Article

pubs.acs.org/EF

Study of Heavy Crude Oil Flows in Pipelines with Electromagnetic

Heaters
Ricardo Dunia* and Thomas F. Edgar
Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States

ABSTRACT: The electromagnetic heating of heavy crude oil in cylindrical pipes represents a novel technique to reduce fluid
viscosity and diminish the cost required for its transportation. In this study, the oil viscous fluid momentum and energy balances,
which include the effects of electromagnetic heating, variable viscosity, and fluid dielectric properties, are solved in cylindrical
coordinates. The electromagnetic energy absorbed by oil is converted into sensible heat, which could significantly reduce the
viscosity of heavy crude oil fluids. This drop in fluid viscosity diminishes flow pressure losses in pipelines, which reduces the
number and size of pumping stations between oil producers and consumers. Different pipe materials are considered here to
determine the effect of their dielectric properties in the fluid flow. Simulation results show that pipe materials with large
electromagnetic absorption tend to attenuate the pipe interior electromagnetic field, which reduces the direct warming of the
fluid. This significant reduction in the direct fluid heating suggests that pipes made by transparent electromagnetic materials are
preferred for this type of application. A fixed cost analysis of using electromagnetic heaters was made to maximize the distance
between pump stations in a long pipeline stretch. The simulation results demonstrate that electromagnetic heaters increase the
distance between pump stations by 30%.

■ INTRODUCTION
Heavy crude oil transportation costs have represented a major
factor for the price and use of such a fuel at energy
consumption facilities.1 Because heavy oil produced hundred
of miles from consumers has become an indispensable source
of energy, its transportation cost is still considered high
compared to other fuels.2 Heavy oil transportation pipelines
have been built in Alaska, Canada, Colombia, central Asia,
Africa, and California. The published literature refers to five
different methods of heavy oil transportation in pipelines.3
Among them, heating is an attractive method for improving the
flow properties of heavy crude oils because viscosity decreases
very rapidly with an increasing temperature.4 As an example,
Figure 1 illustrates the Chad−Cameroon pipeline in central
Africa, where six pump−heating stations are used to transport
500 000 barrels per day (BPD) along a 640 mile distance
between Palogue and Port Sudan.5
Electromagnetic heating applications are receiving significant
attention because of the selectivity in which energy is delivered
to electromagnetic absorbing materials.6−9 When energy is
transferred to a fluid via electromagnetic waves, the heat of
absorption is not limited to the surface but also to inner fluid
layers, allowing for the increase of energy transference. The
penetration capacity of electromagnetic furnaces provides
efficient volumetric heating for industrial applications as an
alternative to conventional thermal processing methods.10 This
is the case for industrial drying processes, where the energy
consumed was reduced by a factor between 2 and 10.11
Furthermore, electromagnetic heating is also ideal for
applications that require fast thermal responses.12 In summary,
the advantages of using microwaves for industrial processing
include fast heat transfer, volumetric and selective heating,
compactness of equipment, speed of switching on and off, and
minimal environmental impacts. Microwave leakage can
certainly be kept well below regulatory levels, and heating
stations can be optimally controlled in an unmanned fashion.
The latest technology developments enforce safety consid-
erations in units that do not require human intervention, and
the fast transference of electromagnetic energy permits fast
control responses to forecast environmental changes.
In the case of heavy oil pipelines that require pumping and
heating substations, the distribution of electromagnetic heating
devices between oil producers and consumers may provide a
considerable advantage when compared to fired heating and
heavy equipment pump stations. Furthermore, electromagnetic
heaters (EHs) can be placed within pump stations to reduce
the crude oil viscosity. The simulations presented in this work
provide a first step in the estimation of electromagnetic heating
for heavy crude oil transportation.
In general, electromagnetic heating tends to be energy-
efficient when the material to be heated is well-defined and can
be enclosed inside a furnace with reflective electromagnetic
properties. In that way, losses can be minimized and the energy
generated by the electromagnetic field source can be readily
absorbed by the processing material. This is the case for
ceramic furnaces and industrial dryers driven by electro-
magnetic heating, which show an energy savings that reduces
power consumption to a fraction of the amount required when
using fuel or steam.11
Electromagnetic waves with a frequency from 300 MHz to
300 GHz correspond to microwave frequency. Industrial
microwave frequencies are usually regulated by the policies of
each country. In the case of North America, the Federal
Communications Commission allows for frequencies of 915,
Received: March 29, 2012
Revised: June 16, 2012
Published: June 19, 2012

© 2012 American Chemical Society 4426 dx.doi.org/10.1021/ef300537e | Energy Fuels 2012, 26, 4426−4437
Energy & Fuels
Figure 1. Chad−Cameroon pipeline shows six pumping stations along a 640 mile extension. Each station includes three centrifugal pumps in
parallel, heaters, and tankage for fuel storage.
2450, 5800, and 22 000 MHz for industrial use.8 For laboratory
use, a frequency of 2450 MHz is preferred because it has
adequate penetration depth in solid-state applications.13 Many
publications have shown the use of 915 and 2450 MHz
electromagnetic heat sources for oil recovery in heavy oil
reservoirs.14−17 These studies show that the warming of heavy
crude oil in petroleum reservoirs as a substitute of hot water/
steam injection and in situ combustion provides energy savings.
The main obstacles for the development of this oil extraction
technology are equipment cost, safety consideration because of
the existence of hot spots as a consequence of heterogeneous
crude oil material, and the need for electric power, which is a
costly heating source.18
In this work, the heating of a heavy crude oil with known
dielectric properties along a straight pipe heated by an
electromagnetic field is studied. The effect of the pipe dielectric
properties and amplitude of the magnetic field are taken into
account in the design of this EH. Pressure drop and bulk
temperature profiles are used to determine the advantages and
repercussions of using this electromagnetic heating technology,
where the fluid does not need to be withdrawn from the pipe to
reduce its viscosity. Nevertheless, the availability of electric
power in remote locations may represent a challenge in the
development of this technology.
The optimal location of EH is also analyzed in this work to
maximize the distance between pump stations. In that way, less
pump stations will be needed as the viscosity is reduced by
increasing the temperature of the crude oil inside the EH. The
decrease in viscosity will reduce the pressure drop in the
pipeline, allowing for a more effective use of the power supplied
by the centrifugal pumps. However, the cost associated with the
installation and operation of EH is not considered in the scope
of this work.
This paper is organized in the following manner. The
Economic Motivation section illustrates how EHs can reduce
crude oil transportation costs. The Fluid Model Equations
section demonstrates the expressions that define the energy and
momentum balance for the transported crude oil flow in
4427
Article
cylindrical coordinates. The effect of the temperature in the
electromagnetic permittivity and viscosity of the crude oil is
provided in the Physical Property Variations section. The
Simulation Cases and Results section demonstrates simulation
and results for different types of pipe materials. An Economic
Study Analysis section of the optimal location and spacing of
EH in heavy crude oil transportation is presented before the
Conclusion of this research work.
■
ECONOMIC MOTIVATION
Heating the heavy crude oil and pipelines represents the second
most frequently used method for transporting heavy oil in
pipelines.2 The principle is to conserve the elevated temper-
ature (around 100 °C) at which the oil is produced through
insulation of the pipelines. Nevertheless, sequential heating of
warmed heavy oil is needed because of heat losses with the
environment and the effect of the temperature on viscosity.19
Therefore, the method of heating heavy oil is economically
viable for long pipelines when oil is reheated in the pumping
stations and pipelines are properly insulated. Insulation options
include an extra layer of insulation and burying the pipeline to
conserve heat.3
Special heaters are used along the way to maintain the
temperature in the range of 50−80 °C. Nevertheless, the
pressure drop can reach 1000 psi over a 40 mile stretch for
significant heavy crude oil.20 Because of their high maintenance,
these heaters operate in parallel with a backup unit in case of
equipment failure or decoking. Fired heaters only heat the fluid
in contact with the pipe wall and are prone to an uneven
heating distribution that can generate flammable vapors inside
the transportation pipes. Therefore, this type of heater requires
downstream flash vessels to strip the vapors generated during
heating. These vapors can be used as part of the fuel required in
the fire heater combustion chamber. Fired heaters are used in
the Chad−Cameroon pipeline system of Figure 1, where two
heaters per pump station provide 105 000 British thermal units
(Btu)/h to raise the pump suction temperature to 80 °C.
dx.doi.org/10.1021/ef300537e | Energy Fuels 2012, 26, 4426−4437
Energy & Fuels Article

Figure 2. Crude oil transportation diagram and pipe pressure profiles. The top diagram shows the case of no intermediate heating between pump
stations. The energy losses because of high viscosity at low temperatures forces a separation of only Y miles between stations. The installation of an
EH between pump stations (bottom diagram) allows for an extra separation of ΔY miles between stations, reducing the number of stations and
pump head required for significant transportation distances.

Shell and tube heaters (referred as indirect heaters) are also These profiles show the effect of EH on the pressure gradient
used in pump stations to heat and reduce the viscosity of the and bulk temperature. This work does not intend to study the
heavy oil. Steam is used on the tube side to reduce the crude oil feasibility of when EH should be installed for a particular
pressure drop along the heat exchanger. Although this type of transportation case. However, calculations related to the
exchanger is easier to maintain and has a lower risk of non- reduction in pump stations and the optimal location of EH
uniform heating than fired heaters, the fluid pressure drop is are provided in the Economic Study Analysis section.
significantly larger than fired heaters.
The use of EHs along a significant pipeline stretch can be
installed between pump stations to reduce the fluid viscosity.
■ FLUID MODEL EQUATIONS
Temperature and pressure profiles along the EH allow for the
This type of configuration reduces the number of pump determination of the size and pipe electromagnetic properties
stations required to transport heavy oil from producers to necessary for the optimal design of this equipment. The pipe wall
consumers. The fact that electromagnetic heating is performed temperature calculations are also necessary to eliminate the risk of
heavy fuel ignition and proper distribution of heat in the radial
inside the same cylindrical pipe size used for flow trans- direction. Finally, the stream outlet conditions are important to
portation and that the heating could be radially distributed to determine the location of pump stations for heavy oil transportation.
the core of the fluid flow makes this technique attractive for This last study is included in the Economic Study Analysis section of
installation, maintenance, and operational cost savings. this work.
Figure 2 illustrates the use of electromagnetic heating The crude oil flow momentum and energy balance equations in
between pump stations for crude oil transportation. The loss cylindrical coordinates are given by
of energy to the ambient surroundings decreases the fluid ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂ ⎛⎜ ∂U ⎞⎟ dP
temperature, which increases the heavy oil viscosity. Large (ρU 2) + (rρVU ) = rμ −
∂x r ∂r r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ dx (1)
viscosities increase the pressure gradient considerably, to a
point that a second pump station is required. The use of an EH ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂ ⎛⎜ ∂T ⎞⎟
(ρUCT ) + (rρVCT ) = rk + qḟ
obviates a second pump station by increasing the temperature ∂x r ∂r r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ (2)
of the fluid without bringing the fluid out of its normal course
where the viscous dissipation and the axial diffusion terms have been
of flow. As shown in Figure 2, an extra pipe distance, denoted neglected.
by ΔY, is realized for crude oil transportation with an EH
before the fluid pressure in increased in pump station B. ∂ ⎛⎜ ∂U ⎞⎟ ∂ ⎛⎜ ∂T ⎞⎟
μ ≃0 k ≃0
Ultimately, fewer pump stations will be needed to cover ∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂T ⎝ ∂x ⎠
distances of hundreds of miles when EHs are designed and The pressure gradient dP/dx only changes in the axial direction x. The
placed appropriately. fluid flow is considered laminar (Re < 2300), steady-state (∂/∂t = 0),
The advantages of using EH in the place of shell-tube heat and incompressible (∂ρ/∂P = 0).
exchangers between pump stations are the reduction in The term q̇f refers to the electromagnetic heat rate of absorption per
pressure losses (the shell-tube heat exchanger pressure drop unit volume. In most dielectric materials, the heat absorbed as a result
is significant) and removing the need of a hot-fluid source. The of the magnetic field component is neglected12 and will not be taken
distance between pump stations could be in the order of 50 into account in this study. The electric field intensity at r = R, denoted
by E⃗ R, is considered perpendicular to the pipe surface. Such an
miles, which may prohibit the use of an alternative source of
assumption permits the substitution of the electric field vector by its
energy, such as steam or combustible fuel. Electric power can amplitude at the pipe wet wall, ER. Therefore, a good approximation of
be easily transported in power lines and used for EH while the electromagnetic power absorbed per unit volume of fluid is given
distributing electric power for pumps and instrumentation by21
equipment. Furnace heaters may have low pressure losses but
are more expensive to maintain and require accessory qḟ (r ) = 2π -ε0ε″f E R 2e−2αf (R − r), 0≤r≤R (3)
equipment that increases their cost of installation. where ε″f is the effective loss factor and represents the imaginary part
The next section demonstrates the solution of the velocity of the fluid dielectric permittivity, εf. The permittivity depends upon
and temperature profiles of heavy crude oil transported through the dielectric properties of the fluid and electromagnetic field
a cylindrical pipe that undergoes electromagnetic heating. frequency, - . The attenuation of the electromagnetic wave is

4428 dx.doi.org/10.1021/ef300537e | Energy Fuels 2012, 26, 4426−4437

Energy & Fuels Article

characterized by the electromagnetic absorption coefficient α, given For the momentum balance equation
by22
1 ∂ 1 ∂
(ρ*U *2 ) + (ηρ*V *U *)
⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎤
1/2
Re ∂z η ∂η
2π ⎢ 1 ⎜ ⎛ ε″f ⎞2 ⎟ ⎥
αf = ε′f 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎟⎥ 2 ∂ ⎛ ∂U * ⎞
λ ⎢⎢ 2 ⎜
1 dP *
⎝ ⎝ ε′f ⎠ ⎠⎥⎦
= ⎜ημ* ⎟−
⎣ (4) Reη ∂η ⎝ ∂η ⎠ Re dz (9)
Table 1 provides the value and description of the parameters required For the energy balance equation
to evaluate q̇f in eq 3. The case of constant fluid dielectric properties
1 ∂ 1 ∂
(ρ*U *C*θ ) + (ηρ*V *C*θ )
a Re ∂z η ∂η
Table 1. Model Parameters
2 ∂ ⎛ ∂θ ⎞
description value units reference = ⎜ηk* ⎟ + q*̇ f
−12
Peη ∂η ⎝ ∂η ⎠ (10)
ε0 vacuum permittivity 8.85410 F/m
ε′e relative dielectric constant 3.9 23 where the dimensionless temperature θ(z, η) and heat q̇*f(η) are also
at the entrance defined in the Appendix.
ER amplitude of the electric V/m An axial-developed profile is considered for entrance conditions in
field at r = R the momentum balance shown in eq 1. Such a profile is denoted by
ER0 amplitude of the electric 180 V/m Ue(r) and is given by the solution of
field at r = R0
- frequency 2.45 GHz 11 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂Ue ⎞ dP
⎜rμ ⎟=
λ free space wavelength 12.2 cm 11 r ∂r ⎝ e ∂r ⎠ dx (11)
tan loss factor at the entrance, 1.58 × 103 23
(δe) ε″e/ε′e Notice that radial velocities are zero for developed flows; i.e., V(r) = 0.
The entrance pressure and temperature profiles are considered
ε″e electromagnetic heat 6.16 × 10 3
23
conversion at the uniform and known, which indicates P(0, r) = Pe and T(0, r) = Te,
entrance respectively. The dimensionless form of eq 11 is given by
μe viscosity at the entrance 180 cP 24
2 ∂ ⎛ ∂U *e ⎞ dP *
ρ density 902−940 kg/m3 24 ⎜η ⎟=
Te entrance temperature 20 °C η ∂η ⎝ ∂η ⎠ dz (12)
U̅ average axial velocity 0.25 m/s subject to dU*e/dη|η=0 = 0 and U*e(1) = 0. The solution of eqs 8−12
R pipe internal radius 0.5 m provides U*e(η) = 2(1 − η2) and dP*/dz = −16 for entrance
R0 pipe external radius 0.5025 m conditions to the electromagnetic heating section. A pressure gradient
Re Reynolds number 1230 above −16 indicates a reduction in the pressure drop because of fluid
Pr Prandtl number 2250 heating. Positive values of dP*/dz suggest that the heater permits the
C fluid heat capacity 2000 J kg−1 K−1 fluid to accelerate inside the pipe, making the heater act as a pump
kf fluid conductivity 0.16 W m−1 K−1
device by increasing the fluid pressure inside the pipe. Such situations
rarely occur in practice for laminar flow regimes.
a
The letters “f” and “e” stand for fluid and at the heater entrance The boundary conditions in the axial velocity are identical to the
conditions, respectively. conditions used for the entrance profile. The radial velocity boundary
conditions are given by V*(z, 0) = V*(z, 1) = 0. For the energy
and uniform magnetic field provides the following heat rate absorbed balance equation, the external boundary condition is based on the
by the fluid: external heat flux per unit length q
Q̇ f = lπR2qḟ (5) ∂T
q = 2πRke |r = R
∂r
where l represents the length of the electromagnetic heating section.
Equations 1 and 2 generate a system of partial differential equations while ∂T/∂r|r=0 = 0 because of symmetry. In terms of dimensionless
that are exclusively parabolic.25 The continuity equation can be variables, these boundary conditions result in
expressed in integral form ∂θ ∂θ
|η = 1 = q*, |η = 0 = 0
∂η ∂η
∫(A) ρU dA = ṁ (6) where q* ≡ q/(2πke(To − Te)). Two different cases for q are
where ṁ is a constant and A represents the cross-section area of flow. considered depending upon the pipe dielectric properties. These are as
The solution of eqs 1, 2, and 6 provides the pressure gradient and the follows: (a) pipe with transparent electromagnetic properties (in such
average bulk temperature a case, the fluid is directly heated by the electromagnetic source and
the pipe is thermally insulated; i.e., q = 0) and (b) pipe heated by the
R
∫0 ρU (x , r)T(x , r)r dr electromagnetic energy source (in this case, the fluid is warmed by not
Tb(x) = R
only direct exposure to the electromagnetic source but also the pipe
∫0 ρU (x , r)r dr (7) wall).
The Simulation Cases and Results section provides the solution
which are important parameters to determine the effectiveness of the profiles of these two cases.
electromagnetic heating for crude oil transportation.
On the basis of the dimensionless variables and input parameters
defined in the Appendix, differential eqs 1, 2, and 6 can be expressed in
the following dimensionless form:
■ PHYSICAL PROPERTY VARIATIONS
The viscosity and dielectric properties of the heavy crude oil are
For the integral continuity equation affected the most by temperature changes. The effect of the
temperature on density, specific heat, and conductivity can be
1 1
∫0 ρ*U *ηdη = considered negligible. Although there are significant reserves of
2 (8) heavy crude oil in Canada and Venezuela, the publication of
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Energy & Fuels Article

heavy oil dielectric properties have been limited in the Table 2. Dielectric Permittivity for the Russkoye Oil23
literature. The Russkoye crude oil produced in Russia has the
T (°C) ε′f tan(δf) ε″f at 13.56 MHz ε″f (×102) at 2.45 GHz
most complete published dielectric properties and is used in
this research. The Russkoye oil has an American Petroleum 22.23 2.88 0.045 0.130 0.720
Institute (API) gravity between 20° and 25°, and its 40 2.78 0.108 0.300 1.66
transportation temperature is between 20 and 100 °C. 60 2.63 0.183 0.481 2.66
Although a crude oil with an API gravity in the low twenties 80 2.42 0.145 0.351 1.94
is considered in the limit between medium and heavy oil, the 90 2.31 0.116 0.268 1.49
Russkoye oil has been considered heavy crude oil in previous
publications.23
Viscosity. The correlation developed by Bennison26 for
where [a, b] = [−4.125, 0.514] × 10−3 for 10 < T < 63 °C and
heavy crude oil viscosities has demonstrated accurate results
[a, b] = [57.16, −0.47] × 10−3 for 64 ≤ T ≤ 100 °C. Figure 3a
that match actual values and is used in the present work. The
illustrates the approximation to the data in Table 2. Notice that
correlation follows the form:
the use of such an approximation is restricted to temperatures
μ = 10h(API)T g(API) between 10 and 100 °C.
The results shown for the Alaska heavy crude oil28 illustrate
where h( ) and g( ) represent the following polynomial that the permittivity real part does not change with the
functions of the crude oil API gravity: frequency for - > 100 MHz. The Russkoye crude oil
h(x) = −0.8021x + 23.8765 permittivity real part also shows the tendency to remain at
3.9 for - > 60 MHz and 20 °C. Furthermore, ε′ decreases
g (x) = 0.31458x − 9.21592 linearly to 80% of its original value when the temperature
increases to 100 °C.23 Therefore, the following correlation is
This correlation gives good results for crude oil with an API used to calculate ε′ as a function of the temperature at 2.45
gravity even greater than 20 and temperatures above 120 °C. GHz:
Dielectric Properties. As mentioned above, there is a lack
ε′ = 4.095 − 0.00975T , 10 < T < 100 °C (16)
of electromagnetic property information in the literature for
crude oil. Among the few published dielectric properties for Figure 3b demonstrates the effect of the temperature on αf at
heavy oils are the ones for southeast Turkey crude oil,27 2.45 GHz obtained from the substitution of the correlations
Russkoye crude oil field in Russia,23 Alaska heavy oil,28 Utah developed for ε′ and ε″ in eq 4. Such a shape is similar to the
crude oil asphaltene,29 and Maracaibo Lake heavy crude oil in one given for ε″ and tan(δ) in ref 23.
Venezuela.30 These properties are provided at certain temper- Dielectric properties are required in this application not only
atures and electromagnetic frequencies. Therefore, some for the transported fluid but also for the pipe materials been
assumptions are required to extrapolate these properties to considered. Several pipe materials are tested to determine the
the temperature and frequency operation range needed in this fluid temperature and velocity profiles. Table 3 illustrates the
application. dielectric properties at 2.45 GHz of the pipe materials taken
Vrařlstad et al.31 made use of a simple correlation between into account in the simulations. An important condition to take
the permittivity imaginary part and the electromagnetic field into account for the material selection is the maximum fluid
frequency temperature reached at the pipe wall. Transported flammable
fluids should be maintained at temperatures in which leaking
σ (T ) drops do not ignite.
ε ″ (- , T ) = + χ ″ (- )
2πε0 - (13) Among the materials shown in Table 3, the silicon carbide
permittivity imaginary and real parts at 2.45 GHz reach values
where χ″ is the imaginary part of the complex susceptibility and
of 100 for a wide range of temperatures.33 The substitution of
σ is the dielectric conductivity. Cao et al.32 have suggested that
these values in eq 4 provides αp = 234.4 m−1, which is about
eq 13 can be approximate to the following relation:
500 times larger than the crude oil absorption. Such a large
σ (T ) attenuation factor for the pipe material permits delivering most
ε ″ (- , T ) ≈ of the generated electromagnetic energy to the fluid portion in
2πε0 - (14)
contact with the pipe. Such a situation may reduce the fluid
Such an approximation is valid for crude oil with a significant viscosity at the pipe wall at the risk of reaching temperatures
dielectric conductivity and permits the calculation of ε″ at above the regulation limits for crude oil transportation.
different frequencies.
The dependency of σ upon the temperature is established by
considering the results provided for the Russkoye oil.23 The
■ SIMULATION CASES AND RESULTS
Lambert’s law is used to relate the electric field amplitude at the
first three columns of Table 2 provide the data extracted from pipe wet wall (ER) to the electric field amplitude applied at the
such a reference. Notice that ε′ monotonically decreases with pipe dry surface (ER0).
the temperature, but the loss factor tan(δ) reaches a peak
around 63 °C. The last two columns of Table 2 give ε″ = ε′ E R = E R 0e−αp(R 0− R) (17)
tan(δ) at 13.56 MHz and 2.45 GHz frequencies.
A simple correlation was developed to represent the variation Substitution of this expression in eq 3 provides the relation
of ε″f with the temperature at a frequency of 2.45 GHz. This between the power absorbed by the fluid per unit volume and
approximation consists of a piecewise linear function the pipe dielectric properties

ε″f = a + bT (15) qḟ (r ) = q0̇ ε″f e−2αp(R 0− R)e−2αf (R − r), 0≤r≤R (18)

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Energy & Fuels Article

Figure 3. Effect of the temperature on the Russkoye crude oil dielectric properties at 2.45 GHz.

Table 3. Dielectric Properties of Pipe Materials21,33

material ε′p ε″p tan(δp) αp (m−1) ER0 (V/m)
alumina 8.9 0.009 0.00010 0.0777 180
polyethylene 2.3 0.001 0.0004 0.017 180.1
silicon carbide 100 100 1 234.4 321.7
lime glass 6.0 1.20 0.20 12.6 180.4

where q̇0 is the power generated by the electromagnetic field

ER0 at free space conditions
q0̇ = 2π -ε0E R2 0
and the subindex p indicates pipe material properties.
As explained in the Fluid Model Equations section, two
different cases are considered for crude oil transportation under
electromagnetic heating. These cases refer to transparent
electromagnetic and dielectric pipe materials.
Transparent Electromagnetic Pipe. Transparent electro-
magnetic materials have a negligible attenuation factor α and do
not absorb the energy from the electromagnetic field.
Substitution of αp = 0 in previous expressions demonstrates
that ER = ER0 and
qḟ (r ) = q0̇ ε″f e−2αf (R − r), 0≤r≤R
The pipe is considered externally insulated during electro-
magnetic heating, which indicates that all of the heat absorbed
by the fluid is retained. An expression that provides the
dimensionless form of the heat absorbed by the crude oil flow is
provided in the Appendix
ε″f −2Rαf (1 − η)
q*̇ f (η) = P* e , 0≤η≤1
ε″e
where ε″e represents the fluid permittivity imaginary part
evaluated at entrance conditions. The increase in the fluid bulk
temperature for heavy crude oil transportation is on the order
of 50 °C.34 Therefore, the electromagnetic field required for
Tbo − Te = 50 °C along a 10 m heater is of 180 V/m. The
variable Tbo represents the outlet fluid bulk temperature and is
used to define the temperature dimensionless form. Figure 4
illustrates the bulk, center, and wall dimensionless temperature
profiles for the Rosskoye crude oil undergoing electromagnetic
heating at ER = 180 V/m along the 10 m pipe stretch. Notice
that the radial temperature gradient between the wall and
(19)
Figure 4. Bulk, center, and wall temperature profiles along the EH for
a transparent electromagnetic pipe. The dimensionless temperature θ
is defined in the Appendix.
center of the pipe at the outlet flow is about θw − θc = 0.25,
which is equivalent to 12.5 °C.
The fact that the wall temperature is greater than the center
temperature seems to contradict the results obtained for
(20) electromagnetic heating in previous publications,35,21 where the
core temperature was greater than the wall temperature.
Nevertheless, the main difference between the case presented
here and previous work is the laminar flow velocity profile of
the warmed material. Figure 5 demonstrates the axial velocity
profile at the heater outlet. As expected, the flow at the wall is
null and the flow at the center doubles the mean velocity U̅ .
Such a difference allows for the inner portion of the fluid flow
to have lower temperatures than the outer portion. Lambert’s
law assumption for electromagnetic power absorption also
contributes to the shape of the temperature profile in Figure 4.
Figure 6 illustrates the effect of the electromagnetic field
amplitude on the pressure gradient. As expected, the larger the
electromagnetic field, the lower the pressure drop at the heater
outlet. The initial heating portion appears as a straight line;
however, it asymptotically flattens as the pressure drop
approaches 4.0. Such a decrease in the pressure gradient is
expected to significantly reduce the pumping cost for heavy
crude oil transportation.
Electromagnetic Heated Pipe. A pipe of external radius
R0 made of a dielectric material, such as silicon carbide, will
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Energy & Fuels
Figure 5. Axial velocity profile (U* ≡ U/U̅ ) at the heater outlet for a
transparent electromagnetic pipe.
Figure 6. Pressure gradient profile along the heater for electro-
magnetic fields of 160, 180, and 200 V/m.
warm up because of the electromagnetic field applied at the
pipe surface R0. The expression that provides the absorbed heat
per unit volume of pipe material is given by
qṗ (r ) = q0̇ ε″p e−2αp(R 0− r), R < r ≤ R0
and the pipe steady-state energy balance is given by eq 2, where
all velocities (U and V) are set to zero.
1 ∂ ⎛ ∂Tp ⎞
⎜rk p ⎟ + qṗ = 0
r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠
This work focuses on the fluid flow conditions and pressure
drop profile for crude oil transportation. Therefore, the
calculation of the temperature gradient at the fluid boundary
condition is of great interest to define the fluid thermal
boundary conditions. Rearrangement of eq 21 demonstrates
that, at steady-state conditions and for thermally insulated
pipes, all of the electromagnetic energy absorbed by the pipe is
transferred to the fluid at r = R. Therefore
⎡ ∂Tp ⎤ R0
q = ⎢2πrk p
⎣ ∂r ⎦
⎥ = 2π ∫R qṗ r dr
r=R
Article
Substitution of the previous expression into the definition of q*
provides the following external boundary condition in
dimensionless form
∂θ q0̇ R2 η0
∂η
|η = 1 =
ke(To − Te)
∫1 ε″p e−2αpR(η0 − η)ηdη
This boundary condition for constant pipe dielectric properties
is reduced to
∂θ q0̇ R2ε″p (β − 1)
|η = 1 = [1 − e−β(η0 − 1)]
∂η ke(To − Te) β 2
where β ≡ 2αpR. In the case of a silicon carbide pipe, for which
β > 200, the following approximation is made:
∂θ ε″ p W0R2 ⎛ 1 − e−β(η0 − 1) ⎞
|η = 1 ≈ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
∂η ε″e ke(To − Te) ⎝ β ⎠ (22)
where W0 represents the external electromagnetic power. This
type of expression has been used to determine the electro-
magnetic power absorbed by cylindrical shells during micro-
wave food heating.35 However, in this particular application, eq
22 is used to provide the external boundary condition to the
crude oil flow along the EH. Notice that the ratio between the
permittivity imaginary parts of the pipe material and entrance
fluid (ε″p/ε″e) indicates that the crude oil could be significantly
heated at the pipe wall when ε″p ≫ ε″e.
Table 3 demonstrates dielectric properties of pipe materials
common in industrial applications. Materials with large
electromagnetic energy absorption (large tan(δ)) tend to
attenuate significantly the electromagnetic field inside the pipe.
For this reason, the electromagnetic field needs to be adjusted
for electromagnetic absorbent materials to obtain a reasonable
temperature increase along the EH. The last column of Table 3
provides the required ER0 to obtain a bulk temperature increase
of about 50 °C for different pipe materials. Such an adjustment
in the magnetic field induces larger power losses for materials,
such as silicon carbide. Nevertheless, heating an external
insulated pipe reduces the fluid viscosity in the vicinity of the
pipe walls to a level that pressure builds up instead of dropping.
Because flow accelerates in the vicinity of the pipe wall, the
velocity profile slows at the pipe center.
Figure 7 illustrates the pressure gradient profiles for the
different materials listed in Table 3. The profiles for alumina,
polyethylene, and glass are similar to the one obtained for
electromagnetic transparent materials, because of their weak
dielectric properties. However, silicon carbide (SiC) shows a
different pressure gradient profile because a significant amount
of energy is transferred to the portion of fluid in contact with
(21) the pipe.
The simulations considered for SiC pipes made use of two
electromagnetic field levels. The increase of the magnetic field
from 180 V/m (nominal) to 321.7 V/m is to provide the latter
with the same outlet bulk temperature and pressure gradient
than the other materials considered in Figure 7. The bulk
temperature at the outlet θbo is defined by
Tbo − Te
θ bo ≡ =1
To − Te
where Tbo is the outlet bulk temperature. Such an increase in
the electromagnetic field may induce greater energy losses,
which might be detrimental for the success of this technology.
4432 dx.doi.org/10.1021/ef300537e | Energy Fuels 2012, 26, 4426−4437
Energy & Fuels
Figure 7. Pressure drop profile along the EH for different pipe
materials. Profiles of SiC are provided for 180 V/m (nominal) and
321.7 V/m.
In the case of SiC pipes, the localized energy transference at
the surface reduces the viscosity in the vicinity of the pipe wall,
where the boundary condition U*(1) = 0 holds. The
combination of such a boundary condition with a significant
drop in the fluid viscosity at the pipe wall gives
∂ ⎛⎜ ∂U ⎞⎟
rμ < <0
∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠
in eq 1, which triggers dP/dx > 0 for a developed entrance
profile. After a short heating length of less than 2 m, the
velocity profile adjusts accordingly and the heating propagates
to the core flow. These two effects make the pressure gradient
profile of SiC pipes at 321.7 V/m match the alumina,
polyethylene, and glass profiles, as illustrated in Figure 7.
The next section includes the results obtained for the fluid
bulk temperature at the EH outlet conditions to economically
determine the potential cost reduction when using EH to
transport heavy crude oil along a significant pipe stretch.
■
ECONOMIC STUDY ANALYSIS
The economic study presented in this work only accounts for
pipeline design optimization based on the pipeline stretches
and location of pump stations. Operating costs related to EH
and pump energy consumption cost when compared to fire-
heater fuel and utility flow costs are not included in this
research. The main reason is the variability of utility costs
depending upon the region where the pipeline is installed. This
paper is intended to provide a general scope of fixed cost
reduction without looking at operation costs, which depend
upon the heating source and equipment heat-transfer efficiency.
The calculation of the velocity, pressure gradient, and
temperature profiles inside the EH provides insight about the
effect of electromagnetic energy heating on cylindrical fluid
flows with high viscosity temperature dependence. Never-
theless, because of the small size of the heater compared to the
pipeline length, the economic study of this technology is based
on the fluid outlet conditions and the heater efficiency. Figure 2
illustrates that the addition of EH between pump stations will
increase their spacing to the point that fewer pump stations
might be required.
An example of a long pipeline for crude oil transportation is
the phase 1 of the Keystone Pipeline (KP) with a total length of
4433
Article
about 2000 miles that requires 39 pump stations, which gives
an average of L = 50 miles between pump stations. Although
KP makes use of fluid emulsions to reduce the crude oil
viscosity, this work bases the viscosity and dielectric property
calculations on the Russkoye crude oil. The operating
temperature range during winter time should be between 100
°C at the pump discharge and 20 °C at the heater suction to
minimize the number of pump stations. An average external
temperature of Ta = 0 °C is considered during winter time.
Figure 8 demonstrates a cylindrical differential section of
fluid outside the EH exposed to the external temperature Ta.
Figure 8. Cylindrical differential section of fluid exposed to the
external temperature, Ta.
The pipe thickness is considered negligible in this analysis, and
the axial coordinate along the pipeline outside the EH is
denoted by Y. The energy balance of this differential section
located outside the EH and between the pump discharge at
station A and the heat exchanger suction at station B in Figure
2 gives
U̅ πR2ρCpdT = 2πR[Ta − T (Y )]hdY (23)
where the overall equivalent heat-transfer coefficient h is
assumed constant along the pipe stretch. The solution of the
differential eq 23 provides the following temperature profile:
T (y) = Ta + (Td − Ta)e−(2h / UR̅ ρCp)y (24)
where Td represents the temperature at the pump discharge and
y is the distance measured from the pump discharge.
Substitution of the parameters given in Table 1 and considering
that most of the pipeline is covered by 0.5 in. of a polymer foam
with a thermal conductivity of 0.03 W m−1 K−1, we obtain
T (y) = e−γy × 100 (25)
−2 −1
where γ = 3.2 × 10 miles and the temperature is in Celsius.
Therefore, for a 50 mile pipeline stretch measured from the
pump discharge at station A to the heater inlet at station B, we
obtain T(50) = 20.2 °C, which is within the operating range of
the Russkoye crude oil pumping conditions.
The calculation of the pressure drop along the 50 mile
stretch depends upon the effect of the temperature on the fluid
viscosity. Laminar and developed flow assumptions along the
50 mile pipeline section simplify the calculation of the overall
pressure drop between pump stations. On the basis of these
assumptions, eq 1 is reduced to
1 ∂ ⎛⎜ ∂U ⎞ dP
rμ(T ) ⎟ =
r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ dy (26)
dx.doi.org/10.1021/ef300537e | Energy Fuels 2012, 26, 4426−4437
Energy & Fuels Article

and for developed flows with a constant density, the continuity denoted by yh, is obtained by maximizing the total distance
eq 6 results in the following parabolic profile: between pump stations (L) while keeping the temperature
⎡ profile as well as the overall pressure drop within the normal
⎛ r ⎞2 ⎤ operating range. Hence, the optimal temperature profile that
U (r ) = 2U̅ ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝R⎠ ⎦ maximizes the pipeline length is given by the solution of the
following problem:
Substitution of the previous expression into eq 26 provides the
following expression for the pipeline pressure drop between max L
pump stations:
yh (29)

8U̅ y subject to
ΔP(y) = −
R2
∫0 μ(Y )dY
(27) 20 ≤ T (y) ≤ 100 °C for 0≤y≤L
where μ is in cP
|ΔP(L)| ≤ ΔPmax where ΔPmax = 936.3 kPa
μ(y) = 4.08(32 + 180e−0.032y)−3.23 × 109
The presence of the EH results in a significant temperature
and Y is expressed in miles. Therefore, the pressure drop as a increase ΔTh at yh. On the basis of the optimization variable yh,
function of the pipe length is given by the following expression: the pipeline temperature profile is divided into three parts:
y before, at, and after the EH
ΔP(y) = −12.8 ∫0 μ(Y )dY
(28) T (y) = 100e−γy 0 ≤ y < yh − 0.5l
where y refers to the pipe total length in miles and the resulting y − yh
T (y) = T (yh − 0.5l) + ΔTh yh − 0.5 ≤ y < yh + 0.5l
pressure drop ΔP is in kPa. Figure 9 demonstrates the l
T (y) = 100e−γ(y − yh − 0.5l) yh + 0.5l ≤ y ≤ L

where l represents the EH length. On the basis of the bulk

temperature profile of Figure 4, an EH of length l = 10 m
provides an increase of ΔTh = 50 °C in the fluid temperature.
Although such a result depends upon the entrance temperature
at the EH (Te was set to 20 °C in Figure 4), it is convenient to
consider this constant temperature increase for any entrance
temperature. Such an assumption allows us to superpose and
apply the same EH effect to any pipeline location.
The results in Figure 9 can be used to assist the optimizer by
reducing the search region toward an optimal yh. In this regards,
T(22) = 50 °C, which indicates that yh ≥ 22 miles to satisfy
T(y) ≤ 100 °C at the EH outlet. The inspection of the list of
constraints also suggests that the inequality |ΔP(L)| ≤ ΔPmax is
the one limiting the objective function because ΔP monotoni-
cally decreases with y. Therefore, such an inequality constraint
is made active; i.e., |ΔP(L)| = ΔPmax = 936.3 kPa.
Figure 10 illustrates how the location of the EH affects the
distance between pump stations. It is important to highlight
that these results maintain the same temperature and pressure
discharge conditions as the 50 mile pipeline with no EH

Figure 9. Temperature, viscosity, and pressure drop profiles for the

Russkoye crude oil along a 50 mile pipeline.

temperature, viscosity, and pressure drop profiles along the 50

mile pipeline stretch between pump stations. Notice the abrupt
increase in viscosity and pressure drop as the crude oil cools
from 100 to 20 °C. The total pressure drop along the 50 mile
pipeline is of ΔPmax = 936.3 kPa.
The first economic question that arises when using an
Figure 10. Effect of the EH location yh on the total length of the
intermediate EH is the additional distance between pump pipeline, L. The optimum location of yh = 36.1 miles allows for a total
stations that such a device will allow while keeping the pressure pipe length of L = 73.4 miles before a new pump station is required to
drop below ΔPmax. Therefore, the optimal location of the EH, raise the fluid pressure.

4434 dx.doi.org/10.1021/ef300537e | Energy Fuels 2012, 26, 4426−4437

Energy & Fuels Article

installed. The maximum distance of L = 73.4 miles occurs when
the heater is placed at yh = 36.1 miles. This result indicates an
additional distance of 23.4 miles between pump stations.
Temperature, viscosity, and pressure drop profiles for the
optimum location of the EH are shown in Figure 11. Notice
that the temperature increases to 81.3 °C at the outlet of the
EH, and the pressure drop of 936.3 kPa is reached at the
pipeline discharge.
is shown that materials with a high heat of absorption, such as
SiC, attenuate the electromagnetic field inside the pipe and
reduce the effectiveness of the EH. In the case of SiC, the
electromagnetic field had to be increased from 180 to 321 V/m
to have the same fluid warming effect as other materials with
properties similar to transparent electromagnetic materials.
An economic analysis of the number and location of EH was
made to determine the potential use of these heaters between
crude oil pump stations for long pipelines transporting heavy
crude oil. The results show that the pipeline length can be
increased by 30% when using a transparent pipe material with
an EH placed in the optimal location between pump stations.
These results were obtained using the Russkoye heavy crude oil
because its complete electromagnetic properties were available
in the literature. The viscosity of such a crude oil is highly
dependent upon the temperature, which justifies high-temper-
ature operations along the pipeline.
This work is not intended to provide a detailed feasibility
study for the use of EH to reduce the number of pump stations
along a large pipeline stretch. Fixed and operational costs of
such equipment might make this technology less attractive than
the conventional configuration of having heaters only at the
pump suction. Nevertheless, the physical effect of inserting EHs
permits larger separation between pump stations, which can
significantly reduce the heavy crude oil transportation cost
because of the high viscosity of such types of fluids at room
temperature. Moreover, the use of EHs does not perturb the
flow course and requires less equipment infrastructure when
compared to furnace heaters. A more detailed study of this
technology and the analysis of the operational efficiency of EHs
will be performed in the near future.

■ APPENDIX
The following dimensionless variables are used to convert the
set of partial differential equations in their dimensionless forms:
x r U V
z= , η = , U* = , V * =
Figure 11. Temperature, viscosity, and pressure drop profiles for the RRe R U̅ U̅
optimum location of the EH at yh = 36.1 miles. This arrangement
permitted the pipeline length to increase from 50 to 73.4 miles. ρ P μ k
ρ* = , P* = , μ* = , k* =
ρe ρe U̅ 2 μe ke
The potential distance increase of 23.4 miles between pump
stations because of EH permits the reduction of the number of 2Rρe U̅ Ceμe C
Re = , Pr = , Pe = Re*Pr , C* =
pump stations by 30%. In the hypothetical case of a 2000 mile μe ke Ce
pipeline length, equivalent to the phase 1 of the KP between
Canada and the United States, only 27 pump stations would where U̅ represents the uniform entrance velocity used to
have been needed instead of 39. This result indicates 12 fewer calculate the constant mass flow rate.
pump stations than what are actually installed if thermal
ṁ = ρe U̅ πR2
viscosity reduction would have been considered for such a
project. Nevertheless, an economic study that weighs the In the case of electromagnetic heating, the dimensionless
additional cost of 27 EHs installed in exchange of saving 12 temperature is given by
pump stations should be performed to determine the
profitability of the proposed approach. Fixed and operational T (z , η) − Te
θ (z , η) =
costs of EH and of heavy crude oil pump stations are outside To − Te
the scope of this work.

■
where (To − Te) is a temperature increase reference along the
CONCLUSION electromagnetic heating section. For numerical convenience,
The modeling and simulation results of an EH for crude oil (To − Te) = 50 °C, which is equivalent to the bulk temperature
transportation were presented in this work. The crude oil increase along a 10 m EH. The dimensionless heat of
dielectric properties and viscosity were adjusted on the basis of absorption is accordingly determined
the fluid temperature and electromagnetic source frequency. qḟ (η)R
Pipe materials with different electromagnetic properties were q*̇ f (η) ≡
tested to determine their effect in the flow pressure gradient. It ρe UC
̅ e(To − Te) (30)

4435 dx.doi.org/10.1021/ef300537e | Energy Fuels 2012, 26, 4426−4437

Energy & Fuels Article

where y = axial coordinate along the pipeline

z = dimensionless axial coordinate
qḟ (η) = q0̇ ε″f e−2R[αp(η0 − 1) + αf (1 − η)], 0≤η≤1
Subscripts
For transparent electromagnetic pipes, αp = 0, which makes a = ambient
b = bulk
qḟ (η) = q0̇ ε″f e−2αf R(1 − η), 0≤η≤1 d = discharge
e = entrance
The electromagnetic fields can be also expressed in terms of the f = fluid
electromagnetic power per unit volume.27 In general, the h = heater
following relations are used to simplify the expressions applied o = outlet
to calculate the fluid-absorbed heat p = pipe
ε″f −2Rαf (1 − η) w = wall
qḟ (η) = P e , 0≤η≤1 0 = external
ε″e
Superscripts
where * = dimensionless
−2Rαp(η0 − 1)
P = P0e and P0 = q0̇ ε″e Greek Letters
α = thermal diffusivity
Substitution into eq 30 provides a similar dimensionless η = dimensionless radial coordinate
expression for the fluid-absorbed heat ε0 = vacuum permittivity
ε″f −2Rαf (1 − η) ε′ = relative dielectric constant
q*̇ f (η) = P* e , 0≤η≤1 ε″ = electromagnetic heat conversion
ε″e
λ = free space wavelength
where θ = dimensionless temperature
PR μ = viscosity
P* = ρ = density

ρe UC
̅ e(To − Te)
A heating−pumping station is expected to increase the fluid
bulk temperature in 50 °C. Substitution of this information and
the electromagnetic properties of the fluid at entrance
conditions from Table 1 suggests that an electromagnetic
field of ER = 180 V is required for this type of application.
■
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