Infrared Thermography

Centre for Vibration Analysis & Machine Condition Monitoring (CVCM)

N-Block, Opp.: National Achieve Centre,
Pak Secretariat, Islamabad
 Course Outline
 What is Thermography
 Basic Terminologies
 Applications of Thermal Imaging
 Infrared Equipment Operation/Working
 Thermography Examples
 What is Thermography?

Measurement of temperature remotely and assignment of

colors based on temperature.

Very effective to inspect:

 Electrical equipment
 Electrical circuits
 Mechanical equipment
 Heating/cooling equipment
 Building envelope
 Electronic
 Other
 Thermal imaging
Is the science of seeing heat patterns using special electronic cameras.
Rather than seeing light, these remarkable instruments create pictures of heat.
They measure infrared (IR) radiation and convert the data to images
corresponding to the source temperatures.
 Thermal imaging

 Applies to most types of equipment and conditions

 Is obtained without disturbing production
 Quickly identifies location of problems
 Allows for detection of problems before failure
 Can scan large areas quickly to identify areas of concern, a picture is
worth 1000 words
 Thermal Imaging Camera
The thermal imaging camera is a type of thermographic camera that helps in
measuring the temperature differences of a surface. This helps in identifying any
potential fire hazards. The areas with different temperatures are pictorially
represented.

Thermographic cameras form the image with the help of infrared rays. They
work similar to the normal camera but use infrared instead of normal light rays.
Fast, safe and accurate non-contact measurements
Can be obtained from
objects even if they are:
 moving or very hot
 difficult to reach
 expensive to shut-down
 dangerous to contact
 contaminated
 Advantages of infrared inspection programs

1. Safety - Avoid catastrophic failure or injury

2. Greater asset reliability - Reduces unscheduled outages
3. Increased revenue - More uptime, revenue is maximized
4. Reduced outage costs Planned maintenance saves
5. More efficient inspections Just looking for heat
6. Improved and less expensive maintenance
7. Reduced spare parts inventory - Fewer spares
8. Reduced operational costs
 Proactive or reactive?

 Thermal Imaging can be used to both prevent problems from

occurring and to troubleshoot them when they do.

 Thermal Imaging can make visible “the invisible” and help pinpoint
potential problem areas faster than any other measurement tool.
Exam. of an invisible problem
Applications of Thermal Imaging
 Thermal Imaging helps find/solve problems in
electrical circuits
 Overloaded systems or
excessive current
 Loose or corroded connections
 Component failures
 Wiring mistakes
 Under-specified components
 Power quality problems like
Image shown here is Picture-In-Picture (PIP) mode where
center ¼ of image is IR surrounded by ¾ visible
phase unbalance, overload
or harmonic distortion
 Insulation failures
 The use of one technology does
not exclude the use of another.
Thermal Imaging helps find/solve problems in
electric motors
 Over-heating due to:

 reduced cooling airflow

 under sized
 electrical insulation
degradation in windings

 Bearing ware due to:

 poor lubrication
 miss alignment
 excess belt tension
Thermal Imaging helps find/solve problems of
moisture in buildings

 Water entering building

structure through:
 leaks in building envelop
 failed and poorly installed plumbing
 Condensation caused by:
 improper construction
 poor building management
 air leakage

All of which can cause health, comfort, safety and financial issues
Thermal Imaging helps find/solve problems of air
leakage
 Poor construction
• Leaks around envelop penetrations
like:

 Chimneys
 Plumbing vents
 HVAC lines
 Utility lines
• Leaks around window and doors
• Poorly installed siding and wraps
 Damaged and misfit heat ducts
Basic Terminologies
 Infrared Radiation
Infrared radiation is electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths longer
than visible light but shorter than microwaves

 Infrared radiation is radiated heat that cannot be seen by our eyes but
can be sensed by our skin.

 All objects, whatever their temperature, emit infrared radiation.

 The intensity of infrared radiation depends on the temperature and a

surface property termed “emissivity”.
 Temperature
 Temperature is a measure of hotness and/or coldness

 It is a measure of the molecular vibration in an object relative to

the molecular vibration in other objects
 Molecules vibrate faster in warmer objects and slower in cooler
objects

 Fahrenheit and Celsius are the most commonly used temperature

scales

 They use the freezing and boiling points of water as reference

points
 Temperature Scales
Kelvin Celsius Fahrenheit Rankin

373 100 212 672 Water Boiling Point

0 32 492 Water Freezing Point

273

Absolute Zero
0 -273 -460 0

 Thermal radiation from objects depends on the 4th power of the

absolute temperature, thus boiling water radiates 3.5 times as
much as ice
 Heat Transfer
 Heat always transfers from hotter to colder
 Steady state heat transfer is when the heat flow is constant with
time

 Example: A electric motor that has been operating continuously

for a period of time
 Transient heat transfer is when the temperature is constantly and
significantly changing

 Example: An engine starting up or cooling down

 Heat capacity of material must be considered in transient heat
transfer
Heat Transfer

Convection

Fluids & Gasses

 Conduction Heat Transfer
 Conduction is the transfer of heat from one molecule to another in a solid,
sometimes in a fluid

 Higher temperature molecules vibrate faster and transfer their energy to

adjacent cooler molecules that are vibrating slower
 If an object is totally isolated all the molecules will eventually come to
thermal equilibrium and vibrate at the same rate

 Metals are good conductors of heat; they conduct heat by electron flow as
well as molecule to molecule

 Nonmetals are generally poor conductors of heat

 Materials that entrap small pockets of dead air are very poor conductors
and are called insulators
 Conduction examples

 Heat is conducted away from a

corroded and high resistance
connection showing a temperature
gradient along the fuse

 Extruded rebar shows a lower

temperature exiting the die
because heat is conducted
from the surface of the bar to
the die
 And the bar surface
temperature reheats down
stream from internal heat
conducted from the center of
the bar to the surface
 Conduction examples

 Heat conducted through the

ceiling shows missing insulation
and joist pattern

 Heat is conducted
along copper bus bar
away from resistive
connection
Combined Conduction and Convection Examples

 Heat from outside is conducted

through siding, convected inside
empty wall cavity, conducted through
inside wall board and convected into
air conditioned room

 Heat is convected onto inside wall and

ceiling, conducted through insulation
and stud structure and convected to the
outside air

 Convection air currents don’t flow in

corners very well causing cold spot at
ceiling
 Convection mixing

 Warm water discharge from Power Plant is mixed with cooler river water
 Radiation Heat Transfer
 Radiation is different from convection and conduction

 Radiation does not require a medium

 Conduction and Convection are linearly proportional to
temperature difference
 Radiation from a surface is proportional to the four power of
absolute temperature
 Heat exchange between two objects involves complex
relationships of geometry, emissivity and surrounding objects
 Be aware wind can effect temperature

85F 76F 72F 117F 95F 81F

15 mph wind T = 13F T = 36F No wind

 Thermal Capacitance
 Heat capacitance can both confuse or aid an inspection because it
affects the rate of temperature change

 Water heats and cools slowly because of its high heat capacity
 Air heats and cools rapidly because of its low heat capacity

 Which has the highest thermal capacitance?

- Copper
- Steel
- Brick
- Wood
- Water
 Heat Capacity

 Thermal capacitance can help find

the liquid level in a tank.

 Also leaks in a flat roof, Sun heats

roof and after Sun goes down dry
insulation cools faster than higher
heat capacity wet insulation
 Phase Change

 Material can exist in three states -- Solid, Liquid and Gas

 To change state, energy must be added or removed
 Energy required to heat one pound of water at different states is shown
below

Steam
(0.489 BTU/F)
970 BTU
212F

Liquid Water (1BTU/F)

143
BTU
32F

Ice (0.465 BTU/F)

Thermography takes advantage of water to vapor phase change

 Phase Change Provides Moisture Detection

 Evaporation of the water into vapor

draws heat from wall
 Infrared Equipment Operation

 Thermography Definition and Benefits

 How a Thermal Imager Works
 Thermography Physics
 How Does an Imager Measure Temperature
 Imager Optics

 Imager Features
 Thermography Examples
Infrared Equipment Operation/Working
 How do we get the picture?
 Each of the thousands of elements, or pixels, contain an accurate
temperature value. The Imager, through the use of a complex set of
algorithms, assign specific colors that correspond exactly with the
temperature value found at the specific X Y coordinate.

 Some cameras save a simple

picture which does not actually
contain any measurements.

XXX Elements
 Fully radiometric cameras store the
actual temperature measurements
which can be brought into a PC
later for analysis.
 Radiometric Imagers
It’s like having
Thousands of
infrared
thermometers in
one instrument

When a thermal imager camera captures an image, all the

background data is also saved along with the picture allowing in-
depth post processing analysis.
 Inside IR PC Software
Image Analysis and Sharing

Insert accurate point

measurements or
Min/Max/Average area
Turn on a temperature measurements
grid
 Array Sizes
 Most Imager manufacturers provide imagers with either 320 by 240
or 160 by 120 arrays
 Advantages

 320 by 240 arrays have four times as many pixels and if they have
the same overall array dimensions and all other things being equal
the imager will have four times finer detail

 Imagers made with 160 by 120 arrays are less expensive but
adequate for the majority of users/applications
 How does it work?
 Every object emits infrared energy / heat

 12,280 / 19,200 / 76,800 sensors measure the energy emitted by

the object and produce a digital thermal image

 Sensors can detect temperature changes as slight as 1/7th degree

Fahrenheit

 The minimum temperature difference that a Thermal Imager can

measure is called Thermal Sensitivity or Noise Equivalent
Temperature Difference (NETD)
 Comparison of Detector Type

160 x 120 320 x 240

Important temperature measurement variables

 Surface Emissivity
 Surface thermal reflectivity
 Background temperature
 Thermal capacitance
 Angle of view
 System load
 Target distance
 Camera settings
 Heat transfer
 Solar and wind conditions
 Reflection, Absorption and Transmission
 When IR radiation strikes an object surface
only three things can happen:
 Some can be reflected () 
 Some can be absorbed as heat ()
 Some can pass through the object () ρ 

 From 1st Law of Thermodynamics

++=1
 From Kirchhoff’s Law: emissivity () = absorptivity ()
Therefore  +  +  = 1
 Transmission

 Most materials are opaque (not transparent)

 Some materials are partially transparent:
 Atmosphere

 IR Lens materials
 Thin film plastics
ρ =0

 For opaque materials  = 0,  = 1 - 

 This relationship is fundamental to the operation of a thermal imager
 Imager Temperature Measurement

TB

TT
W
W
W

 Single detector element is focused on target spot receiving

radiation emitted from target W, background radiation
reflected off target W and transmitted radiation from
behind target W
 Only emitted radiation tells us surface temperature and
the imager must eliminate reflected and transmitted
radiation to measure it
 Imager Temperature Measurement

TB

TT
W
W
W

WTotal = Wemitted + Wreflected + WTransmitted

= T TT4 + T TB4 +0
T = 1 - T
WTotal = T TT4 + (1 - T) TB4

The operator must tell the imager what and background temperature, then the imager can
is the emissivity calculate target temperature
 Selecting the Correct Emissivity Value
 Only emitted radiation tells us surface temperature and the imager must
eliminate reflected and transmitted radiation to measure it

 Rules of thumb

 Use 0.95 for all painted target surface independent of color

 If unpainted or un-corroded metal use 0.2 or lower

 Values for common materials are found in the imager owners manual, in
the PC software, internet sources and on some Imagers

 If the target emissivity is unknown use the Imager to measure it

 Use the tape method

 Background Temperature

 Ways of estimating the background temperature

 Use room temperature

 Take images of the background
 Use an aluminum foil curtain

Camera
Crumpled
Aluminum Foil Target
Curtain

 Crumpled kitchen foil smoothed to act like a diffuse reflector

 Selecting Background Temperature

 Background temperature is the temperature of the surround behind

and to the sides of the camera where reflected radiation emanates
from
 Often the background temperature has little effect on the target
temperature measurement

 Target emissivity is high

 Target temperature is higher than the background

WTotal = T TT4 + (1 - T) TB4

>
 Selecting Background Temperature (cont’d)
 For Example: TT = 70F, TB = 65F, and T = 0.95

WTotal = T TT4 + (1 - T) TB4

> 5
100

 But if the target temperature and emissivity are low, background

temperature is very important
 For Example: TT = 20F, TB = 70F, and T = 0.10

2.1 < 32.4

 What to do? Use tape making the emissivity 0.95

 Diffuse versus Specular Targets

 If the target reflects diffusely the background

radiation measured by the camera comes
from all around
 If the target is specular (mirror-like) the
background radiation comes from specific
point
 Example of a Specular Target

Image of window shows

high specular reflection

Two hot spots are not in the

window pane, they are
reflections from hanging
light fixtures

To identify reflections from real hot or cold spots move

camera; if spots move they are reflections
 Measuring Emissivity Example

White tape
Black tape

Hole with
emissivity
of 1.00

 Place electricians tape (any color) on

surface and take image
 Record tape temperature using 0.95 Label E Ave T
emissivity
A1 0.95 90.24
 In same image place cursor on target
surface next to tape A2 0.95 90.39

 Adjust camera emissivity until the A3 1.00 90.23

temperature reading equals that of the
A4 0.28 90.41
tape
Controlling “Level & Span”

Span = 20.1F
 Level and Span
 Level and Span can be adjusted
 to fixed span temperatures or
 to automatically rescale based on the maximum and minimum
temperature in image
 Narrow span produces more thermal detail
 Wider span produces less thermal detail
 Saturation colors will appear when the image temperatures
are above or below the manually set span

For example: When viewing a face, the image will show much
more detail if the span is held to 10°F with the level at 92°F to
94°F.
 Building - “Level & Span”

Manually scaled with

hottest spot saturated

Auto Scaled
including hot spot
 Level and Span (cont’d)

Manual scaling
shows more IR
colors on
transformer and
small saturated point

Auto Scaled
 FOV, IFOV & IFOVm
 Field of View (FOV) is total target area seen by imager, usually
expressed in degrees


d

Focal
Length Distance to target

Detector Lens Target

Array
 FOV, IFOV & IFOVm (cont’d)

 Instantaneous Field of Viewmeasured (IFOVm)

is the target area required by a single
detector to accurately measure the
temperature of a target area, usually
expressed in milli-radians.

 IFOVm is usually 2 to 5 times larger than

IFOV
 Interchangeable lenses
 Standard (20mm)
 Suited for most applications
 Ideal for general purposes

 Wide angle (10.5mm)

 Sees a larger surface at shorter distances
 Ideal for cramped spaces

 Long distance (54mm)

 Sees more detail at longer distances
 Ideal for power line insulators/transformers
 Lens Options

Standard Wide Angle Telephoto

 FOV, IFOV for 160 by 120 Imagers
Horz Vert
40 30 3.0

33.3 25 2.5

Pixel Size (inches)-- IFOVm

Target Size (feet) -- FOV

26.7 20 2.0

20 15 1.5

13.3 10 1.0

6.7 5 0.5

0 0 0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Distance to Target (feet)
 320 by 240 versus 160 by 120

320 by 240 160 by 120

76,800 pixels shows 19,200 pixels

additional small
feature details
 Spot Size
 Spot Size is the area on target seen by single detector similar to IFOV

 Usually used to spec point radiometers

 Expressed as a ratio, like 60:1 which means at 60 ft. the measurement
spot on the target is 1ft square or at 30 inches the spot is ½ inch
square

Spot Size

Target

Spot Size > Target Area Spot Size < Target Area
 IFOVm example

Hot spot is seen but temperature Move closer to measure it!

may not be best accuracy
because spot size includes
surrounding area
 Focus is CRITICAL
 Focusing an IR imager is less sharp than a visible camera

 far more elements in a visible detector array

 Infrared images are naturally less sharp
* IR wave lengths are more than an order of magnitude longer
* visible light cameras generally measure reflected radiation not
emitted; IR imagers must measure emitted radiation to determine
temperature
* sharp edges can exist between a black line and a white line but
sharp edges can not exist between a hot line and a cold line

 Best focus is critical for accurate temperature measurements

 Anything but focus can be modified/optimized later with PC software
 Best Focus Practices
 Look for edges
 Hold imager still
 Some people find best results with gray scale -
human eye most often can focus best in black
and white
 Checking your imager calibration

 As with any sophisticated piece of equipment, having

the calibration check is a good habit.
 Routinely check basic calibration before each scan.
Here are a few simple test you can perform
 Check the tear duct of a work partner (recommend the same
person)
 Check an ice bath to verify camera performance at 0O C
 Check boiling water to verify camera performance at 100O C
 Acquire a blackbody reference in one of your common temp
ranges

The tear-duct shows the core body temperature (around 98.6°F or 37°C) and fluctuates very little
Acceptance Criteria
Generic Rule

MIL-STD-2194
 Thermal Imaging (TI) Camera

For everyday troubleshooting and maintenance

 Ti Main Features

 Large crisp images

 Made for rough environments
 Easy-to-use
 Flexible data storage
 Voice annotation
 Free of charge, unlicensed PC software
 Large widescreen display

 3.5 inch

 640 x 480 pixels resolution

 Crystal clear images

 For rough environments

 Engineered and tested to

withstand a 6.5 ft drop
 Withstands dust and water: IP 54
rating
 Integrated protective lens cover
 No string to get in the way or cause
dangerous situations close to rotating
equipment
 Works in ambient temperatures
from 14oF to 122oF and measures
up to 662oF
 Thermography found loose connections

Connections
hotter than
normal
 Thermography found hidden overheated part

Heat from hidden

part produces
elevated
temperature on
outer surface via
heat conduction
Thermography works especially well with multiple units

Far-right
compressor
is obviously
off
 Thermography helped make house greener

Large air leak

causes cold
spot on ceiling
Thermography helped plumbers find water leak in building
heating system

Plumbing
leak in
cement floor
caused hot
spot
Thermography helps inspect power plant equipment

Baseline for feed

water pump
Thermography helped distinguish between loose connection
and overloaded circuit

Loose
connection,
fuse hot on
one end only

Overloaded
circuit fuse
hot on both
ends
Thermography helped identify overheated pole transformer

Transformer
problem easily
identified from a
distance
 Thermography helped identify a worn belt

2
Hot v-belt
stressed due
to wear and/or
misalignment

6
 Thermography helped identify tank fill levels

Subject to
warming from
the Sun the high
heat capacity of
oil keeps tank
wall lower
temperature
than the lower
heat capacity of
air above the oil
Calibration Chamber Power
Poor Electrical Plug Near Failure
Contact

Before Repair After Repair

 Three Phase Fuse

Phase
imbalance
 Loose Fuse Socket

Extra
resistance at
one end of
fuse socket
 Transformer Cooling

Some cooling
tubes appear to
be plugged
Overheated transformer, P1 was 350oF due to cooling oil
leak had exposed top of coil

Near catastrophic failure! Found and managed until

normal factory shut down
Most likely caused by high resistance or corrosion on the
connector
 Motor control centers

Inspect lug connections and also look for subtle patterns that
may be caused by internal contacts or connections to the bus
Wrong washer used in 3 phase connection on 150 HP motor

3-Phase connection with galvanized steel 3-Phase connection with copper

washer washer

3-phase connection
box
 Motors
Uneven heating in an electrical motor will reduce the life and
efficiency of the motor if not properly addressed

For each 10ºC (18ºF) rise over maximum

rated temperature, approximately ½ the life
of a motor is lost due to insulation failure!
 Natural Gas Compressor

Uneven temperatures on
cover of lower left cylinder
alerted maintenance to
investigate and find faulty
valve in natural gas
compressor
 Small bearings

 No other method is as
effective or fast for
small bearings
 Small bearing failures 117.8°F
can result in fire,
mechanical stress, belt 115

wear, and increased 110

electrical loads 105

100

95

93.7°F
Bearings/couplings

 May be difficult to see if

guard is in place
 Temperature varies
depending on type
Rotating cement kilns

3
3

1
Steam Traps

 Determine
valve on/off
and leakage
 Process monitoring

 Example of
spray
cooling
 Liquid Tank Levels

Sludge buildup
found at bottom
of tank

Fill level clearly

identified 0

-
L I
 Solid Tank Levels

Dry grain fill

levels can be seen
in elevator
storage

Location of wet and

possibly spoiled grain
can also be seen
 Roof inspection

Wet spots under roof membrane

 Typical patterns

 Patterns vary with:

 Roof type
 Insulation type
 Deck
 Conditions
 Non-absorbent insulation
types are more difficult to
inspect
 Air Infiltration

Clearly shows air

infiltration through
poor door seal
Bridge Deck / In-Floor Heating
 Subsurface Anomalies

 Locate lines and utilities in walls, floors or underground

 Building Envelope

Moisture remaining in
wall after 2 days of
extensive drying

Missing
insulation
Located missing cement fill in block wall