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– Frequency selectivity
– Note ideal filters are not realizable. We can’t have perfect magnitude response. For example, the ideal low pass
filter is not realizable because it requires infinite length sinc function.
We would like causal filters:
– IIR ok
– FIR sometimes even better
|H(e jω )|
1 + δ1 Transition
1 − δ1
PSfrag replacements
Passband Stopband
δ2
ωp ωs π ω
16-1
16-2
In the low pass filter, δ1 is the tolerance at the pass band, δ2 is the tolerance at the stop band. In transition band, we
do not care too much about what happens. The quantitative relationship for the maganitude response within the pass
band and stop band are given as follows:
1 − δ1 ≤ |H(e jω | ≤ 1 + δ1 , |ω| ≤ ω p
jω
|H(e | ≤ δ2 , ωs ≤ ω p ≤ π
where δ1 and δ2 are usually small positive numbers, e.g., δ1 can be 10−6 or 10−9 .
Usually discrete time filter designis done in terms of normalized discrete time. Normalization in time by T is equivalent
to normalization in frequency by 1/T . So in frequency domain, π/T is normalized to π. Or even sometimes for
plotting, frquency is further normalized by π and a normalized 1 corresponds to π in radians.
Note:
– If we use linear phase systems, we can just specify magnitude response, which will produce a system with only
a delay and is easy to deal with.
1) start with continuous time filter and then map it to a discrete time filter. So we can use analog techniques to do
filter design.
We can apply transform technique to obtain H(z) and h[n] for discrete time fiters from Hc (s) and hc (t) as shown below:
Hc (s) H(z)
Transform Techniques
hc (t) h[n]
Butterworth Filters
1) N-th order filter has first (2N − 1) derivatives of |Hc ( jΩ)|. The derivatives are zero at Ω = 0.
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Chebychev Filters
Note VN (x) can be described by the following initial values and recurrence equation:
N = 0, V0 (x) = 1
N = 1, V1 (x) = cos(cos−1 x) = x
N = 2, V2 (x) = cos(N cos−1 x) = 2x2 − 1
VN+1 (x) = 2xVN (x) −VN−1 (x)
1) equiripple in passband (resp. stop band) and monotonic in the stop band (resp. pass band) for type I (resp type
II) filters.
2) better for design to have error distributed over pass band or stop band by equiripple and can often lower N which
leads to simpler implementation.
Elliptic Filters
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Error distribute over both pass band and stop band. This is as best as can be done for given Ω p , δ1 , δ2 , and transitive
region (Ω p to Ωs ).
Sampling the continuous time impulse response with sampling period Td , we obtain
h[n] = Td hc (nTd )
Then
∞
ω 2π
H(e jω ) = ∑ Hc ( j
Td
+ j k)
Td
k=−∞
Will aliasing occur for the previous Hc ( jΩ)? Yes. Consider Butterworth filter. But if order of filter N is high enough,
aliasing will be small enough to be acceptable, i.e., within our tolerance δ2 .
Question: Can we control aliasing by changing Td , the sampling period?
Choose cut-off frequency ωc in discrete time. Transform to Ωc = ωc /Td . Larger Td needs a continuous filter with
larger Ωc and wider frequency spread, so Td doesn’t control aliasing. Aliasing can is controlled by order N and types
of filters.
Question: How to choose Td ?
Choose Td so that relevant details of hc (t) is captured.
By impulse response,
N N n
h[n] = Td hc (nTd ) = u[n] ∑ Td Ak esk nTd = u[n] ∑ Td Ak esk Td
k=1 k=1
and
N
Td Ak
H(z) = ∑ 1 − esk Td z−1
k=1
The pole at s = sk in s-plane become pole at z = esk Td
in z-plane. That a stable and causal Hc (s) has Re(sk ) < 0 for all
its poles implies H(z) is also stable and causal because all the poles must have |e sk Td | < 1, i.e. with the unit circle in
z-plane.
However, zeros have a more complex mapping.
Note: impulse invariance works only for bandlimited filters, i.e., not continuous time high pass filters since that would
cause big aliasing.
We can find z-transform directly from Laplace transform by mappling the jΩ axis in s-plane to the unit circle on
z-plane, i.e., −∞ < Ω < ∞ maps to −π < ω < π, which is a non-linear mapping.
The bilinear transform is defined by
2 1 − z−1
H(z) = Hc (16.5)
Td 1 + z−1
which is accomplished by replacing s using
2 1 − z−1
s= (16.6)
Td 1 + z−1
Note Td has no effect again.
Points:
1) Left half of s-plane mapping to inside of the unit circle in z-plane, i.e.,
s = σ + jΩ, σ < 0 → |z| < 1
16-6
2) Right half of s-plane mapping to outside of the unit circle in z-plane, i.e.,
Hence, a causal and stable continuous time system will be mapped to a causal and stable discrete-time system.
3) jΩ is mapped to unit circle. Why?
When σ = 0,
1 + jΩ(Td /2)
z=
1 − jΩ(Td /2)
which says
|z| = 1
Therefore
ω = 2 tan−1 (ΩTd /2)
which is shown in Fig 16.5
ω
π
PSfrag replacements
0 Ω
−π
Some of the bilinear transform mapping relationships are shown in Fig 16.6.
Points:
1)
σ < 0 ←→ |z| < 1
2)
σ > 0 ←→ |z| > 1
3)
jΩ ←→ e jω
16-7
jΩ
s-plane
2/Td
−2/Td
z-plane
|z| = 1
replacements
−1/Td −3 −2 0 1 2 3
−1
Other notes:
– this produces both frequency warping and phase warping, i.e., linear phase in continuous time maps to non-linear
phase in discrete time.
– the technique is particularly good idealized functions that are piecewise constant such as high-pass filters (HPF),
low-pass filters (LPF), band-pass filters (BPF), etc., since they are easy to analyze in terms of the endpoints
where the responses change.