in the
selection of suitable means of transmission, as will demonstrated in the following sections.
In principle, there are three possible means of power transmission:
 ac single-phase systems,
 ac three-phase systems and
 dc systems (high-voltage dc transmission).
Today, the public supply of power take place almost without exception using three-phase current
with frequency of 50 Hz (60 Hz in Anglo-Saxon countries).Due to the phase shift of the three
currents in a three-phase system, a rotating field is created, which is ideally suited for use by the
consumer for drive purposes, e.g. for connection of an asynchronous motor. Furthermore, three-
phase systems (at least in a low-voltage system) provide the consumer with two different voltage
levels, allowing him to install his equipment economically.
As three-phase systems show either inductive or capacitive performance, depending on the load, a
reactive power compensation in the line is required for reasons of stability when transmission line
beyond a certain length are used.
The line length achievable without compensation (the so-called "critical line length") is approx 800
km for overhead lines, but only about 40 km for cables. Submarine cables - for example the
connection of an island to the mains - can thus only be realized for shorter distances, as
compensation installations cannot be used in this case. Only the third means of power transmission
can be considered, namely the high-voltage dc transmission (HVDC). HVDC systems are used
today for overhead lines, e.g. in the USA and Canada, where great distances must be spanned. In
addition, they have also been found useful as submarine cable connections to islands.
On account of the overriding importance of three-phase technology, the following sections only
deal with the properties of this means of transmission, and mainly with reference to high-voltage
overhead transmission lines. During the experiment the performance characteristics of a
transmission line are investigated under various load conditions. Circuit configurations are then
connected for the demonstration of various neutral point connections in three-phase mains systems;
here asymmetrical short-circuits are also simulated. In another set of experiments questions
regarding reactive power compensation are then dealt with.
We have to point out here that in actual practice the neutral point connection selected is not a
random choice but depends on technical and economic factors and is primarily determined by the
nominal voltage of the respective system level. The same is also true for the area of reactive power
compensation. However, in order to keep the number of components down to a reasonable level, all
the experiments carried out in this program are performed on the 380 kV transmission line model.
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1.2 Nominal voltages and line cross-section
The level of the transmission voltage is determined according to the power to be transmitted and the
distance between the generator and the consumer. By general agreement, the voltage occurring
between two outer conductors of a three-phase system is termed the nominal voltage. For reasons of
uniformity, the following standardized voltages are preferred in agreement with DIN 40002.
UN (kV) Voltage level Applications

0.4 Low voltage Household, small consumer
Larger consumer, rural and urban
20 Medium voltage
areas
110 High voltage Larger cities, overhead land lines
Densely populated areas,
220/380 Ultra-high voltage
interconnected network
This division into low, medium, high and ultra-high voltages is an arbitrary determination on the
part of the electrical utilities. The CEI and VDE regulations, on the other hand, only distinguish
between low voltage (up to 1000 V) and high voltage (over 1000 V).
The cross-section of the transmission line must be selected in such a way that the voltage losses on
the way to the consumer are not too large and that no excessive current densities occur which would
cause an unacceptable heating of the transmission line material. This results in economic cross-
sections, which are also standardized for reasons of uniformity.
If copper or aluminium are used for cables due to their good conductivity, at least a part of the wire
strands of the overhead transmission lines must be made of steel, in order to increase the tensile
strength. Today, wire strands consisting of single wires are preferred, in which the steel wires
provide the necessary tensile strength and aluminium wires transport the current. In addition, two to
four conductor strands per phase are strung about 40 cm apart for high and ultra-high voltage
overhead transmission lines to reduce the electrical field strength on the conductor surfaces. This
arrangement is referred to as a multiple conductor.
Due to the symmetrical current and voltage relationships, a neutral conductor line carried with the
other lines would be without current. As a result, it is sufficient to transmit the three phases to the
consumer.(In the case of overhead lines with steel braced masts, an additional strand, which runs
from mast top to mast top, serves exclusively as lightning protection. Today, in its interior you will
often find additional components stemming from information technology, e.g. to transmit measured
values for system protection).The electrical utilities industry also often describes the three phases of
a three-phase system as a single system.
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The following Fig. 1 shows the dimension of the most common braced masts for two systems.
Fig. 1 Transmissible power and voltage level
Since the prescribed minimum distances between the conductors themselves and between the
conductors and the earth's surface must be guaranteed also in the case of wind, snow or ice, the
mast dimensions reach considerable proportions with increasing nominal voltage.
The maximum transmissible power through a line is determined by the physical limit values for
current and voltage; this power is designated the thermal limit rating.
The following are examples of cross-sections of aluminium/steel high-voltage overhead

transmission lines (the first number is the aluminium cross-section, the second is the steel cross-
section; a number in front refers to the number of individual wire strands for multiple conductors).
UN (kV) Cross-section (mm2) Thermal limit rating (MVA)

0.4 120/20 14
20 240/40 135
110 2 x 240/40 492
220/380 4 x 240/40 1700
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1.3 Electrical properties and equivalent circuit diagrams
When operating a transmission line with three-phase current, the leakage losses G and the inductive
L and capacitive C properties of the arrangement, as well as the resistance R of the conductor
material must be taken into consideration. As these values are evenly distributed along the
transmission line in the form of quantities per unit length, the following equivalent circuit diagram
with concentrated circuit components applies only to short lines.
Fig. 2 Equivalent circuit diagram of a three-phase short line
The conductance value G refers to the leakage losses arising from the limited insulation capability
of cables or from leakage currents along the insulators and corona losses on the surfaces of the wire
strands of the overhead transmission lines.
The line inductances L comprise the magnetic field which forms in a current flow at the rated
frequency. The inductive reactances are of the same order of magnitude for cables and overhead
lines; the values for overhead line are somewhat higher, due to the greater conductor spacings.
The line capacitances CE and CL describe the magnetic field created when a voltage of the rated
frequency is applied. Some basic differences must be taken into consideration here: the capacitances
of cables are significantly greater than those of overhead lines, due to the closer spacings of the
conductors from each other, and due to insulation material. This severely limits the areas in which
cables can be used, as will be demonstrated later.
Furthermore, the question of whether each conductor in a cable is individually screened (single-
conductor cable) or whether all three conductors have a common screen (three-conductor cable),
plays an important role in this respect. In overhead power lines, on the other hand, capacitances CL
between the conductors and capacitances CE between the conductors and ground are always present
(see Fig. 2). In the literature the capacitances between the conductors are also frequently referred to
as coupling capacitances.
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In actual practice, an efford is made to construct overhead transmission lines symmetrically with
respect to the capacitances. When the three conductors are arranged in the form of an equilateral
triangle, the distances from each other are equal, but not the distances from each conductor to
ground. A symmetry with respect to ground is achieved by cyclically exchanging the conductors at
certain intervals (so-called "twisting"). In the case of an asymmetrical fault (and also asymmetrical
load) the current not only flows through the three outer conductors but also flows back to the
feeding location via the earth and possibly via an earth wire or the conductive cable shearing.
This return line possesses the character of an ohmic-inductive impedance. In the equivalent circuit
diagram shown in Fig. 2 this is referred to as the earth return line and is represented by an ohmic
resistor RE and an inductor LE.
The determination of the electrical values of a line through calculation is very complex, as the
conductor material, the geometry and, in some cases, the insulation materials are included in the
equations. Here, only the required equations for overhead lines are given; any inference in the
context is dispensed with.
In order to avoid the complex calculations, normally reference tables are used, in which the data is
usually given for one kilometer of line length for the most commonly constructed lines and cables.
1.3.1 Equivalent resistance

R
A
where  = line lenght

 = resistivity of conductor material
A = line cross-section
For aluminium at a temperature of 20 °C it is sufficiently accurate to say:
mm 2
  28 
km
The steel component of the stranded conductor contributes only very slightly to current
transmission and is to be neglected here. Attention should be paid to the fact that an increase of the
actual line length by 6 to 8% occurs through the so-called conductor strand lay.
The conductor cross-section A is also continually subject to certain tolerances.
As a result, the following rule of thumb for a kilometer length of line at 20 °C is often used in
practice for aluminium strands:
32
R ( ) 
A
where A = cross-section in mm2.
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1.3.2 Equivalent inductance
The inductance of a kilometer of a twisted, symmetrical multiple conductor line n with equal
subconductors, is calculated according to the following approximation equation:
100  0  d gmi 0.25 

L  ln  
2  rB n 
where dgmi is the geometrical mean value for the conductor spacings and m is the equivalent radius
for multiple conductor lines.
For this following applies:
d gmi  3 d 12  d 23  d 31
(d12 etc = spacing of the conductors from each other),

n = number of subconductors,
rB  n n r a n 1
(r = radius of a conductor; a = spacing of the subconductors of a multiple conductor line),
0 = 1.257 · 10-6 Vs/Am, permeability of free space.
1.3.3 Equivalent capacitances
The capacitances CL and CE for a kilometer length of a three-phase single cable line with earth wire
can be calculated using the following approximation equations:
2h
1000  2   0  ln
d gmi
CL 
d gmi 2h
3 ln  in
rB rB  d gmi
3 2
1000  2   0
CE 
  h  h0  
2
  ln 
  

2h
3 ln 
 3 rB  d gmi
2 2h 
ln 0
 r0 
 
where dgmi is the geometrical mean value for the conductor spacings, h geometrical average of the
line height and do geometrical average distance from earth wire to the other conductors.
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For these the following applies:
d gmi  3 d 12  d 23  d 31
h  3 h1  h 2  h 3
h0 = medium height of the earth wire,
rB = equivalent radius as in calculation of the inductance,
d 0  3 d 10  d 20  d 30
r0 = radius of the earth wire,
0 = 8.8 · 10-12 As/Vm, permittivity of free space.
1.3.4 Equivalent circuits
With the exception of the low-voltage system, it is desirable for reasons of operation to operate the
lines symmetrically, i.e. to apply the load to all three phases in the same manner. Thus, the three
voltages and currents are equal and shifted by 120° from each other in normal operation. For this
reason, it is sufficient when we consider only one phase in our subsequent investigations, and to
work with the following single-phase equivalent circuit diagram.
Fig. 3 Single-phase equivalent circuit of a three-phase line
In the four-pole theory, this system is referred to as a symmetrical π-element on account of its form.
It should be noted that so-called phase voltages are also always to be expected in the single-phase
representation, i.e. voltages occurring between one phase and ground.
All power values calculated for the single-phase representation must be multiplied by a factor of 3
when referring them to the three-phase system. The resistance, transverse conductance and the
inductance of a line are given by the quantities R, G and L, just as in the three-phase equivalent
circuit diagram. The so-called operating capacitance Cb is introduced here as an equivalent quantity
for including the capacitances between conductors and between conductors and ground (see Fig. 2).
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The operating capacitance should have the same effect as the two capacitances mentioned above,
i.e. it should consume the same reactive power. With the capacitances CE and CL in the three-phase
equivalent circuit diagram and the requirement of equal power in both representations, the
following equation applies:
CB = CE + 3 CL
The operating capacitance and the transverse conductance in the single-phase π equivalent circuit
diagram are divided equally between the beginning and end of the line, in order to avoid an
additional node in the middle section of the line (In the four-pole theory, the latter circuit is called a
T-element on account of its form).
As previously mentioned, resistances, transverse conductances, inductances and capacitances are in

reality distributed over the entire length of the line in the form of quantities per unit lengths.
(Quantities per unit length are mostly given as variables with dashes: e.g. R' = 0.1 /km). In order
to create an exact model, it is thus necessary to conceive of a line with
the length / from an infinite number of elements with the differential length ωl.
From this concept the so-called transmission line equations are derived, which are necessary for the
exact calculation of long distance electrical lines. In this context it would seem sensible to delve
into the complex representation of line parameters.
The use of complex symbols in ac and three-phase technology permits, for example, the
simultaneous representation of magnitude and phase of voltages and currents. When not otherwise
specified these values are understood to be effective values. Phase shifts of ±90° are particularly
easy to depict using the so-called complex operator j   1 .
Complex resistances are designated impedances. They provide information on both the active
component (resistance) as well as the reactive component (reactance) of an ac resistance. There are
two equally good mathematical forms of representation, namely the Cartesian form (for
representing active and reactive components) and the polar form (for the representation of
magnitude and phase).
In the following, complex symbols are always underlined; their graphic representation in the
Gaussian numerical plane is carried out using so-called vectors or phasors. Using vector diagrams
the current and the voltage ratios of an ac or three-phase circuit can be presented clearly and
interpreted without having any detailed knowledge of the complex calculation. In the line equations
a factor appears which is described as characteristic wave impedance ZW. ZW is a complex number
and is calculated according to the following equation:
R  j L R ' jL'
Zw  
G  j C B G ' jC B '
where  = 2f is the angular frequency of the used voltage.

Another complex factor appearing in the transmission line equations is referred to as the
propagation constant; for this the following applies:
    j  R ' jL'  G ' jC B '
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Thus the line equations are generally expressed in the following form using hyperbolic functions :
U 1  ch      U 2  Z w  sh      I 2
I1  sh       ch      I 2
U2
Zw
(Index 1 refers to the beginning of the line; index 2 refers to the end of the line).
If the respective complex values of the voltage and the current at one end of the line are known,
then the relationships at the other end of the line can be calculated using the equations given above.
For economic reasons the transmission lines in electrical power transmission technology are always
designed in such a fashion so that their ohmic losses are small in relation to the inductive and
capacitive losses.
Consequently the following is true:
R <<  L and G <<  CB
and lines with these characteristics are described as low-loss.

If R and G are completely ignored then one speaks of a no-loss line.
In these cases characteristic wave impedance and propagation constant are simplified into real
values:
Zw 
L'
   L'  C B '   0
CB '
The line equations thus take the following simplified form:
U 1  cos      U 2  j  Z w  sin      I 2
U2
I1  j  sin       cos      I 2
Zw
It is true that no-loss line cannot realized in practice, nevertheless the simplifications made above
are even more applicable, the higher the voltage levels to be considered.
In order to investigate the stationary performance. The performance in the settled condition a
simulation using one or, if necessary, more π elements is sufficient; in this case, the quantities per
unit length are added together into compound circuit elements. This simplification is sufficiently
accurate for those line lengths used in actual practice.
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For basic considerations, which are not used for quantitative evaluations, lines transmitting high and
ultra-high voltage levels can only be modelled through an inductance and capacitance
Fig. 4 Single-phase equivalent circuit diagram of a loss-free three-phase line
This equivalent circuit diagram is sufficient for displaying some of the basic characteristics of a line
in operation. At least the equivalent resistance is to be taken into account for additional
considerations (e.g. determination of efficiency).
In the experiment found in this manual, this type of low-loss transmission line is simulated. The
actual line on which this simulation is based has a length of 360 km and the following data:
380 kV overhead transmission line on braced mast, cross-section 4 x 240/40 mm2
Ohmic resistance at 20 °C R' = 0.036 /km

Line inductance L' = 0.805 mH/km
Capacitance conductor-conductor CL' = 2.78 nF/km
Capacitance conductor-ground C E' = 5.556 nF/km
Operating capacitance CB' = 13.889 nF/km
Characteristic impedance Zw = 240 
Thermal limit rating Sth = 1700 MVA
Return line resistance R E' = 0.031 /km
Return line inductance LE' = 0.694 mH/km
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1.4 Performance characteristics
The investigation of the operating performance of a transmission line may be limited to the
following three characteristic cases.
In order to better understand these three operating cases, they are to be graphically displayed in the
form of a vector or phasor diagram. In general, vector diagrams are used for networks operated with
sinusoidal voltages in order to better illustrate the processes.
The representation of an ac quantity as a vector makes two statements about this quantity: namely
about the value (vector length) and the phase relation (vector direction).The sinusoidal curve of the
quantity can be recorded as a projection of the rotating point of the vector on the ordinate of the
coordinate system; the angular velocity ω is equal to the circuit frequency 2πf of the oscillation.
Expressed the other way round, a vector represents a snapshot of a sinusoidal phenomenon. Vectors
can be geometrically added and subtracted, thus allowing, e.g., the voltage drops in a network to be
easily illustrated. In this connection, the use of the complex calculations in which the vectors are
shown in the Gaussian plane is favorable. By multiplication by the complex operator j, for example,
a 90° rotation of a vector is achieved. However, complex representations are used here only when
the relationships shown in the vector diagrams are to be evaluated mathematically. One vector is
selected arbitrarily as the reference vector with the phase angle 0°. All other angles in the vector
diagram are with reference to this. For practical reasons, the voltage vector at the line end is
selected as the reference vector when representing the operating performance of a transmission line.
The following illustrations show the single phase equivalent circuit diagram of a loss-free
transmission line in the operating cases described below with the currents, voltages and voltage
drops indicated; the respective combined voltage and current vector diagram is included.
The following uniform indices are used for the representations:

 beginning of line = index 1
 end of line = index 2
 neutral point = index 0
With regard to the experiment procedure, it must be mentioned that the relationships barely change
when studying low-loss transmission lines, as the effective resistance R of the high and ultra-high
voltage lines is equal to approximately 10% of the reactance X = ωL in the most unfavourable case.
Due to the geometric addition of the voltage drops, the mathematical treatment becomes much more
complex, while the results deviate insignificantly from those determined through the study of a loss-
free transmission line. In order not to lose sight of what is important, the following derivations refer
to the loss-free transmission line.
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1.4.1 No-load operation
This case exists when the nominal voltage is present at one end of the transmission line, while the
other end is not under load.
Under certain circumstances, the voltage at the open transmission line end increases to
impermissible values due to the line capacitances. This phenomenon is called the Ferranti effect and
represents a dangerous state in greater line lengths, which must be compensated by the network
protection system. In a weakened form, the Ferranti effect also occurs when the network is
subjected to a weak load e.g. at night.
Fig. 5 Single-phase equivalent circuit diagram of a loss-free line in no-load operation, with
appropriate vector diagram.
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In the no-load case, there is no load at the end of the transmission line, i.e I2 = 0.
Given a voltage U2 at the line end (phase-to-neutral voltage),the voltage at the beginning of the line
is found by adding the voltage drop UL across the line inductor geometrically to U2.
The voltage drop UL is determined by the current I12 = I20 across the capacitance CB/2 at the line
end.
The following equation applies:
C
I 20  U 2 j  B and U L  I 20 j  L
2
For the current I1 at the beginning of the line,
CB
I1  I10  I12 with I10  U 1 j 
2
As I10 and I12 are pure reactive currents, the phase angle φ1 between current and voltage at the
beginning of the line is exactly 90°.
The current flowing in the no-load case is termed the charging current; the associated power is
called charging power.
As may be seen from the above relationships, the increase in voltage at the line end is dependent on
the value of the operating capacitance CB. The Ferranti effect is stronger for cables, on account of
their greater values for CB, than for overhead transmission lines. In addition, the charging current is
proportional to the transmission length and very quickly reaches its thermal limit current in cables,
so that the line is at full capacity even in no-load operation, and real power transmission can no
longer take place.
If the influence of the effective resistance is considered (low-loss transmission line), a slight
weakening of the Ferranti effect may be observed due to the voltage drop across R. For this reason,
the low-loss transmission line also consumes some active power in no-load operation.
1.4.2 Matched load
This operating case is present when the transmission line is terminated (i.e. matched) by an ohmic
consumer resistance equivalent to the characteristic impedance. The power transmitted in this case
is called natural load. The line current is just large enough for the reactive power consumption of
the line inductor and capacitance to cancel; the transmission line thus does not require any external
reactive power for operation. As, in this case, the active power losses in transmission are minimal in
real transmission lines (i.e. low-loss), this is to be viewed as the optimum case. However, the load
on a system changes constantly according to the performance of the consumers. Operation with
natural load thus seldom occurs. When the current in the transmission line changes, the reactive
power balance is disturbed. If the current is lower, the line acts capacitively.
If the current increases, the line has an inductive performance.
In both cases, the active power losses increase in real transmission lines. If the voltage at the
beginning of the line is kept constant, an increase in the voltage may be noted at the line end
lagging operation (cf. no-load as limiting case).The voltage at the line end drops in leading
operation (cf. short-circuit as limiting case).
In order to guarantee the consumer a constant voltage, the voltage must be regulated at the
supplying transformer in the case of changing system loads.
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The load capability of overhead transmission lines (i.e. the thermal limit rating) is significantly
higher than the natural load.
In practical operation, the overhead transmission lines are most often loaded in leading mode.
High-voltage cables, on the other hand, usually have a maximum thermal load which is lower than
the natural load. In this case, only lagging operation is possible.
Fig. 6 Single-phase equivalent circuit diagram of a loss-free line and the

corresponding vector diagram.
In matched-load operation, the transmission line is terminated with an ohmic resistance having the
value of the characteristic impedance.
The consumer current I2 is in-phase with the voltage U2.

The current
C
I 20  U 2  B
2
flows across the capacitance CB/2 at the line end.

When both currents are geometrically added together, the result is the current I12, which flows
across the line inductor and causes the voltage drop UL = ω L I12 across it. The voltage UL is
perpendicular to I12.
The voltage U1 at the beginning of the transmission line is equal to the geometric sum of U2 and UL.
Finally, when the direction of U1 is known, the current I10 through the capacitance CB/2 at the
beginning of the line can be determined. The geometric sum of I12 and I10 is the current I1 at the
beginning of the line.
It is characteristic of this mode of operation that the resulting current I1 is in phase with the voltage
U1; the transmission line with consumer only consumes active power. In loss-free transmission
lines, the voltages U1 and U2 have the same value. In the case of the low-loss transmission line, U1
is somewhat greater than U2, since the voltage drop across the line resistance must-be compensated.
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1.4.3 Short-circuit
In this case, the consumer resistance is short-circuited by a fault (by metal or by arcing) so that a
very high line current flows.
A distinction must be drawn between symmetrical (three-pole) and asymmetrical (one or two-pole)
short circuits.
Only the three-pole fault can be represented in the single-phase equivalent circuit diagram. That is
why only this type of fault is examined in the following experiment.
When a short-circuit occurs, the transmitted power is generally much greater than the thermal limit
rating of the transmission line.
The faulty condition must thus be recognized by the network protection device and switched off
within shortest possible time.
Fig. 7 Single-phase equivalent circuit diagram of loss-free line with short-circuit and
corresponding vector diagram.
In this type of operation, the transmission line is short-circuited at the end, i.e. I2 = I12 et U2 = 0.
The current I1 at the beginning of the transmission line results from the geometric addition of the
currents I10 through the operating capacitance CB/2 at the beginning of the line and I12 through the
line inductor.
The phase-angle 1 between U1 and I1 is exactly 90°; for low-loss transmission lines, it is still
about 85°.
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1.5 Neutral point connection
In three-phase mains systems, the neutral point can be earthed in various ways. A distinction is
drawn between systems with an isolated neutral system (i.e. unconnected), systems with earthed-
neutral system and those with low-resistance or temporary low-resistance neutral earthing.
Neutral earthing is described as direct if it contains no additional resistors other than the resistance
of the earthing system. In another case - if current limiting resistors or inductors are connected into
the earth conductor - it is called indirect earthing. On the other hand, the neutral point systems still
considered as isolated, if it is earthed via high ohmic measurement and protective devices or surge
voltage protectors.
The manner in which the neutral point is connected does not play a role in the normal operation of
networks with symmetrical voltages and currents, since the return conductor (neutral line or earth)
is then constantly without current. Only when an asymmetrical fault with earth contact (so-called
earth fault or earth short-circuit, depending on the method of earthing) occurs, does the actual
method, in connection with the voltage levels of the network, on which the performance during the
duration of the fault and the consequent dangers depend, become more significant. This is
especially applicable with respect to the magnitude of the fault current in the case of fault to earth or
short-circuit to earth and the voltage increase of the "healthy" phases unaffected by the fault.
Since the most common faults occurring are fault to earth and short-circuit to earth, the effects of
the various possibilities of neutral point connection preferred for this case should be considered and
compared to each other.
Quantitatively, the connection of the neutral point systems described by the so-called earth fault
factor δ: the factor δ is the quotient of ULE (voltage between an unaffected outer conductor and earth
when there is fault to earth of a conductor) and U N / 3 (phase voltage at the same location of the
network in disturbance free operation), as indicated in the following Fig.8.
Fig.8 – Voltages for definition of the factor 
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The greater the earth fault factor, the higher the voltage stress on the unaffected phases in a single-
line to earth fault.
Due to the increased insulation requirement, an effort is made to keep the earth fault factor as small
as possible at least in the field of ultra high voltage systems. On the other hand, a small earth fault
factor results in a high fault current, which must be detected by the network protection and
disconnected as soon as possible.
Networks connected via transformers are galvanically isolated from each other and consequently
permit various neutral point connections. Separate partial networks constructed in this manner with
individual neutral point connection is described as partial network.
1.5.1 Isolated neutral point system
In power systems with isolated neutral point connection only a low current flows in the case of
earth fault. This is described as fault-to-earth current. The system can still be operated for a short
period with fault-to-earth; in systems with overhead lines, an arc which has caused the fault is
extinguished, often automatically. The voltage increase in the unaffected phases during the fault is a
disadvantage. As the following Fig. 9 shows, the magnitude of the fault-to-earth current is
essentially determined by the earth capacitance CE of the line alone.
Fig. 9 Fault-to-earth in a network with isolated neutral point
Under the condition that the equivalent resistance of the power line is disregarded, the following is
applicable for the amount of the fault-to-earth current.
IE  3 U  CE
with U = UN = voltage at the fault location before the fault occurs. (Any inference regarding this
relationship is only possible using the method of the symmetrical components. This method is
introduced in the next chapter and is applied during the examination of asymmetrical faults).
Since the earth capacitance is proportional to the length of the line, the earth fault current increases
with increasing extent of the power system (the capacitances of transformers and consumers can be
disregarded in this context). As a result, systems with isolated neutral point connection may only
have a limited extent.
A typical example for application of this type of neutral point connection are the auxiliary systems
in power stations, to which the above mentioned requirement applies.
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1.5.2 Earth fault neutralizer
As shown in the previous section, in the case of earth fault current a practically pure capacitive
current is dealt with, which can assume dangerously high values in extended power systems. If a
supply inductor with a specific value XE is connected into the fault circuit, then the fault-to-earth
current is neutralized or "extinguished"; i.e. practically disappears. The inductor is called an earth-
fault neutralizer, or Petersen suppression coil after its inventor.
Fig. 10 Earth fault in a network with Petersen coil
Since the earth capacitances vary in the case of varying power system relationships (connection and
disconnection of lines),the inductance of Petersen coil must be also variable. Therefore, plunger
coils or coils with taps are used, which are connected into the earth line to neutral point connections
of the transformers at selected locations of the power system.
The mathematical determination of the inductance required for neutralization is again only possible
using the method of symmetrical components.
The following condition applies for the reactance of the earth fault neutralizer:
1
XE 
3  CE
Since the fault current also has an active component due to the constantly present line resistances,
total compensation is not possible.
The active component amounts to approximately 10% of the fault current and is described as the
unbalanced residual earth current
If an arc is located at the fault location in an overhead power system, then this is extinguished
automatically when there is sufficiently small residual current present, and the partial network
affected does not need to be switched off. Here lies the great technical and economic importance of
earth-fault neutralizes in overhead lines and combined overhead lines and cable networks. In pure
cable networks there in no possibility of arc extinguishing in the case of a fault; only a limiting of
the fault current can take place.
At the same time the danger of a fault spreading through the system is reduced.
At a certain voltage amplitude the unbalanced residual current is in any case so great that
extinguishing of the arc can no longer take place. Consequently, Petersen coils are normally used in
the medium and high voltage power systems.
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1.5.3 Low resistance neutral earthing
In this method of earthing, one or more neutral points are earthed directly or via a low value
resistor.
This type of earthing is used in cable networks of the high voltage level and in cable and overhead
line networks of the ultra high voltage level.
Direct neutral point earthing is preferred.
The primary advantage here is due to the small earth fault factor, i.e. there is a small voltage
increase of the unaffected phases in the case of an earth fault. This provides cost advantages for the
line insulation and the insulation of the connected transformers. However, the current is very high
for single-line faults and can reach the value of the three-phase short-circuit current. To make this
point clear, this fault current, unlike the fault currents for the methods of earthing, is described as
short-circuit to earth current.
This type of fault must be cut out as quickly as possible by the network protection devices.
Finally, the following table shows a comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of the
standard methods of earthing.
Types of earthing
isolated: earth fault neutralizer: low resistance earthing:
Type of fault: fault to earth fault to earth short-circuit to earth
Fault current: low low high
Switch-off required: not immediately fault usually disappears immediately

by itself
Earth fault factor: large large small
Voltage increase in the yes yes no

unaffected phases:
Insulation requirements: high high low
Fig. 11 Advantages and disadvantages of the common earthing methods
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1.6 Asymmetrical short-circuits
For the purpose of calculation, a three-phase network can be represented by a single-phase network
as long as it is symmetrically loaded (this also applies for the case of a three-phase short-circuit).
For the case of asymmetrical operating conditions (e.g. single-line or two-phase short-circuit), the
single-phase representation of the conditions is no longer sufficient. A calculation method,
conceived by Fortescue, the so-called "method of symmetrical components", is now generally used
for these case. Here, the asymmetrical three-phase system is reduced to symmetrical systems which
are decoupled with respect to each other (so-called component systems) on which the standard
calculations can then be applied.
The two resulting symmetrical systems with three phases phase-shifted by 120° with respect to each
other are called positive-phase and negative-phase sequence systems; the third system with three
currents or voltages of equal phase is designated the zero-phase sequence system. The zero-phase
sequence system is always absent if the three-phase system under consideration is a three-conductor
system without a return conductor (earth, earth wire, cable sheath, neutral conductor).
Initially, there is no relationship between the component systems.

It is only through the asymmetrical fault that a characteristic circuit connection is produced for the
corresponding fault type.
The linkage of symmetrical voltage components with other symmetrical voltage components results
in the terms of positive-phase sequence impedance, negative-phase sequence impedance and zero-
phase sequence impedance.
Positive-phase sequence impedance Zm = Um/Im

Negative-phase sequence impedance Zg = Ug/Ig
Zero-phase sequence impedance Z0 = U0/I0
The positive-phase sequence impedance Zm of an electrical unit is the quotient of the phase voltage
and the conductor current when supplied from a positive-phase sequence system. This is equal to
the working impedance for transmission lines, the short-circuit impedance for transformers and
reactor coils, and for generators the effective generator impedance at the moment of the short-
circuit.
The negative-phase sequence impedance Zg of a unit is the quotient of the phase voltage and the
conductor current when supplied from a symmetrical negative-phase sequence system. For static
installation (e.g. lines and transformers) the negative-phase sequence impedance is equal to the
positive-phase impedance, as the phase sequence has no effect on the level of the current flowing.
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The zero-phase sequence impedance Z0 of an electrical apparatus is the quotient of the voltage and
the current when all three phases are supplied with a single ac voltage.
The three phases of the apparatus are parallel and comprise the feed conductor, while a fourth
conductor (neutral conductor, earth, earth-wire, cable jacket, cable armor) serves as the common
return line. Thus this common return line carries three times the zero-phase sequence current.
Mathematically the following value results:
Z0 = Zm + 3 · ZE
where Zm = positive-phase sequence impedance
ZE = return line impedance
From this definition, it follows that the zero-phase sequence impedance is always with reference to
star connection of the apparatus. Equipment in a delta connection cannot be assigned to a zero-
phase sequence impedance.
There is no generally valid relationship between the zero-phase sequence impedance and the
positive or negative-phase sequence impedances of an apparatus. In transmission lines, for example,
the zero-phase sequence impedance is dependent on the type of line (overhead line or cable), the
line construction (earth-wire or cable jacket or armor) as well as the conductivity of the soil, which
assumes a part of the function of the return line.
The basis for studying the individual types of short circuits is the network illustrated in the
following Fig. 12, consisting of generator, transformer and transmission line.
Fig. 12 Network for individual types of short circuits
According to the EEC regulations, a network without load is assumed for the calculations. The
operating capacitances of the line are to be ignored. In the above figure, Z is the earth impedance of
the network, with a value from 0 (directly earthed neutral point) and infinity (floating neutral point),
depending on the type of neutral point connection. In order to determine the fault currents for the
individual types of short circuits, the symmetrical components method is applied. Depending on the
type of short-circuit, certain conditions may be stipulated which, when transferred to the component
level, determine how the component systems are connected to each other. The generator voltage
also remains symmetrical under asymmetrical loads, that is, the asymmetry of the network is caused
solely by the respective fault.
For this reason, the effective generator voltage in the component systems appears only in the
positive-phase sequence system, while the negative and zero-phase sequence systems do not supply
any power. The voltage present when the short circuit occurs is referred to as the initial voltage or
subtransient voltage E". In order to stay on the sure side during the calculation, normally the value
1.1  U N 3 is used for it (single-phase representation!).
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1.6.1 Two-phase to earth fault
As shown in Fig. 13, connection of the two outer conductor L2 and L3 to earth is the precondition
for the two-phase (or double-line) to earth fault
Fig. 13 Two-phase to earth fault
For the magnitude of the fault current IE at the short-circuit point we obtain:
Zg
I E  3 E"
Zm Zg  Zm Z0  Z0 Zg
where Zm, Zg and Z0 represent here the respective sums of the component impedances in the path of
the short circuit.
The voltage of the healthy conductor at the fault point amounts to:
3 E"  Z 0  Z g
U1 
Zm Zg  Zm Z0  Z0 Zg
The following Fig. 14 qualitatively shows the situation of the currents and voltages at the fault
point. For reason of simplification, all equivalent resistances of the network are ignored.
Fig. 14 Vector diagrams for currents and voltages at the fault point in a two-phase to
earth fault
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1.6.2 Phase-to-phase unearthed fault
For a phase-to-phase unearthed fault a connection between two outer conductors L2 and L3 is
assumed.
The following applies for the currents of the faulty conductors:
E"
I 2  I 3   j 3
Zm  Zg
where Zm and Zg represent here the respective sums of the component impedances in the path of the
short circuit.
The voltages of the three conductors at the fault location demonstrate the following values with
respect to earth:
Zg
U 1  2 E"
Zm  Zg
Zg
U 2  U 3   E"
Zm  Zg
The following Fig. 15 qualitatively shows the situation of the currents and voltages at the fault
point; for reason of simplification all equivalent resistances of the network are again ignored.
Fig. 15 - Vector diagrams for currents and voltages at the fault point for a phase-to-phase unearthed
fault.
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1.6.3 One-line to earth fault
For a one-line to earth fault in a low-resistance earthed network (short-circuit to earth), a conductive
connection between the outer conductor L1 to earth is assumed.
The following holds true for the short-circuit current:
3 E"
I1 
Zm  Zg  Z0
The following Fig. 16 again qualitatively shows the situation of the currents and voltages at the
fault point; for reasons of simplification, all equivalent resistances of the network are ignored here
as well.
Fig. 16 - Vector diagrams for currents and voltages at the fault point for a one-line to
earth fault
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1.7 Reactive power compensation
Almost all consumers of electrical energy not only require active power for operation but also
reactive power.
In most cases, this is an inductive reactive power required for creating magnetic fields, which are
required in all electrical drives, for example.
Like active power, this reactive power must be generated by generators and transmitted to the
consumers.
Due to the fact that the transmission of reactive power also causes active power losses at the ohmic
resistance of the transmission system, the electricity companies try to keep the power factor of the
consumers as high as possible (i.e. in the vicinity of the value l).
Even a power factor value less than 0.9 leads to a noticeable rise in the apparent current and, thus,
in the active power losses.
1.7.1 Parallel compensation
By means of parallel connection of a capacitance, the power factor of a mixed ohmic-inductive

consumer can be improved.
The capacitive reactive current of the capacitor compensates the inductive component of the
consumer current.
The principle of this parallel compensation, frequently used in practice, is depicted in the following
Fig. 17; for reasons of simplification, the operational capacitance of the line has not been taken into
consideration.
Fig. 17 Reactive power parallel compensation and vector diagram
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DL GTU102.2
The capacitive current IC of the capacitor partially or totally compensates the reactive component lb
of the load current, depending on the value of C.
For reasons having to do with tariff scales, complete compensation is not of use to the electricity
utilities.
Compensation is only carried out to a residual reactive power Qr', at which point a power factor
cos2' is just reached, for which no reactive energy need be paid for.
For power values which are uncompensated or partially compensated, the following vector
diagrams are valid (P, Q, S = active, reactive and apparent power of the consumer, cos2 = power
factor of the consumer without compensation and cos2'= power factor with compensation).
Fig. 18 - Power relationships with uncompensated and partially compensated

operation
The compensation power Qc required for improving the power factor from the angle 2 to the angle
2' can be deduced from the vector diagram above:
Qc = P (tan2 - tan2')
From this the required capacitance of the three individual capacitances of a compensation system in
star connection can be deduced:
Qc
C
 NN
2
Parallel compensation is dependent on the load. In practice, capacitors are connected or

disconnected depending on the load condition. In the determination of the capacitance required in
compensation for long overhead lines and cables, half the operational capacitance should be also be
taken into consideration if necessary.
If each consumer is individually compensated, then we refer to individual compensation.
If a common capacitor system is used for the compensation of a series of consumers - for example,
for all drives of an industrial user - then we refer to central or group compensation. Once again, it
must be possible to connect and disconnect individual capacitors, in order to adapt the
compensation system to varying load conditions.
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1.7.2 Series compensation
Another task is fulfilled by the so-called series capacitors.

They are used to compensate the inductance of longer lines and thus reduce the voltage drop on the
transmission line.
However, the transmission losses occurring cannot be reduced using this type of compensation.
To illustrate this principe, it suffices again to study a line without its operating capacitance, as
illustrated in the following Fig. 19:
Fig. 19 Reactive power series compensation and vector diagram
The voltage drop U between U1 at the beginning of the line and U2 at the end of the line can be
split into a direct-axis component U1 and a quadrature component Uq as shown in Fig. 20; the
quadrature component is always much smaller than the quadrature component.
Fig. 20 Direct-axis and quadrature-axis components of the voltage drop
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DL GTU102.2
The aim of series compensation is to achieve a direct-axis voltage drop which is as small as
possible. For the capacitance of the series capacitor the following applies when neglecting Uq and
under the condition U1 = 0:
1
C
 L  R  cot  2 
The effect of the series capacitors is independent on the level of the load, but is dependent on its
cos2. Because, in the case of consumers of the same type, this does not change very much, a series
capacitor, unlike a parallel capacitor, need not be controlled.
The capacitor must be protected against overvoltages, which could appear as a result of high short-
circuit current caused by a short circuit at the end of the line. For this, eleborate measures - a
protective series gap, for example - are required, which often make the use of series capacitors
uneconomical.
1.7.3 Other types of compensation
A third type of compensation is the possibility of reducing the effect of the operating capacitance of
long load lines, or lines operated with light load, by connecting so-called shunt reactors in parallel.
In this manner, the danger of a voltage increase by the Ferranti effect is prevented.
In conclusion, take note that the favorable influencing on transmission losses and reduction in
voltage increase of no-load lines can be caused not only by capacitors and reactors (so-called static
compensation). For this, synchronous machines are also well suited, which are operated at no-load
in the mains and, due to their exciter state, only generate inductive or capacitive reactive power.
Since, in this case, the phase angle of the mains can be effected, synchronous machines (normally
generators of pumping power stations) are described as rotating phase shifters in this operating
mode.
In the following experiments presented in this book we have restricted our example to those of
parallel and series compensation.
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2. INFORMATIONS
2.1 Experiment components
 1 DL 7901TT Overhead line model

 1 DL 1017R Resistive load
 1 DL 1017L Inductive load
 1 DL 1017C Capacitive load
 1 DL 1080TT Three-phase transformer
 1 DL 1013T1 Three-phase power supply
 1 DL 2108TAL Three-phase power supply unit
 1 DL 2108T02 Power circuit breaker
 2 DL 2108T03 Line capacitor
 1 DL 2108T04 Petersen coil
 1 DL 2109T26 Power meter
 1 DL 2109T27 Power factor meter
 1 DL 2109T1A Moving-iron ammeter (1000 mA)
 3 DL 2109T2A5 Moving-iron ammeter (2,5 A)
 2 DL 2109T1PV Moving-iron voltmeter (600 V)
2.2 Model scale
In real power supply networks, the voltages are in the kV range; the current flowing are in the
kA range. The resulting power is thus on the order of the MW to GW range.
In these experiments all voltages and current have a scale of 1:1000; the power values resulting
as the product of these two quantities are on a scale of 1:1.000.000.
The following equivalents apply:
Real network Line model

1 kV 1V
1 kA 1A
1 MW 1W
1 MVA 1 VA
In order to be able to convert the voltage and current values measured in the experiments to the 380
kV-level, a multiplication by the factor 1000 is required.
In the case of power measurement values the factor 1.000.000 is required.
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2.3 Instruments and equipments
It is recommended that you use only moving-iron ammeters and voltmeters, as these
significantly suppress the effects of the harmonics caused by inductors with iron cores.
An accuracy class of 1.5% is sufficient for demonstrating the characteristic effects of the
experiments.
In addition, please note that the components used are always manufactured to certain tolerances; for
example, this can amount to up to 10% of rated value for the line model. As temperature influences
also play a role here, we recommend that the experiments be carried out after the components have
warmed up.
2.4 Safety procedures
In accordance with the IEC regulations, metal parts not carrying a voltage in normal operation (e.g.
housings) are to be connected to the PE ground conductor.
The ground conductor is provided solely for this purpose and may not be connected with the neutral
conductor N of the circuit!
High induction voltages can occur at the reactors when the current is interrupted. Before changing
the experiment set-up (e.g. selecting a different measurement range on a meter), the current is to be
shut off using the three-pole cut-out switch.
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EXERCICES
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Blank page
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EXPERIMENT N°1
NO-LOAD PERFORMANCES
Objectives:
 Measurement of the voltages in no-load operation.
 Concept of operating capacitance.
 Line model with increased operating capacitance.
Equipments:
 1 DL 2108TAL Three-phase supply unit
 2 DL 2108T03 Line capacitor
 2DL 2109T1PV Moving-iron voltmeter (600 V)
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DL GTU102.2
EXPERIMENT N°1.1: NO-LOAD OPERATION
V
V
DL 2109T26
34 ver b20111215
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Experiment procedure
Assemble the circuit in accordance with the foregoing topographic diagram.

Set primary-side of three-phase transformer in delta connection 380 V and using bridging
plugs set the secondary-side to star UN – 10%.
Insert all bridging plugs connecting the capacitances to line model. Set the supply voltage to UN =
380 V.
Measure the voltage between the two outer conductors at the beginning and end of the line, as well
as the active and reactive powers consumed by one of the phases:
U1 = …………… V P = …………… W U2 = …………… V
Q = …………… Var(cap)
Compare the measured charging reactive power with that which it requires according to the
calculation
Qc = CB · UN2 = 2  50 · 5 · 10-6 · 3802 = 227 Var
(Bear in mind that the measured value is single-phase and thus must be multiplied by a factor
of 3).
In no-load operation the transmission line requires a very small active power due to low current
flowing from the beginning to the end of the line and across half the operating capacitance.
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EXPERIMENT N°1.2: CONCEPT OF OPERATING CAPACITANCE
V
V
DL 2109T26
36 ver b20111215
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Set primary-side of the three-phase transformer in delta connection 380 V and using bridging
plugs set the secondary-side to star UN – 10%.
Remove all bridging plugs connecting the capacitances to line model.

Connect the artificial line capacitances to the beginning and to the end of the line model.
Set the supply voltage to UN = 380 V.
Measure the voltage between the outer conductors at the beginning and end of each line
capacitance, as well as the reactive power consumed by one of the phases:
U1 = …………… V Q = …………… Var(cap) U2 = …………… V
Compare the results with those at experiment 1.1: an equivalent capacitance of the operating
capacitance CB performs in the same way as the individual capacitances CE and CL of the line.
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EXPERIMENT N°1.3: LINE WITH INCREASED OPERATING CAPACITANCE
V
V
DL 2109T26
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Assemble the circuit in accordance to the foregoing topographic diagram. In order to emphazise the
difference between the performance of a cable and the performance of an overhead transmission
line in no-load operation, reconnect all bridging plugs connecting the capacitances to line model in
the circuit of experiment 1.2, realizing thus the circuit of experiment 1.3.
By connecting the two artificial artificial line capacitances, the operating capacitance of the line is
doubled and the voltage- increase effect at the line end is thus amplified. Set the supply voltage to
UN = 380 V.
Measure the voltage between two outer conductors at the beginning and end of each line capacitor
as well as the reactive power consumed by one of the phases:
U1 = …………… V Q = …………… Var(cap) U2 = …………… V
Compare the results with those at experiment 1.1: the raised-voltage effect is much more noticeable
while the charging power is about twice as great as in an overhead line without additional
capacitances.
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Blank page
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EXPERIMENT N°2
MATCHED-LOAD PERFORMANCES
Objectives:
 Measurement of current and voltage relationships of an overhead line in matched-load operation.
Interpretation of the terms characteristic wave impedance, lagging and leading operation,
efficiency and transmission losses.
Equipments:
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42
DL 2109T26
DL GTU102.2
V A V A
P = 3x400W
220/380V . /Y
4 4 4
3 5 3 5 3 5
2 6 2 6 2 6
1 7 1 7 1 7
R1 R2 R3 off off off
R1 R2 R3
PE
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Set the primary-side of the three-phase transformer in delta connection 380 V and using
bridging plugs set the secondary-side to star UN -5%.
Insert all bridging plugs connecting the capacitance to overhead line model.
Connect a three-phase balanced resistive load to end terminals of the line; set the load resistance
value to R1.
Beginning from the R1 value reduce the resistive load in steps till the R7 value.
For each step measure the following quantities:
voltage U1, current I1, active power Pi and reactive power Q1 at the start of the line as well as the
voltage U2 and the current bat the end of the line.
Enter the measured value into the following table:
R U1 (V) I1 (A) P1 (W) Q1 (Var) U2 (V) I2 (A)

R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
Determine the particular value of resistive load at which the line no longer consumes any reactive
power (i.e. at which matching is achieved) and compare this with the theoretical value specified for
the characteristic wave impedance Zw = 240 .
As typical result when the resistive load is above R4 there is a capacitive behaviour: inductive
behaviour results at values below that. Between R4 and R6 load values the line consumes no
detectable reactive power.
Leaving the resistive load unchanged to the approx value of the characteristic wave impedance (R5
= 213 )) measure voltage and current at both ends of the line for all possible supply voltage, which
can be set on the secondary side of the three-phase transformer.
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Enter the measured values into the following table:
U1 I1 P1 U2 I2 P2 P 
Supply voltage
(V) (A) (W) (V) (A) (W) (W) (%)
UN + 5%
UN
UN – 5%
UN – 10%
UN – 15%
In case of matched load only the active power is transmitted so, in accordance with the equation
P  3UI
calculate the total active power P1 at the start end and the total active power P2 at the end of the line.
Calculate the line transmission losses
P = P1 – P2
and the line transmission efficiency

P1
% = 100
P2
and enter the results in the table.
Since the line and the load form a series circuit the ratio of the transmission power converted in the
two elements and thus the efficiency are independent on the magnitude of the supply voltage.
However, if a constant power is supposed to be transmitted, then a higher supply voltage would be
more favourable, because the line losses drop as current decreases.
Note: In real overhead lines corona losses also arise, which have a slight negative effect on the efficiency.
Furthermore, the value determined above only applies for the exceptional case of matched load.
44 ver b20111215
DL GTU102.2
EXPERIMENT N°3
THREE-PHASE SHORT-CIRCUIT
Objectives:
 Measuring and interpreting the current and voltage ratios of a transmission line during a three-
phase short-circuit.
Equipments :
ver b20111215 45
46
DL 2109T26
V A A
DL GTU102.2
A V
L1 L2 L3 N PE
emergency start stop 0 380V-8A
40 60
20 80
0 100%
ver b20111215
DL GTU102.2
Assemble the circuit in accordance to the foregoing topographic diagram.
Set primary-side of three-phase transformer in delta connection 380V and using bridging plugs set
the secondary-side to star UN- 15%.
Insert all bridging plugs connecting the capacitances to overhead line model.
Set the supply voltage to UN = 170 V (use lowest possible voltage!): test short-circuit current is
about 1.5 A.
Due to the high current load on the components during short-circuit, the following measurement
must be carried out quickly.
Measure the voltage at the beginning of the line, the current at both line ends and the active and
reactive power consumed by the overhead line model:
U1 = …………… (V) P1 = …………… (W) U2 = …………… (Var)ind
I1 = …………… (A) I2 = …………… (A)
For quick approximate short-circuit calculations it suffices to take the inductive reactances of the
network into consideration: the result is then on the sure side, i.e. a short-circuit current on the high
side is calculated.
In three-phase short-circuit condition primarily there is a consumption of the inductive reactive

power.
Note: If the short-circuit currents measured here are converted to the real 380 kV level, realistic
results are not obtained. The fault currents arising in this voltage level can be
considerably higher because here we are normally dealing with meshed networks with
several feeds, normally involving line lengths shorter than 360 km. Furthermore, in this
experiment, instead of the initial ac short-circuit current, the so-called continuous short-
circuit current (short-circuit current after the transient reactions have faded) is measured.
If the mains protection is fully-operational, the faulty components will have already been
previously disconnected.
.
ver b20111215 47
DL GTU102.2
Blank page
48 ver b20111215
DL GTU102.2
EXPERIMENT N°4
OHMIC-INDUCTIVE LOAD
Objectives:
 Measuring and interpreting the current and voltage ratios of a transmission line with mixed
ohmic-inductive and pure inductive loads.
Equipments:
ver b20111215 49
50
DL GTU102.2
DL 2109T26
V A V A
cos 
P = 3x400W Q = 3x300VAr
220/380V . /Y 220/380V . /Y
4 4 4 4 4 4
3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5
2 6 2 6 2 6 2 6 2 6 2 6
1 7 1 7 1 7 1 7 1 7 1 7
R1 R2 R3 off off off L1 L2 L3 off off off
R1 R2 R3 L1 L2 L3
PE PE
ver b20111215
DL GTU102.2
Assemble the circuit in accordance with the foregoing topographic diagram,
Set primary-side of the three-phase transformer in delta connection 380 V and using bridging plugs
set the secondary-side to star UN + 5%.
To end terminals of line connect a three-phase balanced ohmic-inductive load: set the load
resistance value to R1 and begin with the value L4 = 1.27 H of the inductive load.
Starting at R1 value reduce the resistance value in steps to R3, R4 and R5 in that order.
For each step measure the following quantities: voltage U1, current I1, active power P1 and reactive
power Q1 at the beginning of the line, and voltage U2, current I2 and cosφ2 at the line end.
Inductive load: L4 = 1.27 H.
R U1 (V) I1 (A) P1 (W) Q1 (Var) U2 (V) I2 (A) cos2

R1
R2
R3
R4
Repeat the above measurements for inductive loads of 0.9 H and 0.64 H.

R1
R2
R3
R4

R1
R2
R3
R4
ver b20111215 51
DL GTU102.2
In all measurements the voltage at the line end is considerably lower than the voltage at the line
beginning and decreases as the load current increases.
A not true-to-scale current-voltage vector diagram for the case of a mixed ohmic-inductive load
with power factor of 0.8 is illustrated in the following figure (The operating capacitance of the line
is disregarded here).
Now remove the connection to the resistive load and repeat the measurement for L4 = 1.27 H.
U1 (V) I1 (A) P1 (W) Q1 (Var) U2 (V) I2 (A) cos2
The inductive load also consume an active power due to ohmic resistance and iron losses of the
inductor.
52 ver b20111215
DL GTU102.2
EXPERIMENT N°5
OHMIC-CAPACITIVE LOAD
Objectives:
 Measuring and interpreting the current and voltage ratios of a transmission line with mixed
ohmic-capacitive and pure capacitive loads.
Equipments:
ver b20111215 53
54
DL GTU102.2
DL 2109T26
V A V A
cos 
P = 3x400W Q = 3x275VAr
220/380V . /Y 220/380V . /Y
4 4 4 4 4 4
3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5
2 6 2 6 2 6 2 6 2 6 2 6
1 7 1 7 1 7 1 7 1 7 1 7
R1 R2 R3 off off off off off off

C1 C2 C3
R1 R2 R3 C1 C2 C3
PE PE
ver b20111215
DL GTU102.2
Set primary-side of the three-phase transformer in delta connection 380 V and using bridging plugs
set the secondary-side to star UN - 15%.
To end terminals of line connect a three-phase balanced ohmic-capacitive load: set the load
resistance value to R1 and begin with the value C1 = 2 F of the capacitive load.
Starting at R1 value reduce the resistance value in steps to R2, R3 and R4 in that order.
For each step measure the following quantities: voltage U1, current I1, active power P1 and reactive
power Q1 at the beginning of the line, and voltage U2, current I2 and cosqφ2 at the line end.
Capacitive load: C1 = 2 F.

R1
R2
R3
R4
Repeat the above measurements for capacitive loads of 3 F and 5 F.

R1
R2
R3
R4

R1
R2
R3
R4
ver b20111215 55
DL GTU102.2
In all measurements the voltage at the line end is considerably higher than the voltage at the line
beginning and decreases as the load current increases.
A not true-to-scale current-voltage vector diagram for the case of a mixed ohmic-capacitive load
with a power factor of 0.8 is illustrated in the following figure (The operating capacitance of the
transmission line can again be disregarded here).
Remove the connection to the resistive load and repeat the measurement for C3 = 5 F.
U1 (V) I1 (A) P1 (W) Q1 (Var) U2 (V) I2 (A) cos2
Unlikes chokes, capacitors demonstrate practically no losses so that here nearly no active power is
consumed.
56 ver b20111215
DL GTU102.2
EXPERIMENT N°6
ISOLATED NEUTRAL POINT SYSTEM: FAULT-TO-EARTH
Objectives:
 Investigating the performance of a transmission line with isolated neutral point connection in the
case of a fault to earth.
 Carrying out measurements of the earth-fault current and the voltage rise of the healty phases.
Equipments:
ver b20111215 57
DL GTU102.2
V
A
58 ver b20111215
DL GTU102.2
Assemble the circuit in accordance with the foregoing topographic diagram. Set the primary-side of
three-phase transformer in delta connection 380 V and using bridging plugs set the secondary-side
to star UN – 15%.
DO NOT CONNECT the neutral star point to neutral N conductor.
Insert all bridging plugs connecting the capacitances to overhead line model. Set the supply voltage
to UN = 380 V.
Measure the earth-fault current Ie as well as the voltages on both healthy phases L2 and L3 with
respect to earth :
IE = …………… (A) U2 = …………… (V) U3 = …………… (V)
Compare the earth-fault current measured to the value which would be expected according to the
theory:
IE  3  CE U
where U is the voltage present at the fault location during normal operation.
ver b20111215 59
DL GTU102.2
Blank page
60 ver b20111215
DL GTU102.2
EXPERIMENT N°7
PETERSEN SUPPRESSION COIL
Objectives:
 Determining the inductance of an earth-fault neutralizer for the overhead line model.
 Investigating the performance of a transmission line with a fault and comparing the current value
with those determined during earth-fault with isolated neutral point system in experiment 6.
Equipments:
 1 DL 2108T04 Petersen coil
ver b20111215 61
DL GTU102.2
V
mA
62 ver b20111215
DL GTU102.2
Assemble the circuit in accordance with the foregoing topographic diagram. Set primary-side of
three-phase transformer in delta connection 380 V and using bridging plugs set the secondary-side
to star UN - 15%.
CONNECT THE NEUTRAL STAR POINT TO NEUTRAL N CONDUCTOR VIA THE

PETERSEN COLL.
In order to determine the required inductance for the compensation coil, the earth-fault residual
current as a function of the inductance used has to be measured for the following values listed in the
table (To achieve more precise measurement results it is recommended that you use a sensitive
ammeter with mA-measurement range).
L (mH) 2000 1800 1600 1400 1250 1100 740

IE (A)
Sketch the curve of the earth-fault residual current as a function of the compensation coil
inductance used:
The minimum earth-fault residual current is achieved at a Petersen coil inductance

Lp = ………… mH.
ver b20111215 63
DL GTU102.2
At the frequency of 50 Hz the theoretical value of this inductance is
1
Lp   1.69 H
3 2  50  2  10 6
2
Measure the voltages of the two healthy phases with respect to earth at the fault location while
using the compensation coil which is tuned to the overhead line model:
U2 = ………… (V) U3 = ………… (V)
and verify that these voltages are smaller than in the case of the earth fault with isolated neutral
point system.
64 ver b20111215
DL GTU102.2
EXPERIMENT N°8
ASYMMETRICAL SHORT-CIRCUITS
Objectives:
 To measure the fault currents of asymmetrical short-circuits and to compare the results with
those for the three-phase fault.
Equipments:
 1 DL 1013T1 Three-phase power supply
 1 DL 2109T1PV Moving-iron voltmeter (600 V))
ver b20111215 65
DL GTU102.2
EXPERIMENT N°8.1: TWO-PHASE SHORT-CIRCUIT WITH EARTH CONTACT
A
A
A
V
PE
80
100%
N
60
0 380V-8A
L3
L2
0
40
L1
20
stop
V
start
emergency
A
66 ver b20111215
DL GTU102.2
Set primary-side of three-phase transformer in delta connection 380 V and using bridging plugs set
the secondary-side to star UN - 15% .
Insert all bridging plugs connecting the capacitances to overhead line model.
Set the supply voltage UN = 170 V (same value as in experiment 3).
Due to the high current load on the components during short-circuit, the following measurement
must be carried out quickly.
Measure the partial short-circuit currents I2 and I3of the conductors L2 and L3 as well as the short-
circuit current Ik and the voltage of the healthy phase Li with respect to earth:
I2 = …………… A I3 = …………… A Ik = …………… A
U1 = …………… V
The short-circuit current Ik is smaller than the two partial short-circuit currents since the two partial
currents are added together geometrically into the total short-circuit current at the fault location.
Compare the measured values with those of the two-phase short-circuit without earth contact
(experiment 8.2) and of the three-phase short-circuit (experiment 3).
The partial currents in the case of two-phase short-circuit with earth contact are larger than for a
fault without earth contact.
The fault currents are below the value of the three-phase short-circuit current
Note: The results found here cannot be applied to real networks without reservation, due the fact
that here again we are dealing with measured values taken after transient response and
with a fixed supply voltage.
ver b20111215 67
DL GTU102.2
EXPERIMENT N°8.2: TWO-PHASE SHORT-CIRCUIT WITHOUT EARTH CONTACT
A
A
V
PE
80
100%
N
60
0 380V-8A
L3
L2
0
40
L1
20
stop
V
start
emergency
A
68 ver b20111215
DL GTU102.2
Removing the ammeter which measures the total short-circuit current in experiment 8.1 this now
simulates a two-phase short-circuit without earth contact.
Measure the short-circuit currents I2 and I3 as well the voltage of healthy phase L1 with respect to
earth:
I2 = …………… A I3 = …………… A V1 = …………… V
Compare the measured values with those of the two-phase short-circuit with earth contact
(experiment 8.1) and of the three-phase short-circuit (experiment 3).
The partial currents in the case of two-phase short-circuit with earth contact are larger than for a
fault without earth contact.
The fault currents are below the value of the three-phase short-circuit current.
Note: The results found here cannot be applied to real networks without reservation, due to the
fact that here again we are dealing with measured values taken after transient response
and with a fixed voltage.
ver b20111215 69
DL GTU102.2
EXPERIMENT N°8.3: SINGLE-PHASE SHORT-CIRCUIT
A
V
PE
80
100%
N
60
0 380V-8A
L3
L2
0
40
L1
20
stop
V
start
emergency
A
70 ver b20111215
DL GTU102.2
Alter the circuit of experiment 8.2 in order to be able to measure the current and voltage ratios
for a single-phase short-circuit.
Measure the short-circuit current Ik of the faulty phase L1 as well as the voltages of the two healthy
phases L2 and L3 with respect to earth:
Ik = …………… A U2 = …………… V U3 = …………… V
Compare the measured value of the short-circuit current with that of the three-phase short-circuit.
The single-phase short-circuit current is considerably smaller than the current obtained in the case
of the three-phase short-circuit.
Note: The results found here also cannot be applied to real networks without reservation, due to
the fact that here again we are dealing with measured values taken after transient
response and with a fixed supply voltage.
ver b20111215 71
DL GTU102.2
Blank page
72 ver b20111215
DL GTU102.2
EXPERIMENT N°9
PARALLEL COMPENSATION
Objectives:
 Investigating the effect of parallel compensation on the voltage stability at the load and the
transmission losses of the line.
Equipments:
ver b20111215 73
74
DL 2109T26
DL GTU102.2
V A V A
cos 
Q = 3x275VAr P = 3x400W Q = 3x300VAr

220/380V . /Y 220/380V . /Y 220/380V . /Y
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5
2 6 2 6 2 6 2 6 2 6 2 6 2 6 2 6 2 6
1 7 1 7 1 7 1 7 1 7 1 7 1 7 1 7 1 7
off off off R1 R2 R3 off off off L1 L2 L3 off off off

C1 C2 C3
C1 C2 C3 R1 R2 R3 L1 L2 L3
PE PE PE
ver b20111215
DL GTU102.2
The inductive component of an ohmic-inductive load is to be compensated using a capacitance

connected in parallel.
In order to demonstrate the significant features of the parallel compensation, it is sufficient to

investigate the line without capacitances. This also ensures conformity with the equivalent circuit
diagram and corresponding vector diagram presented in the theoretical section (point 1.7.1, Fig.17).
Remove all bridging plugs connecting capacitances CE and CL on the overhead line model.
the secondary-side to star UN + 5%.
Set the value L2 = 3.19 H at the inductive load: a capacitance of exactly 3.2 μF would be required to
compensate for this inductance completely (ω • C • L = 1).
Connect the value C2 = 3 μF at the capacitive load and measure the voltage U 1, the current I1, the
active P1 and reactive Q1 powers at the beginning of the line and the voltage U2, the current I2 and
cosφ2 at the line end for various settings of the load resistance. Enter the measured values in the
following table.
Inductive load L2 = 3.19 H Compensation capacitance C2 = 3 μF

R1
R3
R4
Repeat the above measurements for different inductive loads and compensation capacitances.
R U1 (V) I1 (A) P1 (W) Q1 (Var) U2 (V) I2 (A) Cos2

R1
R3
R4
R U1 (V) I1 (A) P1 (W) Q1 (Var) U2 (V) I2 (A) Cos2

R1
R3
R4
ver b20111215 75
DL GTU102.2
Comparing the measurement results with those obtained under experiment 4, parallel compensation
reduces the reactive power requirement of the line-load system; at the same time, the voltage at the
load increases .
The compensation is virtually total and this may be seen from load cos2 which is now approx 1 in
every case.
In the following experiment the power factor of a load is to improved through compensation to a
specific value.
From measurement results of experiment 4 (ohmic-inductive load) with inductive load L5 = 0.9 H
and resistive load R3 = 435  we know that a cos2 value of about 0.5 occurs for this load case.
Set the inductive load Ls and resistive load R3.
In order to determine the required capacitance for improving the power factor to about 0.9 change
in steps the capacitance load values until power factor meter reads about 0.9.
At this moment measure voltage U1, current I1, active Pi and reactive Q1 powers at the beginning of
the line and voltage U2, current I2 and cos2 at the line end.
Compensation capacitance: ………… F
U1 = …………… V I1 = …………… A P1 = …………… W
Q1 = …………… Var U2 = …………… V I2 = …………… A
cos2 = ……………
Comparing these measurement results with those obtained under same ohmic-inductive load in the
experiment 4, here, too, we see a significant improvement in the voltage at consumer, coupled with
a reduction current. Moreover the desired power factor value can be achieved precisely.
76 ver b20111215
DL GTU102.2
EXPERIMENT N°10
SERIES COMPENSATION
Objectives:
 Investigating the effect of series compensation on the voltage stability at the load.
Equipments:
ver b20111215 77
78
DL 2109T26
DL GTU102.2
V A V A
cos 
Q = 3x275VAr P = 3x400W Q = 3x300VAr

220/380V . /Y 220/380V . /Y 220/380V . /Y
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5
2 6 2 6 2 6 2 6 2 6 2 6 2 6 2 6 2 6
1 7 1 7 1 7 1 7 1 7 1 7 1 7 1 7 1 7
off off off R1 R2 R3 off off off L1 L2 L3 off off off

C1 C2 C3
C1 C2 C3 R1 R2 R3 L1 L2 L3
PE PE PE
ver b20111215
DL GTU102.2

The inductive component of the line is to be compensated using a capacitance connected in series.
In order to concentrate on the essential features of the series compensation, here too we shall ignore
the line capacitances.
Thus this also ensures conformity with the equivalent circuit diagram and corresponding vector
diagram presented in the theoretical section (point 1.7.2, Fig. 19)
Remove all bridging plugs connecting capacitances CE and CL on the overhead line model.
the secondary-side to star UN + 5%.
According to the formula presented in the theoretical section, a compensation capacitance value
1
C  29.4 F
 
2  50 2  50  290  10 3  13  1.333
is required for an overhead line model representing a length of 360 km at loads with a cosφ2 value
of around 0.8, such as the model used here.
Set the series capacitance to 18 μF by connecting three individual capacitances C 7 = 18 μF in

series to each line conductor.
In order to maintain uniform cosφ2, set the ohmic and inductive values sequentially to the respective
values given in the following table and then for each step measure voltage U1, current I1, active P1i
and reactive Q1 powers at the beginning of the line and voltage U2 and current I2 at the line end.
U1 I1 P1 Q1 U2 I2
L R
(V) (A) (W) (Var) (V) (A)
L4 R4
L5 R5
Comparing the voltages measured at the two line ends with those measured for the same loads L
and R without series compensation (experiment 4), the voltage increase at the line end is obvious
while the series compensation serves mainly to reduce the voltage drops of the line.
ver b20111215 79
DL GTU102.2
Blank page
80 ver b20111215
DL GTU102.2
EXPERIMENT N°11
ZERO-PHASE IMPEDANCE
Objectives:
 Using measurement techniques to determine the zero-phase sequence impedance of the overhead
line model and comparing this value to that provided in the theoretical section.
Equipments:
ver b20111215 81
DL GTU102.2
V
mA
82 ver b20111215
DL GTU102.2

Insert all bridging plugs connecting the capacitances to the overhead line model.
Set primary-side of three-phase transformer in star connection 380 V and using bridging plugs set
the secondary-side to star UN - 15%.
Measure the voltage and the current at the beginning end of the line:
U0 = …………… (V) I0 = …………… (A)
and determine the zero-phase sequence impedance of the line by establishing the quotient
U0
Z0   ..............  
I0
According to information in the theoretical section, the zero phase sequence impedance for the
overhead line used here at a frequency of 50 Hz has the value
Z 0  R  j L   3 R E  jL E   13  j 91  3 11  j 78.5  46  j 326
And magnitude
Z 0  328 
Note: In view of measurement accuracy and component tolerances, the value determined using
measurement techniques may differ from the theoretical zero-sequence impedance.
ver b20111215 83
DL GTU102.2
Blank page
84 ver b20111215
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V.le Romagna, 20 - 20089 Rozzano (MI) Italy
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E-mail: info@delorenzo.it
Web sites: www.delorenzoglobal.com - www.technical-education.it -
www.delorenzoenergy.com

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OVERHEAD LINE MODEL

Electrical Power Engineering

1. THEORETICAL SECTION Page 1

1.1 Introduction Page 1

1.2 Nominal voltages and line cross-section Page 2

1.3 Electrical properties and equivalent circuit diagrams Page 4

1.4 Performance characteristics Page 11

1.5 Neutral point connection Page 16

1.6 Asymmetrical short-circuits Page 20

1.7 Reactive power compensation Page 25

2.1 Experiment components Page 29

ver b20111215 III

EXPERIMENTS N°1.1: No-load operation Page 34

EXPERIMENTS N°8.1: Two-phase short-circuit with earth contact Page 66

1.2 Nominal voltages and line cross-section

UN (kV) Voltage level Applications

Fig. 1 Transmissible power and voltage level

The following are examples of cross-sections of aluminium/steel high-voltage overhead

UN (kV) Cross-section (mm2) Thermal limit rating (MVA)

1.3 Electrical properties and equivalent circuit diagrams

Fig. 2 Equivalent circuit diagram of a three-phase short line

1.3.1 Equivalent resistance

where  = line lenght

For aluminium at a temperature of 20 °C it is sufficiently accurate to say:

where A = cross-section in mm2.

1.3.2 Equivalent inductance

100  0  d gmi 0.25 

(d12 etc = spacing of the conductors from each other),

1.3.3 Equivalent capacitances

For these the following applies:

h0 = medium height of the earth wire,

rB = equivalent radius as in calculation of the inductance,

r0 = radius of the earth wire,

0 = 8.8 · 10-12 As/Vm, permittivity of free space.

1.3.4 Equivalent circuits

Fig. 3 Single-phase equivalent circuit of a three-phase line

As previously mentioned, resistances, transverse conductances, inductances and capacitances are in

where  = 2f is the angular frequency of the used voltage.

    j  R ' jL'  G ' jC B '

Consequently the following is true:

R <<  L and G <<  CB

and lines with these characteristics are described as low-loss.

The line equations thus take the following simplified form:

Fig. 4 Single-phase equivalent circuit diagram of a loss-free three-phase line

380 kV overhead transmission line on braced mast, cross-section 4 x 240/40 mm2

Ohmic resistance at 20 °C R' = 0.036 /km

1.4 Performance characteristics

The following uniform indices are used for the representations:

1.4.1 No-load operation

1.4.2 Matched load

Fig. 6 Single-phase equivalent circuit diagram of a loss-free line and the

The consumer current I2 is in-phase with the voltage U2.

flows across the capacitance CB/2 at the line end.

1.5 Neutral point connection

Fig.8 – Voltages for definition of the factor 

1.5.1 Isolated neutral point system

Fig. 9 Fault-to-earth in a network with isolated neutral point

1.5.2 Earth fault neutralizer

Fig. 10 Earth fault in a network with Petersen coil

1.5.3 Low resistance neutral earthing

Type of fault: fault to earth fault to earth short-circuit to earth

Fault current: low low high

Switch-off required: not immediately fault usually disappears immediately

Voltage increase in the yes yes no