Magnetic Properties of Materials: Agnetic Ield

7
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
OF MATERIALS
7.1. INTRODUCTION
After the discovery by Oersted in 1820 that an electric current is always
accompanied by a magnetic field, Ampere proposed the theory of magnetic properties
of materials. According to him, each atom of a magnetic substance is a tiny magnet
with two poles constituting a dipole. These dipoles originate due to the current loops
of electrons in atomic orbits and, thus, atom has a magnetic dipole moment. Each
electron in an atom has an orbital magnetic moment due to its orbital motion. A spin
magnetic moment also results due to its spin motion about its own axis. The resultant
magnetic moment of the atom is the vector sum of all such magnetic moments. In
the natural state of the atoms, the magnetic moments of the atoms are randomly
oriented and hence the net magnetic moment is zero. When an external magnetic
field is applied to the magnetic material, the equivalent magnetic moment is aligned
along the external magnetic field and hence the material is magnetized.
7.2. PARAMETERS USED TO DESCRIBE MAGNETIC
PROPERTIES
→
7.2.1 MAGNETIC F IELD B
We define the space around a current carrying conductor or a magnet as the
site of a magnetic field. The magnetic field around a moving charge exists in addition
to the electrostatic field which surrounds the charge whether the charge is in motion
or not. The magnetic field, like the electric field, is a vector field and its magnitude
→
and direction at any point is specified by a vector B , called the magnetic induction
or magnetic flux density.
→
Magnetic filed can be represented by lines, called lines of induction. B is related
to its line of induction in the following ways:
(i) The tangent drawn at any point to a line of induction gives the direction of
→
B at that point.
(ii) The number of lines of induction per unit area gives an idea about the
→
magnitude of the magnetic field vector B . This field is large if lines are
closer and is small if they are far apart.
→
In a uniform magnetic field, where the B vector has the same magnitude and
direction at all points, the lines of induction are parallel and straight. The lines of
→
induction simply give a graphical representation of the variation of B throughout a
certain region of space.
7.310 Engineering Physics
The number of lines of induction passing through any arbitrary area in a

magnetic field is defined as magnetic flux. Thus the total magnetic flux crossing a
finite area S is given by
→ →
f= ∫s B.d S = ∫s BdS cos θ ...(7.1)
→ →
where q is the angle between the vectors B and S .
When a magnetic material is placed in an external
→ → →
magnetic field H , it gets magnetised. The magnetism dS B
produced in the material is called induced magnetism and θ
the phenomenon is called magnetic induction. The number
dS
of lines of induction inside a magnetised material crossing
normally the unit area is called the magnetic flux density
→
B inside the material.
→ Fig. 7.1.
Regarding magnetic field vector B , it is worth noting
that :
(a) It is a vector quantity having dimensions
F [ MLT −2 ] −2 −1
[B] = = = [ MT A ]
m0 [ AL ]
(b) Its SI unit is
N J V −s Wb
= 2 = = 2 = tesla (T)
A×m A−m m2 m
while the CGS unit is Gauss with
1 Wb/ m2 = 104 Gauss
→
(c) If in a field at a point B = 0, the point is called the neutral point. Neutral
points in a field exist only if there is superposition of fields and they cancel
each other’s effect at certain points.
→
The divergence of magnetic field vector B is always zero, because, in
nature, free or isolated magnetic poles (i.e., monopoles) do not exist. In other
words, lines of induction neither originate from nor terminate on certain definite
points, rather these are closed curves. Thus if we consider an arbitrary closed surface,
the number of lines of induction entering it is equal to that emanating out of it. Hence
the net magnetic flux coming out of a closed surface in a magnetic field is always
zero,
→ →
i.e., f = ∫s B . d S = 0 ...(7.2)
From Gauss’s divergence theorem
→
∫s
div B . dV = 0
As volume V is arbitrary, hence
→
→
div B = ∇ . B = 0 ...(7.3)
This is one of the basic equations of electromagnetism which indicates the
absence of monopoles.
Magnetic Properties of Materials 7.311
→
7.2.2 MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY OR MAGNETISING FIELD H
→
The site of magnetic field in matter or in a medium is represented by vector B .
→
The value of magnetic induction B depends on the medium (matter). This site can
→
also be represented by another vector H which does not depend on the medium
→
(matter). In other words, the value of vector H at nay point P does not depend on
→
whether the point is situated in vacuum or in medium. The vector H is called
magnetic field intensity or magnetising field. The relation between magnetic
→ →
induction B and magnetising field H is
→ →
B = mH ....(7.4)
where the constant m, in general, is a tensor quantity which is called the magnetic
permeability tensor of the medium (matter). For isotropic media m is a scalar
quantity. It is called the magnetic Permeability of the medium. For vacuum
m = m0
→ →
\ B = m0 H
→
The SI unit of H is ampere/ metre (A/m) while CGS unit is oersted (Oe). The
relation between the two is
1 A/m = 4p × 10–3 Oe
→ →
Comparison of B and H
→ →
S. No Magnetic field B Magnetising field H
1. It is a magnetic field due to total It is a magnetic field due to free current only i.e.,
current (i.e., bound and free both) → →
→
the source of H is J . free .
→
i..e., the source of B is J total
→ →
Curl B = ì 0 . J total
→ →
2. Curl H = J . free
→ →
= ì 0 ( J m + J free )
→ → →
3. div B = 0 everywhere div H = div I

→
Hence div H is not zero on the boundary of
magnetic material
→ → → → →
4. The line integral of B around a
→
Ñ∫
H . d s = J free i.e., the line integral of H
closed path depends on both J m around a closed path depends only on free current
→ →
and J free flowing through the J free flowing through the surface of closed path
surface of closed path
→ → →
5. The dimensions of B are those of The dimensions of H are those of I and its unit
→
m0 I and its unit is weber/meter2 is Ampere/metre.
or Tesla.
→
Note : (1) According to the relation div B = 0, the macroscopic magnetic
→ → →
field in matter is B and not H . Hence B is the fundamental magnetic field vector.
→ →
(2) Though B is more fundamental vector, but practically H can be directly
→
→
controlled by changing the free current while direct control on I and B is
comparatively less.
→
7.2.3 INTENSITY OF MAGNITISATION OR MAGNETISATION I
When a magnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, the magnetic dipoles
due to elementary current loops get aligned with the field and hence the material
acquires the magnetic moment. Consequently the field lines of induction get
redistributed. The magnetic moment acquired by unit volume of material is defined
as the intensity of magnetisation of that medium or material. It is represented by
→
vector I . Thus
→
→ M
I = ...(7.5)
V
→
where V is the volume of material and M is its total magnetic moment
→
The value of magnetic induction B depends on the medium (matter). If the
→ →
magnetic field vectors in free space and in a given medium are B 0 and B respectively
then
→ →
B − B0
→
I = ...(7.6)
µ0
where the constant m0 is the magnetic permeability of free space. Its value is m 0
= 4p × 10–7 weber/ ampere –metre
If the magnetised material is in the form of a bar of length l and area of cross
section a, then V = al and magnetic moment M = ml, where m is the pole strength,
then
ml m
I= = ...(7.7)
αl α
→ →
Hence, intensity of magnetisation may B0 or H
also be defined as the pole strength per unit → →
S M N N M S
area at right angles to the direction of
magnetisation. It is a vector quantity having
P o sitive I N e ga tive I
direction of magnetising field or opposite to it
as shown in Fig. 7.2. Its unit is (A/m) and Fig. 7. 2.
dimensions [AL–1]
7.2.4 MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY k

When a magnetic material is placed in an external magnetic field, magnetisation
→ →
I is produced in it. The value of magnetisation I depends both on the nature of
→ →
material as well as the magnetising field H . In majority of materials I is directly
→
proportional to the magnetising field H , i.e.,
→ → → →
I α H or I =→ χ H
I
or c= → ...(7.8)
H
The constant of proportionality c is called the magnetic susceptibility of the
medium. It may be defined as the ratio of intensity of magnetisation (I) to the
magnetising field (H). It is a measure of the capability of the material to take up
magnetisation.
In general c is a tensor quantity and is called the magnetic susceptibility
tensor. For isotropic media it is a dimensionless scalar quantity which is called
magnetic susceptibility or volume susceptibility. It is a characteristic of the material
of the medium.
The ratio of volume susceptibility to the density of the material is defined as
mass susceptibility or specific susceptibility, i.e.,
χ
χ mass = ...(7.9)
d
3
Its unit is metre /kg.
The product of mass susceptibility and molecular weight of the material is
defined as molar susceptibility. i.e.,
χ nolar = χ mass × M = χM ...(7.10)
d
7.2.5 MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY µ
When a magnetic material is placed in an external magnetic field, it gets
magnetised by induction with its N-pole nearest the S-pole of the magnetising field
and vice versa. The lines of force of the external magnetising field get concentrated
inside the material.
The degree to which the lines of force can penetrate the medium or material is
known as its permeability.
→
The magnetic flux density B is directly proportional to the magnetising field
→
H , i.e.,
→ →
Bα H →
→
or B = µH ....(7.11)
where m is a constant of proportionality and is called the permeability of the medium.
If the medium is air or vacuum, the Eq. (7.11) takes the form
→ →
B0 = µ 0 H ...(7.12)
where m0 is the absolute permeability of free space.
The ratio m to m0is defined as the relative permeability (mr) of the material
and hence expressed as,
µ
mr = ...(7.13)
µ0
7.2.6 RELATION BETWEEN PERMEABILITY AND SUSCEPTIBILITY
When a magnetic material is placed in a magnetising field for its magnetisation,
→
the field inside the magnetic material is the resultant of the magnetising field B 0 and
→
the induced field B i , i.e.,
→ → →
B = B0 + Bi
But by definition of intensity of magnetisation and magnetising field
→ → →
B i = µ 0 I and B 0 = m0H
→ → →
So, B = µ0 ( H + I ) ....(7.14)
FGI IJ
or B = µ0 1 + HH
H
K
or B = µ 0 (1 + χ) H (Q χ = I / H ) ...(7.15)
or B = mH
where m = m0 (1 + c) ....(7.16)
is the magnetic permeability of the medium or material.
µ
or mr = = 1 + c (3µ r = µ / µ 0 ) ...(7.17)
µ0
This is the desired result.
Example 7.1: A magnetic field of 20 oersted produces a flux of 2400
Maxwell in a bar of iron of cross-section 0.2 cm2. Calculate the permeability
and susceptibility of the bar.
Solution: We know that
φ
B= = mH
A
φ
or m=
AH
Here f = 2400 Maxwell = 2400 × 10–8 weber
A = 0.2 cm2 = 0.2 × 10–4 m2
H = 2 Oe = 20/ 4p × 10–3A/m
\ The permeability of bar material
2400 × 10−8 × 4 π × 10−3

m=
2 × 10−5 × 20
= 7.54 ×10–4 henry /metre Ans.
Again m = µ 0 (1 + χ)
or c = µ µ0 – 1
4 π × 6 × 10−5
= – 1 = 599 Ans.
4 π × 10−7
Example 7.2: An iron rod 20 cm long, 1 cm in diameter and of relative
permeability 1000 is placed inside a solenoid 1m long wound uniformly with
600 turns. If the current of 0.5 ampere is passed through the solenoid, find the
magnetic moment of the rod.
M
B = m0(I + H) = mH, I = ,
V
mr = m/m0, H = hi, V =pr2l
\ M = (mr–1)ni . pr2l
Here mr = 1000, n = 600/m,
i = 0.5 A, r = 0.5 cm = 0.5 × 10–2m and l = 0.2m
\ M = (1000 – 1) × 600 × 0.5 × 3.14 × (0.5 × 10–2)2 ×0.2
= 4.239 Amp–m2
Example 7.3: The magnetic susceptibility of a medium is 948 × 10–11.
Calculate the permeability and relative permeability.
[UPTU B. Tech I 2000]
Solution: The relative permeability is given by
mr = 1 + c
= 1 + 948 × 10–11 ~ _ 1 or > 1 Ans.
i.e., the relative permeability is slightly greater than one. If m is the permeability
of the medium and m0 that of vacuum, then
m = m0mr
= 4p × 10–7 × 1 = 4p × 10–7 H/m Ans.
3
Example 7.4: A magnetic material of volume 30 cm is placed in a magnetic
field of intensity 5 oersted. The magnetic moment produced due to it is 6 amp–
m2. Calculate the value of magnetic induction.
B = m0(I + H) and I = M/V
LM MOP
\
N
B = µ0 H +
V Q
5
Here m0 = 4p × 10–7, H = 5 Oe = A/m
4 π × 10 −3
M = 6 A – m2 and V = 30 cm3 = 30 × 10–6 m3
LM 5 +
6 OP
\ B = 4p × 10–7 ×
N 4π × 10 −3
30 × 10−6 Q
= 0.2517 Tesla. Ans.
Example 7.5: A magnetising field of 2 × 103 amp/m produces a magnetic
flux density of 8p Tesla in an iron rod. Determine the value of relative permeability.
µ µH B
Solution: mr = = =
µ0 µ0H µ0 H
Here B = 8p T, m0 = 4p × 10–7H/m
and H = 2 × 103 amp /m
8π
\ mr = −7 = 104 Ans.
4 π × 10 × 2 × 103
Example 7.6: The inner and the outer radii of a toroid are 9 cm and
11 cm respectively and the number of turns in it is 3140. A magnetic field of
2.5 tesla is produced in its core when a current of 0.5 ampere is passed through
it. What is the relative permeability of the core ?
Solution: The mean radius of toroid is
ri + r0 9 + 11
r = = = 10 cm = 0.1m
2 2
For a toroid
µNi 2πrB
B = or m =
2 πr Ni
\ Relative permeability
2πrB 2 πrB
mr = =
Ni µ 0 Ni
Here r = 0.1 m, B = 2.5 T, m0 = 4p × 10–7H/m, N = 3140, i = 0.5 A
2π × 01 . × 2.5
\ mr = −7 = 796.2 Ans.
4 π × 10 × 3140 × 0.5
Example 7.7: A magnetising filed of 5000 A/m produces a magnetic flux
of 5 × 10 –5 weber in an iron rod. If the area of cross-section of the rod is
0.5 cm2, determine
(a) permeability of the rod
(b) magnetic susceptibility of the rod
(c) intensity of magnetisation in the rod
Solution: (a)B = f/A = mH
φ
or m =
AH
Here f = 5 × 10–5 wb, A = 0.5 × 10–4 m2 and H = 5 × 103 A/m
5 × 10 −5
\ m = = 2 × 10–4 H/m Ans.
5 × 10 −5 × 5 × 10 3
(b) We know that
mr = µ µ 0 = 1 + c
\ c = µ µ0 – 1
2 × 10−4
= – 1 = 158.2 Ans.
4 π × 10 −7
(c) We know that
I
c = or I = cH
H
or I = 158.2 × 5 × 103
= 7.9 × 105 A/m Ans.
7.3. CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS
→
The magnetic induction B0 inside a long solenoid which has a core of vacuum
or air is m0ni, where m0 is the magnetic permeability of free space, n is the number
of turns per unit length of solenoid and i is the current passed in the solenoid. If the
→
core is replaced by any other magnetic material and the value of B in the material
is experimentally measured, one of the following three results is obtained for any
material.
B < B0
B > B0
B >> B0
On the basis of these observations, magnetic materials have been classified
into three categories; diamagnetic (B < B0), paramagnetic (B > B0), and ferromagnetic
(B >> B0). Other classes of materials which in structure are close to ferromagnetic
materials but posses different magnetic effects are antiferromagnetic and
ferrimagnetic.
The properties of various magnetic materials are determined by their behaviour
in an external magnetic field and the presence of magnetic moment in them.
7.3.1 DIAMAGNETIC MATERIALS
1. These are materials which are very weakly repelled by the magnetic field.
Hence
(a) When kept in a magnetic field a diamagnetic sample experiences a force
from stronger to the weaker part of the field, e.g. if a diamagnetic material is placed
near a pole piece of magnet it would experience a force away from the pole. This
force is so weak that generally due to the presence of other opposing force such as
friction etc. the effect is hardly observable.
Therefore, to observe such effect the several experiments on liquid diamagnetic
materials may be performed. These give a clear indication of the existence of the
force of repulsion.
(b) If we place a liquid diamagnetic sample in a watch glass on the pole pieces
of a magnet, then liquid level does not remain horizontal rather a marked depression
is observed in the region of strong magnetic field which is in the middle. Remember
if the watch glass is kept on the two opposite pieces of magnets at considerable
distance then the strongest field would be near the poles and field would be rather
weak in the centre. Hence, observation would be opposite.
(c) If a diamagnetic liquid sample is kept in a U-tube and only one of the limbs
of U-tube is kept in magnetic field, then liquid level would be depressed in the limb
which is inside the magnetic field.
(e) If a diamagnetic gas is diffused in a certain region of space having magnetic

field, gas would diffuse from stronger to the weaker part of the field or it would
diffuse outside the field.
(d) If a long thin sample of a diamagnetic meaterial is kept a uniform magnetic
field, it sets its longer dimension perpendicular to the filed.
(f) If a diamagnetic sample is kept in a magnetic field, the flux through the
sample is less than the flux which would be present in the same region of space in
the absence of the sample.
(2) Diamagnetic materials are those materials which do not have net magnetic
moment per atom, i.e., which have all paired electrons.
(3) Temperature has hardly any effect on diamagnetism or cm of a sample.
(4) For these materials, relative permeability is less than 1 or mr < 1.
(5) For these materials susceptibility c is small and negative, i.e, these materials
get magnetised in a direction opposite to the magnetising field.
(6) Applied magnetic field accelerates and decelerates the orbiting electrons.
7.3.2 P ARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS
(1) These are materials which are weakly attracted by the external magnetic
fields. Hence, in experiments (a) to (f) explained above just opposite effects would
be observed for paramagnetic materials, i.e., they experience a weak attraction
from weaker to the stronger part for any nonuniform magnetic field. The liquid
paramagnetic sample would be collected in the stronger region of the field. Flux
would be more through the sample than in the same region in the absence of the
sample.
(2) These are materials which have small net magnetic moment per atom, i.e.,
they have at least one unpaired electron.
(3) For these materials, permeability is a little more then 1,i.e., mr > 1.
(4) Susceptibility of these materials is small but positive, i.e., these materials
get magnetised in the direction of magnetising field.
(5) Susceptibility of these materials decreases with the rise in temperature,
C
i.e., cm = . This is known as Curie law.
T
(6) Applied external magnetic field tries to orient the electronic orbits in such
type of materials.
7.3.3 FERROIMAGNETIC MATERIALS
(1) These are materials which are very strongly attracted towards the magnetic
field. The force of attraction is so strong that even movement of small solid sample
can be observed easily. You must have observed movement of light iron pieces
towards a magnet. Therefore, in all experiments explained under the headings (a) to
(f) above, much stronger effects are observed than in case of paramagnetic materials.
(2) Even these materials can be magnetised, they retain magnetism for quite
long time. It is due to this property, it has been possible for us to design artificial
magnets.
(3) These are materials which have large magnetic moments associated with
each atom. In fact, these are transition elements Fe, Co and Ni which have inner
electronic levels empty and outer occupied. Such electronic configuration is responsible
for large number of atoms interact and point in the same direction. Such small
regions are called magnetic domains. Hence, it can be said that ferromagnetic
materials are those which have magnetic domains.
(4) For these materials, permeability is large and greater than one mr>> 1.
(5) Susceptibility of these materials is a large positive number or cm >> 1.
(6) Magnetic behavior of ferromagnetic materials decreases with rise in
temperature. For every ferromagnetic material, there exists a temperature called
Curie temperature such that above Curie temperature the material behaves like a
paramagnetic material, whereas below this it behaves like a ferromagnetic material.
(7) Applied magnetic field simply orients magnetic moments of magnetic domains
as such.
(8) In fact, diamagnetism is inherent in every material but it is so weak an
effect that if substance is para- or ferromagnetic, its diamagnetism is hardly
observable.
7.3.4 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS
S. Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic
No Property substances substances substances
1. Cause of Orbital motion of Spin motion of Formation of
magnetism electron unpaired electrons domains
2. Explanation On the basis of On the basis of spin On the basis of
of magnetism orbital motion of and orbital motion of domains formed.
electrons electrons
3. State of These are weakly These get weekly These get strongly
magnetisation magnetised in a magnetised the magnetised in the
direction opposite to direction of applied direction of applied
that of applied magnetic field magnetic field.
magnetic field
4. Behavior in a These are freely These are feebly These are strongly
nonuniform repelled in an external attracted in an external attracted in an
magnetic field magnetic field, i.e., magnetic field, i.e., external magnetic
have a tendency to have a tendency to field., i.e. have an
move from high to move from low to high easy tendency to
low field region. field region. move from low to
high field region.
5. When a rod The materials align The materials align The materials easily
of the material themselves at right themselves along the align themselves in
is suspended angles to the direction of magnetic the direction of
between the direction of magnetic field. magnetic field.
pole pieces of field.
a magnet.
N . S N S N S
(a )
(a ) (a )
N S N S N S
(b ) (b ) (b )
Fig. 7.3. Fig. 7.4. Fig. 7.4.
6. Liquid or powder (a) The liquid gets (a) The liquid gets (a) The powder is
in a watch glass bulged in the middle slightly depressed in very much
when placed the middle depressed in the
between the pole middle.
pieces (a) When N S
(a ) N S
poles are far apart
(b ) N S
(b) When poles (b) The powder or
are close to each liquid gets depressed (b) The power liquid (a )
other in the middle. gets bulged in the (b) The powder

middle. gets very much
N S
bulged in the
(b ) N S middle.
(b )
Fig.7.6.
Fig.7.7. N S
(b )
Fig.7.8.
7. When the material Liquid level in that Liquid level in that Ferromagnetism
in the form of limb gets depressed limb rises up not exhibited by
liquid is filled in N S liquids.
N S
the U-tube and
one limb placed
between pole
pieces.
Fig.7.9. Fig.7.10.
The gas expands The gas expands in Ferromagnetism

8. On placing the
right angles to the the direction of not exhibited by
gaseous materials
magnetic field. magnetic field. gases
between pole
pieces.
9. The value of The substance tends The substance

magneticinduction to expel out the lines tends to pull in the
B of force, i.e., lines of force, i.e.,
B < B0 B > B0. B >> B0
HereB0=magnetising
field in vacuum.
10. Magnetic Low and negative Low but positive Positive and high
susceptibly c c = – 10–5 c » 10–3 – 10–5 c = 102 –105
11. Dependence of c Does not depend Inversely 1

temperature (except proportional to
χα or
on temperature
absolute temperature
T − TC
Bi at low
1 C C
χ α or χ = . χ =
temperature)
T T T − TC . This is
This is called Curie called Curie-Weiss law.
law where C = Curie TC =Curie
constant. temperature.
χ
12. c–T Curve χ χ
t T
Fig. 7.11 . Tc
Fig. 7.13.
13. Dependence of Does depend Does depend
c on H
x H
Fig. 7.14.
14. Relative Slightly less than Slightly greater
Very large mr >> 1
permeability (mr) unity than unity
» 102 – 105
mr <1 mr > 1
15. Intensity of I is in a direction I is in the direction I is in the direction of

magnetisation opposite to that of of H, i.e., I is H, i.e., I is positive
(I) positve but value and value is very
H, i.e., I is negative
but value is low. is low high
16. I-H Curve –IµH IaH

I
I
I
H
H
H
FIG . 7.15. Fig. 7.16. Fig. 7.17.
17. Magnetic The value of M is The value of M is The value of M is

Moment (M) very low (» 0)and is very low and is in very high and is in the
in opposite direction the direction of H direction of H
to H.
18. Transition of These do not Paramagnetism These get converted

materials (at change decreases with into paramagnetic
Curie increase in materials above
temperature) tem perature Curie temperature
19. The property of Diamagnetism is Paramagnetism is Ferromagnetism is
magnetism found in the those found in those found in those
materials in the materials in which materials in which
atoms of which the the majority of large number of spins
number of electrons electron spins are group together to
is even aligned in same form domains and
direction each domain behaves
as miniature magnet.
20. Nature effect Distortion effect Orientation effect Hysteresis effect
21. Whether atoms Atoms do not have Atomshavepermanent Atoms have permanent
have permanent permanent dipole dipole moments dipole moments which
moment moment which are randomly are orgainsed in
oriented. domains
22. State of Can be in solid, Can be in solid, Can be in solid state
substance liquid and gaseous liquid or gaseous only, that too crystalline.
state state
23. Examples Hg, Pb, Cu, Ag, Au, K, Mg, Cr, Sn, Al, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Gd,
Zn, Bi, Sb, NaCl, Pt, Na, CuCl2, O2, Fe3O4 etc.
H 2 O, air, gases
diamond etc.
7.4 THEORY OF MAGNETISM

7.4.1 ELECTRIC DIPOLE MOMENT OF ATOM
According to the atomic theory atom consists of electron rotating along closed
orbited paths round the nucleas. The nucleus is a central heavy core consisting of
neutrons and protons. Let us consider a simple model of one electron of charge e
moving with speed v in a circular path of radius r round a nucleus with a proton
charge. At any instant, the electron and the proton would appear as an electric
dipole of dipole moment pE but the average value of pE over a complete round is
zero. Hence net electric field due to an atom at a certain distance is zero.
7.4.2 MAGNETIC MOMENT OF ELECTRON
The electron revolving with velocity v in a circular path of radius r is equivalent
to a current
i = e × frequency n = e (w/2p) = ev/2pr
We know that a current carrying loop is equivalent to a magnetic dipole. Hence
magnetic dipole moment of circulating electron is
mel = circulating current × area of loop
1
= (ev/2pr). pr2 = evr ... (7.18)
2
This is known as orbital magnetic moment of electron. In ordinary matter the

number of electrons revolving in one direction is equal to that in the reverse direction.
Hence the net orbital magnetic moment will be zero
in the absence of an external magnetic field.
B
Let us now see the effect of an external
→
magnetic field of flux density B .
Let the electron of mass me is revolving in F µ
→ r
anticlockwise direction and the magnetic field B
ms
is applied perpendicular to the plane of orbit in
→
downward direction (Fig 7.18). When the field B Fig.7.18.
change, the flux through the circular orbit will change and an induced emf e will then
set up, such that
dφ dB
e=– = – p r2
dtur uur dt
But e = – ∫ E. dl = – 2 p r E
1 dB
Hence, E= r
2 dt
This electric field will accelerate the electron, hence
dv er dB
me =eE=
dt 2 dt
er
or dv = dB
2me
As e, r and me are fixed, the net change in v in the process of bringing the field
upto the final value Bo is
Dn = e r Bo /2me
\ Dw = e Bo / 2me ...(7.19)
This is called the Larmor angular velocity and is written as wL,
The increase in velocity means the increase in the upward magnetic moment
mel . The negatively charged electrons are thus decelerated and the magnetic moment
is decreased.Therefore, from Eq. (7.18), the change in magnetic moment
er ⎡ erBo ⎤ e2 r 2
Dmel = – ⎢ ⎥ =– B ...(7.20)
2 ⎣ 2me ⎦ 4me o
The revolving electron also possesses angular momentum L. Its magnitude is
given by
L = mevr
The magnetic moment of orbital electron is thus given by
mel = e L / 2 me amp – m2 ...(7.21)
The ratio mel /L = e/2 me is called the orbital gyromagnetic ratio or the
orbital magneto mechanical ratio for the electron.
From the quantum idea, the orbital angular momentum of electron is expressed
as L = nh / 2p , when n is known as principal quantum number.
\ mel = neh / 4p me = n mB ...(7.22)
where m B = eh / 4 p me = Bohr magneton ...(7.23)
The above relation shows that the orbital magnetic moment of the electron is
an integral multiple of Bohr magneton.
KH
Orbital angular momentum L , a vector of magnitude mvr, is in the upward
r H
direction perpendicular to the plane containing vectors r and v (Fig 7. 19).
L
–e
n ucle us r n ucle us
–e –e
µe e
Fig.7.19.
As the electron is in anticlockwise motion hence the current will be in clockwise
direction. Thus the magnetic moment mel will be in downward direction and is given
by
→ ⎛ ⎞ →
µ el = – ⎜ e ⎟ L ...(7.24)
⎝ 2me ⎠
7.4.3 SPIN MAGNETIC MOMENT OF AN ELECTRON
The electrons not only have orbital motion, but rotate about their own axes,
thus possess angular momentum which is independent of orbital motion.
This is called the intrinsic spin of the electron. The magnetic moment associated
with this intrinsic angular momentum (or spin angular momentum) is referred to as
the spin magnetic moment. As the electron has spin (1/2), or angular momentum
1
(h / 2p), hence the spin magnetic moment of electron is eh/4pme . It shows that
2
mes = – (e / me) s ...(7.25)
1
where s is the spin angular momentum having magnitude (h/2p).
2
The magnitude of spin magnetic moment is always the same, however it aligns
→ →
with the applied magnetic field of flux density B . This orientation of ms along B is
→ → →
due to the torque τ = µ es × B .
In any atom several electrons are usually present. Each has angular momentum
and magnetic moment corresponding to both orbital and spin motions. The direction
of the magnetic moment is opposite to that of angular momentum. The ratio of these
two is e/2me for the orbital mation and e/me for the spin mation. Therefore, for an
atom as a whole, we may write
→ →
µ = – g (e / 2 me ) J ...(7.26)
where ‘g’ (gyromagnetic ratio) is a factor which is characteristic of the state of the
atom. It is called the ‘Lande g foctor’. It is unity for pure orbital motion and two for
a pure spin motion and lies somewhere in between these two values for the combined
→
motion. Here J is the total angular momentum of the atom.
7.4.4 MAGNETIC MOMENT OF A PROTON
The nucleus of the atom possesses neutrons and protons. Many nuclei possess
magnetic moments, typically less than atomic moments by a factor of about 103 (due
to inverse dependence of m on mass). The proton, like an electron, may move around
in some kind of orbit and have an intrinsic spin. The proton is positively charged, the
r →
magnetic moment µ is therefore parallel to the angular momentum J . In analogy
with Eq. (7.26), the magnetic moment of a proton
uur →
µ P = g (e / 2 mp) J ...(7.27)
where mp is the mass of the proton and g the nuclear g-factor. By analogy with
the Bohr magneton mB for atomic electron, we define nuclear magneton mN as
mN = eh / 4 p mp = mB (me / mp) ...(7.28)
Thus we see that nuclear magneton is 1836 times smaller than the Bohr
magneton. The spin magnetic dipole moment of the free proton is 2.763 nuclear
magnetons.
7.4.5 MAGNETIC MOMENT OF A NEUTRON
Neutron is electrically neutral and should not have magnetic dipole moment.
Surprisingly the neutron is associated with a fairly large magnetic dipole moment (–
1.913 nuclear magnetons). Actually the neutron has inner constitution such that its
spin angular momentum is s =1/2 (h/2p). The sign of spin magnetic moment for
neutron is negative and therefore stimulates the rotation of negative charge in the
spin direction.
7.5. MAGNETISATION OF MATTER
A material body is consisting of large number of atoms and thus large number
of electrons. Each electron produces orbital and spin magnetic moments and can be
assumed as a dipole. In the absence of any external magnetic field, the dipoles of
individual atoms are randomly oriented due to thermal agitation and the magnetic
moments thus cancel. In some materials the cancellation is complete and the net
magnetic moment is zero.
→
When we apply an external magnetic field of flux density B , two processes
may occur:
(i) All atoms which have non zero magnetic moment are aligned with the
applied field due to the torque t. The increase in magnetic moment is
→
along B .
(ii) If the atom has a zero magnetic moment, the applied magnetic field distorts
the electron orbit and thus induces magnetic moment. The induced
magnetic moment is given by Eq. (7.20).
In materials, referred to as diamagnetic, such as Cu, Bi, Zn, Ag, Pb and Hg,
the individual atoms do not have an intrinsic magnetic moment. When an external
magnetic field is applied the second process occurs. The induced magnetic moment
ur
is thus set up in the direction opposite to B . In this case the magnetic flux density in
KH
the interior of the body will be less than that of the external field B .
In materials. referred to as paramagnetic, such as Al, Pt, Cr, Mn etc. the
constituent atoms have intrinsic magnetic moments and the concellation of magnetic
moment vectors is not complete. When an external magnetic field is applied, both of
the above processes occur and the resultant magnetic moment is always in the
ur
direction of magnetic field B as the first effect predominates over the second.
7.5.1 LANGEVINS THEORY OF DIAMAGNETISM
Let us consider a circular orbit of radius r in which an electron revolves with
an angular velocity wo around the nucleus of charge Ze (Fig. 7.20). The electrostatic
attractive force between the nucleus and the electron provides it the necessary
centripetal force, hence
Ze2 me v 2
F0 = = = me ωo2 r (3 v = wo r)
4πεo r 2 r
Ze 2
or wo = ...(7.29)
4πεo me r 3
The magnetic moment of electron is
1
mel = i A = ewor 2 ...(7.30)
2
The Lorentz force FL acting on the electron when external magnetic field B is
applied, is
FL = – Bev = – Be wr →
V
Now the equation of motion is
E lectro n
Ze 2 r
F = F0 – FL = 4 r 2 – eBwr
πε o Ze
2 Fo FL
Ze
or mew r =
2 – eBwr
4πε o r 2 Fig. 7.20.
2
eB Ze
or w2 + m w – 4 m r 3 = 0 ...(7.31)
e πε o e
This is a quadratic equation in w
eB e2 B 2 4Ze 2
− ± +
me me2 4πε o me r 3
Hence, w=
Z
eB Ze 2 e2 B 2
or w=– ± +
2me 4πε o me r 3 4me2
eB e2 B2
or w=– ± ωo2 + ...(7.32)
2me 4me2
eB eB
or w = ± wo – if <<wo ...(7.33)
2me 2me
The ± sign on wo indicates that those electrons whose orbital moments were
parallel to the field are slowed down and those whose moments were antiparallel
are speeded up, by an amount eB/me. These results are called Larmor theorem.
This frequency change gives rise to a magnetic polarisation or simply
magnetisation. The reason for this is that the frequency change is equivalent to an
additional current, and this current component in every atom is in the same direction,
whereas the original circulating currents were in random direction and cancel each
other. In the absence of a field, the electron motions, being spherically symmetrical,
produce no net currents or flux. But in the field we can write a current for each
electron due to its frequency change eB/2me . Now the change in the frequency of
the electron is
eB
Dw = 2 p Dn = –
2me
eB
or Dn = 4πm
e
The corresponding change in the magnetic moment of the electron is
DM = iA = (e Dn) (p r2 )
⎛ eB ⎞
or DM =– e p r2. ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4πme ⎠
e2r 2 B
or DM =– ...(7.34)
4me
On summing over all electrons in the atom, the induced moment per atom
becomes
e2 B
DM = –
4me
∑ r2 ...(7.35)
where the summation extends over all Z orbital electrons in the atom. Since the core
electrons have different radii, we, may write
∑ r 2 = Z 〈r 2 〉 ...(7.36)
where | 〈 r 2 〉 | 1/2 is the average radius of the electron from the field axis
(Z-axis). If the orbit his in the x – y plane, then
〈 r 2 〉 = 〈 x2 〉 + 〈 y2 〉
If | 〈 ro2 〉 | 1/ 2 represents the average distance of the electron from the nucleus,
then
〈 ro2 〉 = 〈 x 2 〉 + 〈 y 2 〉 + 〈 z 2 〉
when the atom has spherical symmetry
〈 x2 〉 = 〈 y2 〉 = 〈 z2 〉
\ 〈 r 2 〉 = 2 〈 x 2 〉 and 〈 ro2 〉 = 3 〈 x 2 〉
〈 ro2 〉 3
i.e., =
〈r 〉2
2
2
or 〈 r2〉 = 〈 ro2 〉
3
From Eqs. (7.35) and (7.36), we get
e 2 BZ ⎡⎛ 2 2 ⎞ ⎤
DM = – 4m ⎢⎜ 〈 ro 〉 ⎟ ⎥
e ⎣⎝ 3 ⎠⎦
If N is the number of atoms per unit volume, then magnetisation (i, e., magnetic
moment per m3) will be
µ o HZe 2 N 〈 ro2 〉
I=–
6 me
Hence, volume susceptibility of diamagentism of core eletrons will be
I µ o Ze 2 N 〈 ro2 〉
k= =– ...(7.37)
H 6me
Eq. (7.37) is called Langevin’s formula for the volume susceptibility of
diamagnetic materials.
Conclusions of the theory
(i) Almost all materials exhibit diamagnetism though it is masked by other
magnetic effects.
(ii) The susceptibility of diamagnetic substances is directly proportional to the
atomic number.
(iii) Bigger is the size of atom larger shall be the value of susceptibility.
(iv) From Eq. (7.37) it is clear that the susceptibility of diamagnetic substances
is indipendent of temperature. Diamagnetism, is attributed to the influence
of the magnetic field on the orbital momentum of the electron. Though
s–electrons have zero orbital momentum in the absence of extenral
magnetic field yet they acquire a small amount of orbital momentum upon
the application of field. This explains why all the electrons in an atom
contribute to diamagnetism.
k for most diamagnetic materials is of the order of 10–6 which is also
found to be experimentally true. The experimental value of k for copper
is – 9 × 10–6
Summary
(i) There are no permanent dipoles and hence the magnetic effects are small.
(ii) Since the induced magnetic moments always oppose the applied field, the
diamagnetic susceptibility is negative.
(iii) Diamagnetic susceptibility is always independent of temperature.
(iv) Although there are no permanent dipoles in diamagnetic material, magnetic
moments induced by an applied field do exist in all substances and hence
diamagnetism. However in substances having permanent dipoles the
magnetic effects due to them usually mask the diamagnetic effects.
7.6. PARAMAGNETISM
Diamagnetism is a result of magnetic dipole formation due to the presence of
an external magnetic field. The presence of other types of magnetism is a result of
the fact that many atoms have a permanent magnetic dipole moment. In some
materials, the permanent magnetic moments of the atoms or ions behave individually
with no mutual interaction among them (randondy distributed). This effect is called
paramagnetism. However, in the presence of the field, the magnetic moments have
a tendency to turn towards the direction of the field. If no opposing force acts,
complete alignment of atomic moments will be produced and the specimen as a
whole would acquire a very large magnetisation in the direction of the field. However
thermal agitation of the atoms oppose the tendency and tries to keep the atomic
dipole moments at random. The result is only a partial alignment in the field direction.
Therefore, a weak magnetisation and a small susceptibility results. An increase in
temperature, therefore, will decrease the susceptibility. Effectively materials with
atoms of unpaired spins are paramagnetic.
In paramagnetic substances mr>1 c, is small, positive and varies inversely with
absolute temperature. Paramagnetic materials include manganese, platinum, tungsten,
some members of rare earth group and ions formed by removing and adding electrons
to basic atoms there by creating unpaired spins.
7.6.1 LANGEVINS THEORY OF PARAMAGNETISM
For the analysis of variation of the susceptibilities of a paramagnetic substance
with temperature, the following assumptions are made.
(i) Only the effect of spin magnetic moment in considered.
(ii) Individual spin moment can accept only two possible components along
the field direction, +1 or – 1 Bohr magneton, i.e., spin moments in the
presence of field are either parallel or antiparallel with the field.
(iii) The interaction between individual spin system is negligible, so that the
field at any point in the material is the applied field.
Let us consider a paramagnetic material whose atoms behave like permanent
magnetic moments. Under normal condition (without applied magnetic field) these
dipoles are oriented randomly due to thermal agitation. Let a kind of statistical
equilibrium would be set up with a
majority of particles contributing to a
dθ
magnetization parallel to the field.
We wish to calculate the net
magnetic moment per unit volume θ
0 H
created by this alignment of the
molecules at a temperature T. If q is
the angle between the permanent
uur
magnetic moment µ m of the
Fig. 7.21. Number of particles between two
molecules and the direction of the hollow cones of semi-angle q and
ur
external magnetic field B the potential q + dq
energy of the molecule in the field is
U = – mm B cos q ...(7.38)
From the theory of statistical mechanics, we are familiar that the number of
molecules having potential energy U at temperature T is proportional to
e–U/KT
where K is Boltzmann constant.
The number of molecules per unit volume dn having energy U and oriented at
ur
angles q and q + dq (Fig 7.21) with respect to the direction of B is given by
dn = C e–U/KT dw ...(7.39)
where C is a constant and dw is the solid angle between two hollow cones of semi
vertex angle q and q + dq and is given by
dw = 2µ sin q dq
Thus from Eqs. (7.38) and (7.39)
dn = C 2p sin q dq exp [mB cos q /kT]
= A e x cos q sin q d q ...(7.40)
ìB
where x= and A = 2pC (A new constnat)
kT
The total number of molecules n per unit volume can be obtained by integrating
Eq. (7.40) between q = 0 to q = p thus
π
x cos è
n=A ∫o e sin q dq
Putting cos q = u, so that sin q d q = – du, then when q = 0, cos q = 1 and when
q = p, cos q = – 1. Hence the total number of molecules per unit volume will be
−1
−1 ⎡ e xu ⎤
n = – A ∫ e du = – A ⎢ xu
⎥
+1
⎣ x ⎦ +1
A –x x A x –x 2A
or n= [e – e ] = [e – e ] = sin hx ...(7.41)
x x x
The component of magnetic moment along the direction of impressed external
ur
magnetic field B is mm cosq . Thus magnetic moment of dn molecules is mm dn
cosq . Hence the total magnetic moment along the field direction due to all molecules
per unit volume, i,e., intensity of magnetisation I is given by
π
I= ∫o ì m cosθ dn
Substituting the value of dn from Eq. (7.40)
π
I = mm A ∫ o
e x cosθ sin q cos q dq
Let cosq = u, so that sin q d q = – du. Then
−1
I = mm A ∫ +1
ue xu du
−1 −1
⎡ e xu e xu ⎤ ⎡ e xu e xu ⎤
= – mm A ⎢u −∫ du ⎥ = – mm A
⎢u − 2⎥
⎣ x x ⎦ +1 ⎣ x x ⎦ +1
⎡⎧ e −x
e ⎫ ⎧ e e ⎫⎤
−x x x
= – mm A ⎢ ⎨− − 2 ⎬ − ⎨ − 2 ⎬⎥
⎣⎩ x x ⎭ ⎩ x x ⎭⎦
ìm A ⎡ ⎪⎧ − x e− x ⎪⎫ ⎪⎧ x e x ⎪⎫⎤
= ⎢ ⎨e + ⎬ + ⎨e − ⎬⎥
x ⎣⎢ ⎪⎩ x ⎪⎭ ⎪⎩ x ⎪⎭⎦⎥
ìm A
=
x
⎡ x
{
⎢ e +e
⎣
} {
−x 1
}
− e x − e– x ⎥
x
⎤
⎦
2 ìm A ⎡ sin hx ⎤
= ⎢cos hx − x ⎥
x ⎣ ⎦
2A
Substituting for from Eq. (7.41)
x
⎡ 1⎤
I = n mm ⎢ cot h x − ⎥
⎣ x⎦
or I = n µ m L(x) ...(7.42)
where L(x) = (cot h x– 1/x) is called the
Langevin’s function and x = µm B/kT. The 1.O
plot of Langevin’s function is shown in Fig.
7.22.
Except for temperature near absolute
L(x)
zero the value of x is very small compared

to unity for strong fields. When x is small x = µm B /K .T
the expansion of L(x) is given by
3 Fig. 7.22. Polt of Langevenic function.
x x 295
L(x) = – + +....
3 45 945
which may be approximated to L(x) = x/3. Hence
x nì m 2
I = nmm = B ...(7.43)
3 3 kT
Since B = µo (H + I) and I is very small for paramagnetism, hence B ; µ oH,
then Eq. (7.43) becomes
ì o nì m
2
I= H ...(7.44)
3 kT
In the vector form
r ì o nì m2 uur
I = 3 kT H ...(7.45)
r uur
This I and H are in the same direction. The magnetic susceptibility k for
paramagnetic substances is given by
r
I ì o nì m2
C
k = uur = = ...(7.46)
H 3 kT T
ì o n ì 2m
where C= 3 k called Curie constant
Thus k a 1/T ...(7.47)
This expression is called the Curie law
7.7. FERROMAGNETISM
There are a number of solids whose atoms possess permanent magnetic dipole
moments whose average is non-zero below a certain temperature Tc, called critical
temperature. This points towards a possible correlation among magnetic dipoles
leading to the ordering of magnetic moments. The magnetic ordering may or may
not lead to a net magnetisation for the solid as a whole. There arise three distinct
cases of ordering:
1. The individual localized magnetic moments may combine even in the
absence of an applied magnetic field, to produce a macroscopic bulk
magnetisation. Such a magnetisation is known as spontaneous
magnetisation and the solids exhibiting this property are called
ferromagnets. As array of local magnetic moments [Fig. 7.23 (a)] with
the same magnitude and same direction describes the simplest model of
ferromagnets.
2. The individual local moments may add up to zero, resulting in no bulk
magnetisation. The solids with this type of ordering are known as
antiferromagnets. Two possible arrays of local moments are drawn in
Fig. 7.23 (b)
3. The primitive cell of some solids contains several magnetic ions which
may not be necessarily identical. The solids that show spontaneous
magnetisation but do not satisfy this requirement are described as
ferrimagnets. The spontaneous magnetization that is acquired by
ferrimagnets is relatively much small. The possible orderings for a linear
ferrimagnet are shown in Fig.7.23 (c).
(a )
(b )
(c)
Fig.7.23. Possible orderings of atomic moments in a linear (a) ferromagnet,
(b) antiferromagnet, and (c) ferrimagnet.
7.7.1 WEISS THEORY OF FERROMAGNETISM

Lagevin’s theory of paramagnetism was modified by Weiss to give theoretial
explanation of magnetic behaviour of ferromagnetics. His assumptions are
1. A ferromagnetic specimen contains a number of small regions, called
domains (hiving dimensions ~ 10–2 cm and containing as many as 1015 to
1017 atoms) which are spontaneously magnetised. The magnitude of
spontaneous magnetization of the specimen is determined by the vector
sum of the magnetic moments of individual domains.
2. Within each domain, the spontaneous magnetisation is due to the existence
of a molecular field which tends to produce a parallel alignment of the
atomic dipoles, despite the effect of thermal energy. Further this internal
field is equivalent to a magnetic field Hi which is proportional to intensity
of magnetisation I of the specimen, i.e.,
H i = gI
where g is a constant independent of temperature, called the molecular field constant
or Weiss constant.
Thus if H is the external magnetising field, the total effective field acting on
the magnetic dipole is
He = H + gI ...(7.48)
Magnetisation is given by substituting this value of effective magnetic field in
Eq. (7.44)
ì o nì m2
I= (H + gI )
3kT
ì o nì m2 ì o nì m2
or I= H+g I
3kT 3kT
⎛ ì o nì m2 ⎞ µo n µm2
or I⎜ 1 − ã ⎟
⎝ 3kT ⎠ = 3kT H
ì o nì m2
or I= H
⎛ ì o nì m2 ⎞
3kT ⎜ 1 − γ ⎟
⎝ 3kT ⎠
ì o n ì m2
or I= H
⎛ ì o nì m2 ⎞
3kT ⎜ 1 − ã ⎟
⎝ 3k ⎠
ì o n ì 2m
Let us put g = Tc ...(7.49)
3k
ì o n ì m2 H
3k CH
\ I= = ...(7.50)
T − Tc T − Tc
ìo n ì m 2
where C= = Weiss contant

3k
The susceptibility is therefore

I C
c= = ...(7.51)
H T − Tc
This equation is known as Curie Weiss law. From Eq. (7.51) Curie temperature
ì nì 2
Tc = g o m = gC = Curie temperature ...(7.52)
3k
The susceptibility of paramagnetic material is given by
C
cp =
T
So, the relation between para magnetic and ferromagnetic susceptibilities
will be
C C /T
cf = =
T −γC 1− γ C /T
χp
or cf = ...(7.53)
1−γ χ p
The variation of susceptibility of most of the ferromagnetic materials above
the curie temperature Tc is shown in Fig. 7.24. The experimental curve shows the
typical results for nickel. The values of Curie temperature for some of the
ferromagnetic solids are given in Table 7.1
2
1 0 × 12
10
8
E xpe rim e nt
–1
( µ0 χ)
6
Th eo ry
0
6 20 6 40 6 60 6 80 7 00
T (K )
Fig 7.24. Reciprocal of the susceptibility for ferromagnetic materials as a
function of temperature above the Curie temperature. The experimental
curve shows the typical results on nickel.
Table 7.1 Selected ferromagnetic solids with Curie temperature Tc and

saturation magnetization Is at T = 0K
Substance Tc (K) Is (gauss)

Fe 1043 1752
Co 1388 1446
Ni 627 510
Gd 293 1980
Dy 85 3000
MnAs 318 870
MnBi 670 675
Au 2MnAl 200 323
Cu2MnIn 500 613
EuO 77 1910
GdCl3 2.2 550
7.8 MAGNETIC HYSTERESIS

If we want to magnetise a ferromagnetic material, a magnetising force H
(magnetic field intensity) is required to be applied on it. The magnetism produced
in the material is represented by either intensity of magnetisation I or magnetic
induction B.
To take the specimen through a cycle of magnetisation the value of H is gradually
increased from O to G, decreased from G to O, increased in the reverse direction to
K, decreased again to O and finally brought back to the value G Fig. 7.25. The initial
magnetisation is along the path OA. When H is changed from G to K and back again
to G, the value of I changes along the path ABCDEFA, which gives the I–H curve
for the material.
For the values of H corresponding to the points G and K, the intensity of
magnetisation is maximum, i,e., the specimen has reached the stage of saturation.
From the equation B = µo(I + H), using the values H and I, the corresponding
values of B are obtained and a graph between B and H gives the B – H curve as
shown in Fig. 7.26. The general shape of the curve is the same as that of I – H
curve except that the value of B does not reach a maximum value. Even if I becomes
constant, B increases with increase in the value of H. Secondly the area of the B –
H loop is larger than that of the corresponding I – H loop. These curves are called
hysteresis curves.
I
A
B B
R e m a ne n t A
R e ten tivity
in du ctio n B
K F CO F
C O H G H
E
D coe rcive force

E
D
C o ercive fo rce
7.8.1 FEW DEFINITION REGARDING MAGNETIC HYSTERESIS
Fig. 7.25. I-H curve for ferromagnetic Fig. 7.26. B-H Curve for ferromagnetic
material. material.
(i) Retentivity or Remanence: The residual intensity of magnetisation left

in the specimen when the magnetising field is cut off, is called retentivity
or remanence of the magnetic material.
(ii) Coercivity: The strength of the reverse magnetic field needed to
completely demagnetise the specimen, is called the coercivity of the
magnetic material
(iii) Loss of energy per cycle per unit volume of the material: When a
magnetic material is taken through a cycle of magnetisation a certain
amount of energy has to be expended and this loss of energy per cycle
per unit volume of the material is equal to the area of hysteresis loop
(iv) Hysteresis: When a magnetic material is taken through a cycle of
magnetisation, the magnetic induction lags behind the magnetising field.
Thus, even if the magnetising field H is made zero, the values of I and B
are not zero and there is a tendency in the material to retain its magnetic
property. This lagging of I and B behind H is called hysteresis.
7.8.2 V ARIATION OF PERMEABILITY AND SUSCEPTIBILITY WITH
MAGNETISING FIELD
The permeability of the specimen µ ( = B/H) is in general a function of H. The
dB
incremental permeability at any point on the curve is given by , i.e., the slope
dH
of the curve at that point. For very small values of H the initial permeability is
largely independent of H. The slope of the curve in the steepest portion measures
the maximum permeability of the specimen. Similarly from the I–H curve the initial
dI
and maximum susceptibility (c) for the specimen can be calculated. The slope ,
dH
at any point on the I–H curve measures the incremental susceptibility
Figs. 7.27 and 7.28 give the variation of permeability and susceptibility of the
material with magnetising field H. The corresponding values of B and I are also
shown in the figures.
I c′
c b′
µ, B
b
e e′
µ e
k, I
d d′ K
a f f′
0 0 a′
H H
Fig. 7.27. H-B and m-H. Fig. 7.28. I-H and c-H urves.
From Fig. 7.27 it is clear that the value of B increases rapidly for moderate
fields (portion oab) and for higher values of H the increase in the value of B is not
proportionate to the increase in the value of H (bc). This is due to the magnetic
saturation in the specimen. However, the value of B does not become constant
because B = µo[H + 1] and therefore even if I is constant, the value of B increases
with increase in the value of H. Whereas for low fields, I also increases and hence
there is a steep rise in the B – H curve. The permeability of the material (1) increases
at first with increase in the value of H, (2) becomes maximum at the steepest
portion in the curve and (3) decreases thereafter. The slope of the B – H curve
gradually decreases and therefore, the incremental permeability also decreases but
is never zero.
Fig. 7.28. gives the corresponding I – H and c – H graphs. The general variation
of the graphs is the same as above except that the value of I attains a constant value
dI
at high fields due to magnetic saturation. The incremental susceptibility becomes
dH
zero when the specimen has attained saturation. The susceptibility of the material
increases rapidly for low magnetising field (d¢e¢) and decreases thereafter. This is
due to the fact that the value of I remains constant but H is increased and hence the
ratio I/H decreases. In Fig. 7.25 OB measures the retentivity of the material i.e., the
residual intensity of magnetisation left in the specimen when the magnetising field is
switched off. OC measures the coercivity of the material. It is the strength of the
reverse magnetic field needed to make the intensity of magnetisation zero. The
magnetised state of the material at the points O and C is not the same, though the
value of I is zero at both the points. At C, a small variation of H, produces a large
change in the value of I but this is not the case at the point O. The curves given in
Figs. 7.25 and 7.26, represent the I – H and B – H hysteresis loops. The values of
the retentivity, coercivity, saturation value of I and the areas of the I – H and B –H
hysteresis loops give roughly an idea of the nature of the magnetic material. These
values determine their suitability for use in specific electro-magnetic appliances,
e.g., transformers, electro-magnets, permanent magnets, cores of dynamos, motors,
etc.
The I – H and B – H curves show that the values of I and B do not become
zero when the magnetising field is withdrawn. This property of the material to retain
its magnetism or the lagging of I or B behind H is called hysteresis.
7.8.3 LOSS OF ENERGY PER CYCLE (HYSTERESIS LOSS)
When a ferromagnetic material is taken through a cycle of magnetisation,
there is expenditure of energy. This energy cannot be recovered and is dissipated in
the form of heat in the specimen. When a specimen is placed in a magnetic field,
induced magnetism is acquired by it. The molecular magnets (magnetic dipoles) are
oriented and reoriented when the material is taken through a cycle of magnetisation
and this molecular motion results in the production of heat.
To calculate this loss of energy
per cycle, consider a unit volume a b c a b
d of the magnetic material placed in a N
magnetising field of intensity H (Fig. θ
H
7.29). Let NS be a molecular magnet of S
d c
magnetic moment M inclined at an angle
q to the direction of the magnetising
Fig. 7.29.
field. The component of the magnetic
moment parallel to the direction of the field is M cos q and the perpendicular component
is M sin q. The total magnetic moment of all the molecular magnets per unit volume
parallel to the direction of the field = å M cos q.
However, the perpendicular component åM sin q = 0
But, the magnetic moment per unit volume of the specimen å M cos q is equal
to the intensity of magnetisation I.
\ I = åM cos q
Differentiating this with respect to q
dI = å M [– (sin q) dq]
dI = – å M sin q dq ...(7.54)
(the negative sign shows that a small decrease dq in the value of q increases I by
dI)
The couple acting on a molecular magnet inclined at an angle q with the direction
of the field = MH sin q. The work done in rotating this magnet by a small angle dq
= MH sin q (–dq). The negative sign shows that dq is the decrease in the angle.
\ Work done in rotating all the molecular magnets in unit volume
= – åMH sin q dq ...(7.55)
= H [– åM sin q dq] ...(7.56)
From Eqs. 7.54 and 7.56 work done in increasing the intensity of magnetisation
by dI = H dI
If the intensity of magnetisation is changed from I1 to I2
I2
Work done = ∫
I1
HdI
Let ABCDEFA represent the I – H curve of the material (Fig. 7.30.)
Consider two very near points p and q on the curve. As the points are very
near, the value of H is constant and let the increase in the value of I be dI (difference
between the values of I at r and s).
As proved above, the amount of work done
on the specimen to increase the intensity of I A
magnetisation by dI = HdI and this is equal to the B
area of the small rectangular strip pqrs. Similarly, dI r
q
the whole cycle can be imagined to be made up C s p
of small rectangular strips and the total amount O F H
of work done on the specimen when H increases
or when H decreases to zero can be calculated. E
Considering the complete cycle D
Fig. 7.30.
(i) The work done on the specimen when
the value of H increases from zero to K
M
=
E∫ HdI I
= Area of the figure EFAMBOE M A
(ii) Work done by the specimen when H
decreases to zero B
B
=
M ∫
HdI = Area of the figure AMBA L C
O
F
K
H
(iii) Work done on the specimen when H increases
from zero to L in the opposite direction
E
N
= ∫
B
HdI = Area of the figure BCDNEOB D
N
Fig 7.31.
E
(iv) Work done by the specimen when H decreases to zero = ∫
N
HdI = Area
of the figure DNED
Thus, the total work done on the specimen per unit volume per cycle = Area
EFAMBOE –Area AMBA + Area BCDNEOB–Area DNED = area ABCDEFA
= Area of the I – H loop (Fig. 7.31). Hence, the work done on the specimen per unit
volume when taken through a complete cycle of magnetisation is equal to the area
enclosed by the I – H loop. The larger the area of the loop, the higher will be the loss
of energy per unit volume per cycle.
Area of the B – H Loop
The magnetic induction B is given by B = µo(H + I)
Differentiating, dB = µo [dH + dI] (a small change dH in the value of H,
produces corresponding changes dB and dI in the values of B and I.
z
Multiplying by H, HdB = µo [H dH + H dI]
Integrating it for a complete cycle
z z z
HdB = µo HdH + µo HdI
But, z HdB is the area of the B-H loop and Ñ∫ HdI is the area of the I – H
z
loop. HdH = 0; because a graph of H plotted against H will give a straight line and
hence the enclosed area is zero.
\ Area of the B – H loop = µo [area of the I – H loop]
1
Area of the I – H loop = × area of the B-H loop. Hence the loos of energy
ìo
1
per cycle per unit volume of the specimen = times the area of the B–H hysteresis
ìo
loop.
While plotting the curves, if I is expressed as magnetic moment per unit volume
and H in amp-turn/m then, the area of the I-H loop measures the energy loss per
cycle in joules.
In rationalised MKS units or SI units B in weber/metre2 and H in ampere-
turns/meter, then the energy loss per cycle per cubic meter of the material will be
equal to the area of the B–H loop. The units of energy will be joules.
7.8.4 DEMAGNETISATION
I
A magnetic material when placed in a
magnetising field gets magnetised. If the magnetising
field is switched off, the intensity of magnetisation
(and the magnetic flux density) does not become zero o H
due to the property of retentivity of the material. In
order to completely demagnetise a specimen, it is
taken through a number of cycles of magnetisation
of continuously decreasing field strengths. The area Fig. 7.32. Demagnetisation.
of the I – H loop continuously decreases and finally the pecimen can be brought to
the initial condition corresponding to the point O (Fig. 7.32).
7.8.5 USE OF HYSTERESIS CURVES I

So ft
The hysteresis curves (I – H and B – H loops) of a R1 A Iro n
B
ferromagnetic material provide a very useful information Steel
regarding the magnetic properties of a material in regard R2
C2 C
to retentivity, coercivity, susceptibility, permeability and the 1
O H
loss in energy per cycle of magnetisation,
Curves A and B represent the I – H curves for soft
iron and steel respectively Fig. 7.33. The shape of the B-
Fig. 7.33.
H curves is similar to the I – H curves for the two materials.
A study of the curves gives the following information regarding their magnetic
properties.
(i) The retentivity of soft iron (OR1) is more than that for steel (OR2), i.e., in
the absence of any mechanical disturbance or rough handling, iron retains
more of its magnetic property than steel.
(ii) The coercivity (OC1) for iron is less than that for steel (OC2) i.e., the
strength of the reverse magnetic field needed to completely demagnetise
steel is more than that required for iron. The higher is the value of this
coercive force, the harder is the magnetic material.
(iii) For a given magnetising field the intensity of magnetisation is more for
⎛ I ⎞
iron than for steel. Thus, the susceptibility ⎜ ÷ = ⎟ is more for iron than
⎝ H⎠
steel for a given value of H.
(iv) Similarly, a study of the B – H curves shows that the magnetic induction
B is more for iron than for steel for a given value of H. Hence, the
⎛ B⎞
permeability ⎜ ì = ⎟ is more for iron than for steel.
⎝ H⎠
(v) The area of the I – H hysteresis loop for steel is much larger than for iron.
Thus the loss in energy per cycle per unit volume is more for steel than
for iron.
The properties of a magnetic material can be judged from the study of I – H
and B – H curves and this helps in the choice of any particular material for the
construction of permanent magnets, electromagnets, cores of dynamos, transformers
etc.
(a) Permanent Magnets. The essential requisites of permanent magnets
are : (i) high retentivity (ii) high coercivity (iii) immunity to loss of magnetisation by
alternating fields (iv) low loss in magnetisation due to mechanical ill-treatment and
(v) negligible effect due to changes of temperature. The loss in energy due to
hysteresis is not much of consideration because permanent magnets are never taken
through a cycle of magnetisation. The suitability of material depends on the product
of B and H at its maximum. This product is in turn proportional to the energy stored
in the magnet. Hard magnetic materials (alloys of aluminium, nickel and cobalt) with
large coercive force have been obtained. The composition of certain hard magnetic
materials are given in the following table.
Material %Composition
Alnico Fe : 52
Ni : 20
Co : 12
Cu : 6
Al : 10
Aclomax Fe : 55
Ni : 11
Co : 22
Al : 8
Cu : 4
Hycomax Fe : 50
Al : 9
Ni : 21
Co : 20
Alnico steel retains 70% of its magnetisation at temperatures as high as
600 °C and more than 80% in demagnetising magnetic fields whereas cobalt steel is
completely demagnetised. Alnico steel is not effected by mechanical ill- treatment.
Very powerful permanent magnetic materials can be obtained by compressing the
oxides of Fe 3O4 and Co–Fe2 O3 by heating to a temperature of 1000°C and
magnetising them at 300°C. These hard magnetic materials have the disadvantage,
that they are very brittle and cannot be drilled or machined satisfactorily.
(b) Electromagnets. The main considerations in choosing a magnetic material
for the construction of electromagnets are (i) large maximum induction for
comparatively low fields (ii) low hysteresis loss and (iii) high initial permeability.
These conditions are satisfied mainly by soft iron (Fig. 7.33). Hence soft iron is
preferable to steel.
B B B
O →H O →H O→H
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 7.34. (a) 0.2% Si – Fe, (b) 4% Si – Fe, (c) Mumetal.
For cores of transformers, telephone diaphragms, A.F. chokes, cores of dynamos
etc. the main consideration is high initial permeability for low value of H. Low
hysteresis loss is also important because the material is continuously subjected to
cyclic changes. Maximum value of induction is less significant because in the cyclic
process, the specimen is ususally far away from saturation.
The initial permeability of soft iron is about 250 but this can be greatly increased
by alloying iron with 4% silicon. The siliconiron is called transformer steel. The
composition, maximum permeability, maximum induction and coercivity of some
important soft magnetic materials are given in the following table.
Material %Composition
Silicon iron 0.2% silicon
Silicon iron (Transformer 4% silicon
Steel)
Mumetal 78% Ni
Permalloy (c) 0.22% Fe
The B-H loops of soft magnetic materials are given in Fig. 7.34.
Permalloys are used to make the pole pieces of electromagnets because of
their high initial permeability.
(c) Non magnetic materials. The effect of the addition of nickel to iron is
firstly to decrease its magnetic properties. With 30% of nickel the material is almost
non-magnetic and its electrical resistance is very high. Such materials are used for
structural parts of electrical machinery which are exposed to fluctuating or alternating
magnetic fields. If cast iron or steel is used, the hysteresis and eddy current
losses will be very high. However, addition, of further quantities of nickel rapidly
increases the magnetic properties.
7.8.6 WEISS THEORY OF HYSTERESIS : FERROMAGNETIC DOMAINS
Let us first recall Weiss hypothesis regarding ferromagnetic domains. According
to this hypothesis a single crystal of a ferromagnetic solid is considered divided into
a large number of small regions, called domains, which are magnetically self saturate,
the magnetization therein being appropriate to the temperature T of the specimen,
but in which the direction of the different magnetization vectors are oriented in a
quite random way. Then, as the overall magnetization of a specimen is given by the
vector sum of the magnetizations of different domains, the hypothesis by itself
immediately explains that the specimen is demagnetized if no external field is applied,
and that the magnetization appears even when a small magnitude of the field is
applied because the domain vectors would now be more oriented. To explain the
detailed variation of M with H, however, we would have to consider the processes
by which the individual domain magnetizations are made to contribute to the total
magnetization M of the specimen. Suggested by R. Becker, there are only two
independent processes by which this can happen : (i) by the growth in the size
(volume) of domains which are favourably oriented with respect to the field at the
expense of less favourably oriented domains ; (ii) by rotation of the directions of the
magnetization towards the direction of the field. Both these processes are illustrated
in Fig. 7.35.
( a ) U n m a g netise d ( b ) M ag ne tise d by ( C ) M a gn e tised b y

d om a in grow th d om a in rotatio n
Fig. 7.35. Fundamental magnetization processes.
We can now explain the hysteresis curve in the following way : With the small
applied fields, the domains pointing approximately in the field direction grow at the
expense of those that are not. In other words, their boundaries move so as to expand
the favourable domains. This gives rise to a small magnetization corresposding to
the initial portion of the hysteresis curve. Since these movements are mostly reversible,
the initial portion of the curve is reversible also. With somewhat higher fields, more
and more domains contribute to the magnetization in a similar way, and thus the
magnetisation increases rapidly with H. But at these field strengths the boundary
movements are often large and irreversible ; that is, the boundaries do not go back
into their original position on reducing H slightly. These irreversible movements occur
mostly in the steep part of the magnetization curve and continue until all the favourably
oriented domains attain their maximum volume. At this stage, each domain is
magnetized still in what is locally the ‘easiest’ direction of magnetization. Application
of still higher fields rotates (twists) the magnetization vectors into the field direction
from the easy direction. Finally, the specimen is saturated in the technical sense of
the terms, i.e., all the domains point fully along H. The effect of any further increment
of H is only that the intrinsic magnetization within the domains increases. If the field
is now decreased, the magnetization M does not occur along the same path, because
the largely aligned domains do not easily return to the original random arrangement.
It is for this reason that even when the field is removed completely, the magnetization
does not reach to its zero value and a field – Hc is required to reduce it to its zero
value. The remaining stages of the magnetization cycle have features covered
essesntially by the above description, and are therefore being left out. Fig. 7.36.
sums up these remarks diagrammatically and we have the hysteresis curve.
D e m a gn e tisatio n
Hc
Fig. 7.36. A representative magnetization curve (with dominant magnetization processes

in the different regions of the curve) and the corresponding demagnetization curve.
7.8.7 EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP FOR DRAWING B-H CURE

7.8.7.1 SPECIMEN IN THE FORM OF RING (BALLISTIC GALVANOMETER METHOD)
Experimental set-up. The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 7.37 in
which P is the magnetizing coil of N1 turns closely wound on the specimen ring. S is
a secondary coil of N2 turns wound over a small portion and connected to the ballistic
galvanometer B.G. The ballistic galvanomenter, secondary coil S, the variable resistic
R and another secondary coil S¢ on n2 turns per metre wound over a solenoid P¢ of
n2 turns per meter are connected in series. K is the reversing key and K1 is two
ways key by which we can connect either P or P¢ to the battery.
BG
Nz K2
P′ n2
S P n1
S′
Nt
Rh Kl
A Bat K
Kt
Fig. 7.37. Ballistic galvanometer method for drawing B curve.

Theory. (i) K1 is closed such that P is connected to battery and let a current
i flows through it. If l is the mean circumference of the ring, the magnetizing force
on the ring.
H = N l i amp / meter ...(7.57)
l
Since BA = flux linked with each turn of the secondary S, where A = cross–
sectional area of the ring. The flux linked with N2 turns of S is N2 BA. This is also the
change in the flux through the secondary (from zero to N2BA). This change in flux
N 2 BA
induces an e.m.f. in this secondary and thus a charge q is set up = , where R
R
is total resistance of the circuit. Hence
N 2 BA ⎛ λ⎞
q = = kq ⎜1 + ⎟ ...(7.58)
R ⎝ 2⎠
where k is the constant of the ballastic galvanometer and l is the logarithmic
decrement.
The constant k and l are evaluated by changing the position of K1 so that the
standard solenoid P¢ is in the battery circuit and a know n current i¢ is passed
through it. This sets up a flux equal to µo n1 i¢, through P¢ and the corresponding
change in flux through S¢ is n2 (µo n1 i¢) A1, where A1 is the cross-sectional area of
S¢. Then the charge sent through B.G.
ì o n1n2i′A1 ⎛ λ⎞
q1 = = kq¢ ⎜ 1 + ⎟ ...(7.59)
R ⎝ 2⎠
Thus from Eq. (7.53)

N 2 BA è
=
ì o n1n2i′ A1 è′
ì o n1n2i′ A1 ⎛ è ⎞
or B = ⎜ ⎟ ...(7.60)
N2 A ⎝ è′ ⎠
Equation (7.60) gives the value of B induced in the specimen for the magnetic
intensity H given by Eq.(7.57)
Experiment. (1) K1 is closed so that P is in the battery circuit and R1 and R¢
is adjusted so that on closing the commutator K the galvanometer gives a full
deflection. This current is the maximum current for the experiment.
(2) To start with residual magnetism in the specimen has to be removed
completely. To do this the galvanometer is to be disconnected by opening key K2 and
R1 and R¢ are reduced to minimum. The current in P is reversed many times by
commutator K and R1 and R¢ gradually increased in the process.
(3) The galvanometer is put in the circuit by closing K2. The key K closed, R1
is put equal to the value corresponding to maximum permissible current which has
already been determined.
The commutator K is closed to the right and for a current I1, throw q1 is
observed in the galvanometer. The magnetic induction B1 and magnetizing force H1
is calculated from Eqs. (7.60 and 7.57). This corresponds to the maximum point of
the hysteresis curve in the first quadrent of the cycle.
The galvanometer circuit is again broken and K is reversed several times and
finally put to the right and the galvanometer is put in circuit. For different magnetising
currents, B and H are calculated and graph is plotted between H and B.
7.8.7.2 BH LOOP WITH A CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
Cathode ray oscilloscope is a simple method of displaying the complete
hysteresis loop. The set up is shown in Fig. 7.38 (a). P and S are the primary and
A C = 2 µF
P S R = 0 .5 m Ω
R
C +
V o lta g e
R
a m p lifie r +
C2 – +
y2 Flou re ce nt
–
y1 scre e n C VC
C1
(a )
(b )
Fig. 7.38. (a) to (b). B-H Curve by oscillosape
secondary winding of the specimen in the form of a ring. An oscillator, controlled by
a choke is used to supply current to P through a non-niductive resistance R and a
capacitor C in series. The voltage developed accross C is applied to the X and Y
plates of the oscilloscope. Fig. 7.38 (b) is the equivalent to the secondary circuit.
At any instant t the voltage developed across the secondary is given by

dB
V = k ... (7.61)
dt
where k is constant which depends on the numbers of turns and the diamensions of
the primary and secondary coil.
From Fig. 7.38 (b) the instantaneous current at any time t
V
i = 1 ...(7.62)
R+
ωc
If R is very high then
V
i ;
R
The voltage drop Vc across the capacitor is
1 1 V
∫ C ∫R
Vc = i dt = dt
C
k dB k
= ∫
CR dt
. dt =
CR
B ...(7.63)
Hence Vc a B. The oscilloscope will trace the B – H loop.
7.8.7.3 MAGNETOMETER METHOD
This is usually applied to the case when the specimen is not available in the
form of solid rings. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 7.39 (a) and (b). The specimen
is placed inside a solenoid preferably with its vertical axis. The magnetic moment
induced by the action of a series of applied field may be measured with a mirror
magnetometer.
M dt
I
P′ b c
P″ P
(b ) H
R
k
(a )
Fig. 7.39. B – H curve by magnetometr.

It is advisable to place the specimen vertical and to raise or lower it until the
pole at one end is level with the magnetometer. Then if the intensity of magnetization
I and Ho is the horizontal component
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
I a d1 ⎜ 2
− 2 ⎟ = Ho tan q
⎝ d1 d2 ⎠
Hence, I is known and the applied field B is known from the solenoid current.
In this case accurate known value of d1 is much more important than d2.
Thus I – B curve or from the relation
B = mo (H + I)
H–B curve may be plotted as shown in Fig. 7.39 (b)
Example 7.8: A bar magnet has a coercivity of 5 × 10 3 amp/m. It is
desired to demagnetise it by inserting it inside a solenoid 10 cm long and
having 50 turns. What current should be sent through the solenoid?
[UPTU I Sem. 2001– 2002]
Solution :We know that
Ni
H =
L
HL
or i =
N
Here H = 5 × 103 amp/m , L = 10cm = 0.1m and N = 50
5 × 103 × 0.1
\ i = = 10 Amp Ans.
50
Example 7.9: Calculate the hourly loos of energy in the iron core of a
transformer, the hysteresis loop of which is equivalent in area to 2500 ergs/cc.
Given: frequency = 50 cycles/sec; density of iron = 7.5 gm/cc and mass of the
core 10 kg.
Solution :We know that the energy loss per cycle per unit volume of the
material is equal to the area (A) of hysteresis loop. Hence the total energy loss
in time t and in volume V will be
E = fAVt
where f is the frequency of applied ac,
But V = m/r
fAmt
\ E =
ρ
Here f = 50 cycles/sec ;
A = 2500 ergs/cc = 2500 ×10–7 × 106 = 250 J/ m3
m = 10 kg, t = 1 hr = 60 × 60 = 3600 sec
r = 7.5 gm/cc = 7.5 × 103 kg/m3
50 × 250 × 10 × 3600
\ E =
7.5 × 103
= 6.0 × 104 Joules Ans.
Example 7.10: Hysteresis loss per cycle per unit volume for soft iron is
103 Joule. Taking the density and specific heat of soft iron as 7.5 gm/cm3 and
100 cal/kg–deg., calculate the rise in temperature per minute when the specimen
is subjected to an alternating magnetic field of 50 Hz.
Solution:Energy dissipated in the specimen will raise its temperature. Thus
fmAt
msDt J =
ρ
fAt
or Dt =
ρsJ
50 × 103 × 60
= = 0.95 °C Ans.
7.5 × 103 × 100 × 4.2
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
1. Explain the difference between ferromagnetism and antiferromagnetism.
[UPTU I Sem. 2001–2002]
2. Discuss the importance of hysteresis curve. How would you use it for electing
the material for the construction of a permanent magnet
[UPTU I Sem. 2001–2002]
3. Distinguish diamagnetic, paramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials. Giving
one example of each describe about thair uses. [UPTU I Sem. 2002–2003]
4. What is Hysteresis curve? Explain residual magnetism and coercive force.
[UPTU II Sem. 2002–2003]
5. Prove that the energy dissipated per cycle per cc of magnetisation is µo times
the area of I-H curve. [UPTU II Sem. 2002–2003]
6. Define the following terms :
(a) Magnetic induction
(b) Intensity of magnetisation
(c) Magnetic susceptibility
(d) Magnetic permeability and
(e) Relative permeability
7. Establish the relation
µ r = 1 + km
where µr is the relative permeability and cm is magnetic volume susceptibility.
8. Prove that the magnetic moment due to orbital motion of an electron must be
an integral multiple of eh/4pm [UPTU B. Tech. I Q. Bank 2001]
9. Explain the properties of ferromagnetic substances.
10. Illustrate the nature of hysteresis loop of a sample of steel and that of soft iron.
Explain the magnetic behaviour of these materials on the basis of these curves.
11. What is Curie law for paramagnetism.
12. What is Curie Weiss law for ferromagnetism.
13. What is Curie temperature? Is it unique for all substances.
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by Hysteresis and Hysteresis loss Explain? How would you
use the Hysteresis curves to select material for the construction of permanent
magnets. [UPTU I Sem. 2000–2001]
2. What is hysteresis? Describe the ballistic galvanometer method for tracting
the hysteresis loop of a sample of iron available in the form of an anchor ring.
[UPTU II Sem. 2000–2001]
3. Explain diamagnetism, paramagnetism and ferromagnetism, antiferromagnetism
and ferrimagnetism on the basis of magnetic dipoles of the atoms. [UPTU I/
II Sem. 2001–2002]
4. Explain the origin of Ferromagnetism and explain Ferromagnetic hysteresis on
the basis of Weiss theory of domains. [UPTU I Sem. (C. O.) 2002–2003]
5. What are diamagnetic, paramagnetic and ferromagnetic substances? Define
magnetic permeability and magnetic susceptibility and establish the relation
B = µo (H + I) [UPTU I Sem. 2003–2004]
6. Discuss Langevin’s theory of diamagnetism. Show that the diamagnetic
susceptibility is negative and independent of temperature and field strength.
[UPTU I Sem. 2004–2005]
7. What are diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials, give examples. Discuss
Langevin’s theory for a paramagnetic gas and obtain an expression for the
paramagnetic susceptibility of a gas.
8. Discuss Weiss theory of ferromagnetism. Establish the relation
χp
cf =
1− γ χ p
where cf and cp are the magnetic susceptibilities of ferro and paramagnetic
materials.
9. Describe ballistic galvanometer method for tracing the hysteresis curve for a
sample of iron. [UPTU B. Tech. I Q. Book 2000]
10. Describe qualitatively the behaviour of ferromagnetic substances on the basis
of magnetic domains.
PROBLEMS
1. A bar magnet has a coercivity of 4×103 amp/m. It is desired to demagnetise it
by inserting it inside a solenoid 12 cm long and having 60 turns. What current
should be sent through the solenoid? [Ans. 8.0 amp]
2. The hysteresis loop for a specimen of 12 kg is equivalent to 3000 ergs/cm3.
Find the loss of energy per hour at a frequency of 50 cycles/sec, if the density
of iron is 7.5 gm/cc. [Ans. 8.64×10 4 Joule]
3. An electron in an atom circulating in an assumed circular orbit of radius
5.1×10–11 m behaves like a tiny current loop and has an orbital magnetic dipole
moment. Calculate the change in the magnetic moment if a magnetic field of
induction B = 2.0 wb/m2 is applied at right angles to the plane of orbit. Assume
e = 1.6×10–19 Coulomb and mo = 9.1×10–31 kg. [Ans. ± 3.7×10–39 amp–m2]
4. Iron contains 1029 atoms/m3, the magnetic moment of each atom being
1.8 × 10–23 amp–m2. Treating iron as paramagnetic (no alignment of dipoles),
find its susceptibility at 300 K. What could be the dipole moment of an iron bar
10 cm long and 1 cm2 cross-section in a field of 0.1 wb/m2. If all the dipoles
were aligned in one domain by ferromagnetic interaction, what would be the
magnetisation I in the bar and magnetic moment. Boltzmann constant k = 1.38
× 10–23 Joule/k. [Ans. Xm = 3.28 × 10–3 ; M = 2.61 × 10–3amp–m2]
5. The space inside a toroid is filled with tungsten whose susceptibility is
6.8×10–5. What will be percentage increase in the magnetic field.
[Ans. 0.0068%]
6. The magnetic induction inside a solenoid is 6.5 × 10–4 T. When it is filled with
iron medium, the induction becomes 1.4 T. Calculate (a) relative permeability
of iron (b) intensity of magnetisation in iron (c) average magnetic moment per
atom of iron if it contains 8.45 × 1028 atoms/m3.
[Ans. (a) 2145 (b) 1.11×106 amp/m]
7. The magnetic susceptibility of a paramagnetic material at –73° C is 0.0075.
What will be its value at –173°C. [Ans. 0.015]

Magnetic Properties of Materials: Agnetic Ield

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7

The number of lines of induction passing through any arbitrary area in a

3. div B = 0 everywhere div H = div I

7.2.4 MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY k

2400 × 10−8 × 4 π × 10−3

(e) If a diamagnetic gas is diffused in a certain region of space having magnetic

other in the middle. gets bulged in the (b) The powder

The gas expands The gas expands in Ferromagnetism

9. The value of The substance tends The substance

11. Dependence of c Does not depend Inversely 1

15. Intensity of I is in a direction I is in the direction I is in the direction of

16. I-H Curve –IµH IaH

17. Magnetic The value of M is The value of M is The value of M is

18. Transition of These do not Paramagnetism These get converted

7.4 THEORY OF MAGNETISM

This is known as orbital magnetic moment of electron. In ordinary matter the

zero the value of x is very small compared

7.7.1 WEISS THEORY OF FERROMAGNETISM

where C= = Weiss contant

The susceptibility is therefore

Table 7.1 Selected ferromagnetic solids with Curie temperature Tc and

Substance Tc (K) Is (gauss)

7.8 MAGNETIC HYSTERESIS

D coe rcive force

(i) Retentivity or Remanence: The residual intensity of magnetisation left

7.8.5 USE OF HYSTERESIS CURVES I

(a) (b) (c)

( a ) U n m a g netise d ( b ) M ag ne tise d by ( C ) M a gn e tised b y

Fig. 7.36. A representative magnetization curve (with dominant magnetization processes

7.8.7 EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP FOR DRAWING B-H CURE

Fig. 7.37. Ballistic galvanometer method for drawing B curve.

Thus from Eq. (7.53)

At any instant t the voltage developed across the secondary is given by

Fig. 7.39. B – H curve by magnetometr.

LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS

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