Running head: VOCABULARY RETENTION AND EFFECTS 1

Effect of Technology-Based Vocabulary Practices in a Foreign Language Classroom on English

Vocabulary Retention

Chelsea Roidt

Bowling Green State University

Author Note

Chelsea Roidt is a Masters student in the Classroom Technology program at

Bowling Green State University. She is completing this paper as part of her Masters-level

Research in Education course.

Correspondence concerning this proposal should be addressed to Chelsea Roidt, 608

Rambling Brook Drive, Pickerington, OH 43147. Contact: cdurdel@bgsu.edu

TECH-BASED VOCABULARY RETENTION 2

Table of Contents

Table of Contents …………………………………………………………………………… 2

Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………… 3
Problem Statement………………………………………………………………………….. 4
Literature Review…………………………………………………………………………… 6
Research Design…………………………………………………………………………….. 12
Methodology………………………………………………………………………………… 13
Instrumentation and Procedures ……………………………………………………………. 14
Limitations…………………………………………………………………………………… 15
Results………………………………………………………………………………………. 16
Recommendations ……………………………………………………………………………20
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………....21
Appendix A………………………………………………………………………………….. 23
References…………………………………………………………………………………… 24
TECH-BASED VOCABULARY RETENTION 3

Abstract

This action research study was conducted in Lancaster, Ohio at Lancaster High School in

the Lancaster City School District. This study utilized ​Correlational Analyses​ (statistical

analysis) and investigated the effect of technology-based vocabulary strategies on vocabulary

retention in both the target and English languages. The study was built around 11th and 12th

grade students taking a level 3 Latin course. For this study, all students were given a pre-test that

included 50 multiple choice questions. They were then instructed with reinforced

technology-based vocabulary strategies over a nine-week period. During this time, emphasis was

also put on English derivatives that were based in the target vocabulary of the unit. Upon

completion of the unit, students were given the same post-test. Overall, the mean scores

increased by 47% for all students based on the quantitative data collected from the pre and

post-test scores.
TECH-BASED VOCABULARY RETENTION 4

Introduction to the Problem

Rationale

In any language classroom, vocabulary is a key focus for acquisition of a language.

Regardless of the vassal of instruction, retention of vocabulary is essential for the progression of

the student’s comprehension in the target language. According to Fazeli (2012), the lexicon may

be the most important component for learners, and mastering of vocabulary is an essential

component of second/foreign language teaching and learning. Aside from achieving fluency in a

target language, vocabulary acquisition is a building block for more chiasmatic skills. According

to Richards and Renandya (2002), the complex skills which are used in writing require L2

learners to not only focus on planning and organizing skills in a higher level but also on spelling,

punctuation, word choice skills in a lower level. This difficulty is especially aggravated when,

language proficiency is weak. This means that students must not only acquire vocabulary for the

purpose of basic communication or translation in a target language, but also for advancement and

progression in higher level skills necessary for comprehension of the language as a whole. This

comprehension can also branch out in application to other languages and functions within the

schema of those languages. Because of these things, vocabulary can be as a key factor for

success, central to a language, and paramount to a language learner (Fazeli, 2012). This

translates to students’ connections to the real world because, by marrying technology-based

practices and a focused intent on improving vocabulary retention, students will be able to better

recognize and recall English vocabulary words and strategies as they relate to the previously

learned foreign language vocabulary.

TECH-BASED VOCABULARY RETENTION 5

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study is to examine whether the use of technology-based vocabulary

retention strategies in a world language classroom leads to improved English vocabulary. The

use of flashcards and other paper-pencil methods of retention are becoming antiquated, while the

need for knowledge of the vocabulary is becoming increasingly more prevalent in skills based in

other content areas. While the importance of retaining vocabulary within a second language is

crucial, the positive effect that it can have on other content areas is not as well documented. The

most research that can be found focuses on the role of roots, prefixes, and suffixes in the

acquisition of the English language and the detriment that a lack of these skills can have on that

learning. A lack of vocabulary knowledge would extend to an inability to comprehend reading

(in any subject), an inability to write at grade level, and an inability to understand the function of

words in grammar (Wallace, 2008). This study could prove that by improving vocabulary

strategies through technology-based instruction in foreign language classrooms, teachers might

also have a positive effect on the learners English vocabulary.

This study is important because it highlights a need for students to engage in foreign

languages as a means to improving English vocabulary. A number of high school students face

writing challenges on account of their limited vocabulary skills and inability to find synonyms

for their existing vocabulary. These challenges, according to Solati-Dehkordi and Selahi (2016),

seem to be, to some extent, due to the lack of vocabulary knowledge, especially productive

vocabulary, and to a large extent, the inadequate emphasis placed on productive skills and the

type of instruction they receive. By focusing this study on the type of instruction given within a
TECH-BASED VOCABULARY RETENTION 6

foreign language classroom, teachers in the district will have a clearer idea moving forward on

how to best teach a second language with overall improvement of English vocabulary as an

outcome.

Literature Review

Introduction

Vocabulary retention is crucial in a number of different facets within a foreign language

classroom, not only for the learning of the target language itself, but also for broadening a

student’s English vocabulary. Technology-based vocabulary strategies employed within a

foreign language classroom have improved overall retention. According to Solak and Cakir

(2016), “Research studies prove that the technological tools used in education contribute to the

activation of motivation, introduce new opportunities, provide more enjoyable learning

atmosphere and increase the interaction between learners, making the learning process more

active, effective and meaningful.” (p.1068) There has been an elevated interest in

technology-based strategies as new platforms and methods have evolved.

Along with the interest in new technologies, interest in their effect on student learning

has grown. Educators have recently become more aware of the positive effect that technology

can have on learning across the content board. However, a large number of language-based

research has been done on the effectiveness of technology on vocabulary strategies within all

different language classrooms and how technology can optimize vocabulary retention.
TECH-BASED VOCABULARY RETENTION 7

Technology-based Strategies for Vocabulary Retention

Even with all of the research, there is no famed “optimal” technology for vocabulary

instruction because of the newness of the concept. However, there are a number of very solid

methods that have proven through studies to improve overall retention and comprehension of

vocabulary. Solak and Cakir (2016) state “the research revealed that AR application in the

language classroom at the elementary level increases academic performance of learners and

helps store new vocabulary items in memory longer than that of traditional method.” (p.1074)

Not only did the study prove that augmented reality improves vocabulary retention by means of

immersing students in target language, but also that it can increase the academic performance of

learners in other content areas. This idea of cross-curricular improvement through

technology-based vocabulary strategies is again noted as Mansouri (2015) states “that

technology can help enhance the quality of input, and the authenticity of resources, provide

relevant and useful feedback, connect students with remote audiences, and train them in the use

of technological advances that are fundamental skills in everyday life.” (p. 42)

In terms of other technology-based methods that can be used to improve academic

performance, Van Hove, Vanderhoven, and Cornillie (2017) conducted a study that proved

vocabulary gains across the use of three different mediums: writing by stylus, typing by

keyboard, or tablet multiple choice, concluding that “the learning effect is shown and lasted

minimum 10 days.” (p.60) While Van Hove et al. worked against previous research that touted

handwriting as the best method for comprehension and memorization, Monica-Ariana and

Anamaria-Mirabela (2014) conducted a study on the use of social media (specifically Facebook)
TECH-BASED VOCABULARY RETENTION 8

and its effectiveness in vocabulary retention. In fact, Monica-Ariana and Anamaria-Mirabela

indicated that “the study showed that students improved in vocabulary performance and

confidence (even if slightly) after being exposed vocabulary via Facebook as compared to the

case of students benefiting from traditional instruction only.” (p. 128) This furthermore indicates

the potential for higher-level vocabulary acquisition in a language classroom, which is crucial to

the comprehension of the language, with technology over traditional learning methods.

Importance of Vocabulary in a Language Classroom. ​While it is crucial to this study to

demonstrate the increased effectiveness that technology-based strategies can play in vocabulary

retention, it is equally important to establish the importance of the vocabulary in a language

classroom.​ ​Mansouri (2015) states “that students can improve their listening, speaking, reading

and writing skills and may eventually improve comprehension and production in the L2 (second

language) by vocabulary learning.” (p.41) In her study, Mansouri explicitly details the specific

importance for vocabulary as a method of fluent communication in target languages. Rivera,

Wood, and Spooner (2012) reinforce this idea while discussing the comparative vocabulary of

Spanish and English by stating, “Expressive and receptive vocabulary acquisition, both in oral

and print form, is a critical component of literacy development.” (p.43) Fazeli (2012)

corroborates this by stating “that the development of vocabulary knowledge and the amount of

target language reading undertaken by the learners are strongly related, or difficulty levels of

vocabulary substantially affect the degree of readability of reading text.” (p.178)

Rivera et al. (2012) elaborate on their study of vocabulary and its fluidity across the

languages when they address the results of their study by stating, “Finally, results of the study
TECH-BASED VOCABULARY RETENTION 9

suggest that incorporating primary language support in conjunction with effective instruction can

increase vocabulary skills.” (p.52) Their emphasis on the importance of vocabulary in the target

language is also applied across the curriculums when they conclude that their participants also

gained and retained more English vocabulary as a result of their increased Spanish vocabulary.

Importance of English Vocabulary and Etymology

From the importance of vocabulary in a foreign language classroom, the concept of the

importance of English vocabulary arises out of the connection between the two. “The importance

of vocabulary learning becomes more important when it comes to English learning. The reason is

clear, English has a rich and a very large group of vocabularies. That’s because English

vocabulary is a complicated mixture of Germanic words and Romance words.” (Mansouri, 2015,

p.41) By drawing connections between foreign language vocabulary and English vocabulary,

students are able to see similarities and draw connections that reinforce both sets of vocabulary,

ideally providing a more well-rounded and enriched set of words. An example of this is shared

when Wallace (2008) states that “considering the large number of cognate pairs between Spanish

and English, there is a high possibility for transfer to occur for a large number of words.

English-language learners may even be able to draw connections between cognate pairs on the

basis of sound alone” (p.37) His reference to the cognate pairs is included in his literature that

focuses on English reading strategies, which brings up questions about the relationship between

foreign language vocabulary, English vocabulary, and reading comprehension. This is addressed

in a study by Elleman and Compton (2017) which states that “Reading comprehension cannot

occur in the absence of language skills. The explicit teaching of vocabulary has been shown to
TECH-BASED VOCABULARY RETENTION 10

positively affect reading and listening comprehension, especially for struggling readers.” (p.87)

This literature has an in-depth explanation of how reading and comprehension cannot exist

without the other one, but that both of those two facets have deep roots in a strong vocabulary.

This is the same vocabulary that can be positively affected by strong foreign language

vocabulary retention. In addressing the influence of foreign language vocabulary on English

vocabulary, in their study of cross-linguistics, Muñoz-Basols and Salazar (2016) discuss the

patterns of word exchanges that are heavily influenced by the Spanish and English lexical

similarities and differences and that “in tracing these general patterns of word exchanges

between these two languages, we will be able to examine some of the factors that have tended to

impact cross-linguistic lexical influence.” (p.82)

Aside from the application of the etymologies of English vocabulary words in reading

comprehension, there are even more essential and noteworthy positive effects of a strong English

vocabulary. Solati-Dehkordi and Salehi (2016) discuss the another side of the language spectrum

by addressing the need for writing and a high achievement in that category of a language. In their

study, they address the impact that vocabulary has on writing achievement and by stating in their

results that,

“Comparing this writing to the one written after target vocabulary instruction, it caused a

significant increase in the number of vocabularies used productively in learners’ writing. The

statistical analysis revealed that in delayed writing, the participant retained the

newly-learned vocabularies even sometimes after the instruction. Based on the obtained results,

this research offers below suggestions for instructors: 1) productive use of words is not
TECH-BASED VOCABULARY RETENTION 11

guaranteed by word comprehension per se, 2) learners are not only able to increase the active

vocabulary under their control but also use the words they just learned, 3) in a writing task which

was immediately fulfilled through explicit vocabulary instruction, vocabulary recognition is

converted into a productive one, improving retention and leading to productive use of newly

learned vocabulary at the same time.” (p.141)

Summary

Educators have always known that vocabulary has an important place in the classroom,

regardless of if it is an English class or a Spanish class. This is proven through the number of

teachers that give vocabulary quizzes and reinforced by the fact that the Advanced Placement

Board releases vocabulary lists for its AP tests. Many studies have backed this notion by

restating not only the importance of vocabulary retention as a means for fluency in a foreign

language, but also the crucial role that vocabulary can play across the lexicons. The positive

contribution that a strong English vocabulary can make towards reading comprehension and

writing achievement is reaffirmed by some of the same studies that draw the strong connections

between the aforementioned foreign language vocabulary and the English vocabulary. This goes

to prove that there is a strong need for improved vocabulary strategies within a foreign language

classroom in an effort to strengthen a learner’s English vocabulary as a means to increasing other

higher level skills that are needed across the disciplines.

Research Question and Alternative Hypothesis

The research question that this study will be addressing is: Do technology-based

vocabulary retention strategies in a second language classroom increase English vocabulary at

TECH-BASED VOCABULARY RETENTION 12

Lancaster High School during the 2017-2018 school year? The independent variable is the

technology-based vocabulary retention strategies. This variable would be classified as

categorical. The dependent variable is the amount of English vocabulary words. This variable

would be classified as quantitative. My hypothesis is that technology-based vocabulary retention

strategies in a second language classroom will increase English vocabulary.

The constitutive definition of vocabulary is “the body words used in particular language

or in a particular sphere of activity” (Concise Oxford English Dictionary, 2008, 1617) or is “all

the words used by a particular person or all the words which exist in a particular language or

subject” (Cambridge International dictionary of English, 1995, 1628). The operational definition

of vocabulary within this context is the number of English words that are recognized as

derivatives of the previously-learned target language vocabulary. According to the Cambridge

International Dictionary, the constitutive definition of retention is “the continued use, existence,

or possession of something.” This leads to the operational definition of the independent variable

of technology-based vocabulary retention strategies, which is any strategy that is based in

technology with the overall goal of retaining knowledge of the target language vocabulary for the

purpose of connecting it to English derivatives.

Methodology

Design

The design for this study was a Practical Action Research because the world languages

teachers at Lancaster High School want to work to improve their strategies for vocabulary

retention in an effort to improve their students’ English vocabulary. A world language teacher
TECH-BASED VOCABULARY RETENTION 13

within the district created and administered the pre- and post-tests, collected and analyzed the

data, and created an action plan moving forward with ways to improve vocabulary retention with

an overall goal of improving students’ English vocabulary.

Participants

Lancaster High School is located in a rural suburb just outside of Columbus, Ohio. It

serves students in grades 9-12. The school received a grade of C on the 2016-2017 state report

card. The student body is 94.7% Caucasian, 12.7% of students have disabilities, 44.9% of

students are economically disadvantaged.

This study used a purposive sample. The participants were 20 foreign language students

from Lancaster High School. These students were selected from the level 3 Latin class. The

participants were all 11th grade students who took the ACT in the spring. Students were mostly

Caucasian (90%) from a middle to high SES background (70%) per the makeup of the level 3

classes. The sample included both male (50%) and female (50%) students.

Instrumentation

To measure the independent variable, the world language teachers were all given a

questionnaire with 10 questions. There were two checklists concerning technology-based

vocabulary practices in the classroom with practices such as Quizlet, Kahoot, DuoLingo,

Quizizz, et cetera provided. There was a Likert subscale with 5 questions concerning the level

and amount of target language vocabulary that is retained, with example questions such as:

Students can recall specified chapter target language vocabulary 3 out of 5 times, I utilize one of

the aforementioned technology-based strategies at least three times per week. There was one
TECH-BASED VOCABULARY RETENTION 14

short response question about the frequency in which the teachers connect the target language to

English derivatives, and two questions regarding the demographics of their level three

classrooms such as class gender makeup and average student vocabulary grades.

To measure the dependent variable, pre- and post-tests were administered to the Latin

students. The tests were 50 multiple choice questions. Of those 50 questions, 25 were over the

target language vocabulary covered in the chapters according to the district pacing guides, which

are all been aligned to the same state standards and 25 were be over AP English-based word lists

that have etymologies in the 25 target language vocabulary words.

Procedures

Teachers completed the questionnaire in the first of the required weekly TBTs

(teacher-based teams). Based on the results of the questionnaire, a list of technology-based

vocabulary retention strategies was compiled. By providing this list, the study was able to

specify the types of technology-based practices most commonly used and limit vagueness.

The pre-test was administered to the Latin 3 class participants during the level 3 class

period. The pre-test was administered within the first week of the 4th quarter and grades were be

logged in a locked spreadsheet. From there, the technology-based vocabulary strategies from the

list were utilized at least three times a week. They also included connections to English

derivatives within each weekly lesson with a minimum exposure of 15 minutes, once per week.

The post-test was administered at the end of the 4th quarter and grades once again were

collected and compared to the pre-test results. Teachers then used TBT time to review results,
TECH-BASED VOCABULARY RETENTION 15

analyze lesson plans, assess what worked and what did not, and create an action plan for moving

forward to increase English vocabulary based in previously-learned target language vocabulary.

Limitations

The first limitation of the study was a threat to the internal validity due to the testing

procedures. By imposing a waiting period of 9 weeks between the pre- and post-tests, students

had the potential to recall answers, share answers among classmates, and even look up correct

answers to the questions that they did not know. A second limitation to the study was that within

that 9 week period, AP English teachers could also have covered some of the English

vocabulary, which would include another method of instruction not addressed in this study. This

study was also very limited in its generalizability as it could only be used in districts that offer

the same language options with similar demographics.

Results

To identify the independent variable, a survey was given to all of the level 3 World

Language teachers at the beginning of the quarter which allowed for a collection of strategies, an

idea of how commonly the strategies are employed, and which methods were most commonly

used in delivery of content (See APPENDIX A). From this survey, 100% of the teachers

surveyed use or have used Quizlet as technology-based vocabulary practice and 80% identified

Chromebooks as the most common method for delivery of content.

TECH-BASED VOCABULARY RETENTION 16

Because the overall goal of this study was to help improve curriculum in the World Language

department at Lancaster High School for better retention of target vocabulary and connection to

English derivatives, the technology-based retention strategies that were used were Quizlet and

Google Apps. DuoLingo was not utilized because it does not offer a Latin course.
TECH-BASED VOCABULARY RETENTION 17

To measure the dependent variable, students were administered a pre and a post test that

included vocabulary from the unit as well as coordinating English derivatives. The pre test was

given without any previous exposure to the material and without any technology-based

vocabulary retention strategies implemented in classroom instruction. The students were given

an entire 42-minute class period to take the test and the format was all multiple choice. No

outside help was allowed in terms of dictionaries, classroom aids, or study materials. Scores on

the pre test ranged from 22.5% to 50%. Over the next nine weeks of the 4th quarter, the amount

of classroom vocabulary instruction time using technology-based retention strategies was logged

in order to ensure at least 15 minutes of exposure to the materials through either Quizlet or a

Google App such as Slides, Docs, or Forms each day of class. An effort was made to utilize

mostly Chromebooks without too much reliance on personal devices or the chalkboard, per the

previously mentioned teacher survey. By keeping the method of delivery aligned with the

preferences of the department, the desired implementation of these technology-based practices

across the department would be more realistic. Also per the survey and for the goal of this

research, the instruction did not only include the target vocabulary language, but an emphasis

was put on the connection of the target language vocabulary to English vocabulary and

derivatives. The content was 60% target language vocabulary and 40% English derivatives.

After the nine week period, students were administered the same test from the beginning

of the quarter as a post test with the same time limits and stipulations. After a minimum of 75

minutes of technology-based vocabulary retention strategies each week, students showed an

average increase of 47% in their scores.

TECH-BASED VOCABULARY RETENTION 18

Student Pre test (%) Post test (%)

1 30 60
2 32.5 55
3 37.5 81
4 37.5 83
5 32.5 90
6 42.5 78
7 27.5 79
8 40 68
9 50 80
10 42 78
11 27 88
12 37 90
13 30 95
14 22.5 90
15 40 93
16 42.5 89
17 42.5 96
18 30 88
19 42.5 84
20 32 90

There were no students who showed improvement of less than 20%. Of all of the

students, 20% of them showed an increase between 20-30%, 10% showed an increase between

31-40%, 20% showed an increase between 41-50%, 35% showed an increase between 51-60%,

and 15% showed an increase between 61-70% with a 67.5% being the highest increase in test

scores. Students performed equally well on both sections of the test, both the target language

vocabulary and the English derivatives, with little to no variation in the scores on the separate
TECH-BASED VOCABULARY RETENTION 19

sections. There also was not a significant difference in the scores of the males as compared to

those of the females.

Recommendations

Results from this study indicate that an increase in technology-based vocabulary retention

strategies results in increased retention of both target language vocabulary as well as English

derivatives. This proves true if the target language vocabulary is taught and reinforced at the

same time that the English derivatives are being connected to said vocabulary. From these

findings, I would recommend that the World Language department at Lancaster High School

write a plan to include technology-based vocabulary retention strategies for all level 3 language

classes for the 2018-2019 school year in an effort to help improve overall English vocabulary,
TECH-BASED VOCABULARY RETENTION 20

particularly that which is covered on college entrance exams such as the ACT and the SAT.

Eventually, the curriculum would include these strategies across all levels and languages.

I would recommend that this study be carried out across all languages in the district

firstly and then by all the language courses in the nearby school districts before being

generalized to fit a larger population. These additional studies would include other

technology-based retention strategies not implemented here as well as other methods of

technology not included in this study. Once the study has been expanded to other languages, a

question that would need to be addressed would be regarding whether or not the target language

has any correlation to the English derivatives. For example, a large number of English

vocabulary words derive directly from Latin while a significantly lesser amount derive from the

Germanic languages. The question of whether or not the target language indicates a difference in

scores would be pivotal in the outcome of the study.

Conclusion

This study aimed to address the following research question: Do technology-based

vocabulary retention strategies in a second language classroom increase English vocabulary at

Lancaster High School during the 2017-2018 school year? It was conducted in a level 3 Latin

classroom among 20 student participants across a nine week period with no disruption to their

normal schedules. An emphasis was placed on English derivatives that related to the target

language vocabulary for the unit.

The results from this study indicate that after a minimum of 75 minutes per week

dedicated to implementing technology-based vocabulary retention strategies such as the use of

TECH-BASED VOCABULARY RETENTION 21

Quizlet, Kahoot, or Google Apps, student retention of both target language and English

vocabulary increased by an average of 47% on a 50 question multiple choice assessment. It was

crucial to the study that both the target language and the related English derivatives were

addressed in instruction in order to fully address all parts of the research question. There was no

significant difference in the increase of target language retention when compared to the increase

of retention of English derivatives.

The results of this study suggest the implication that taking a Latin course in high school

will result in an increased English vocabulary as long as emphasis is placed on relating the target

vocabulary to the English derivatives. However, this points to a general lack of research into the

benefits of taking a world language as it pertains to the possible improvement of English

vocabulary. With so many institutions of higher learning looking at student scores on college

entry exams such as the ACT and the SAT, any upper hand available to high school students

should be taken and this study proved that a language class can provide that upperhand.
TECH-BASED VOCABULARY RETENTION 22

APPENDIX A
TECH-BASED VOCABULARY RETENTION 23

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Concise Oxford English dictionary (2008). New York: Oxford University Press.

Elleman, A. a., & Compton, D. L. (2017). Beyond Comprehension Strategy Instruction:

What's Next?. ​Language, Speech & Hearing Services In Schools​, 48(2), 84-91.

Fazeli, S. H. (2012). The Exploring Nature of Vocabulary Acquisition and Common Main

Gaps in the Current Studies of Vocabulary Acquisition. ​Online Submission.​

Mansouri, V. (2015). Vocabulary Instruction: Software Flashcards vs. Word Clouds. ​Advances

In Language And Literary Studies​, 6(1), 41-45.

Monica-Ariana, S., & Anamaria-Mirabela, P. (2014). The Impact of Social Media on

Vocabulary Learning Case Study-Facebook. ​Annals Of The University Of Oradea,

Economic Science Series,​ 23(2), 120-130.

Muñoz-Basols, J., & Salazar, D. (2016). Cross-linguistic lexical influence between English

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Rivera, C. J., Wood, C. L., & Spooner, F. (2012). Comparative Effects of Spanish and

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TECH-BASED VOCABULARY RETENTION 24

Solak, E., & Cakir, R. (2016). Investigating the Role of Augmented Reality Technology in

the Language Classroom. ​Online Submission​,

Solati-Dehkordi, S. A., & Salehi, H. (2016). Impact of Explicit Vocabulary Instruction on

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Wallace, C. (2008). Vocabulary: The Key to Teaching English Language Learners to Read.

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