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Epidermis
- Outermost layer
- Epidermis ranges in thickness from 0.4 to 1.5 mm
- Cornification (formation of the outermost dead layer of
the skin – stratum corneum)
1. Synthesis of lamellar granules & distinctive
proteins (keratins, fillagrin, involucrin)
2. Alterations of nuclei, cytoplasmic organelles,
plasma membranes, & desmosomes

Epidermis
- As cornification proceeds, vertically oriented, columnar
basal keratinocytes become altered gradually into pancake-
shaped cornified cells aligned parallel to the skin surface

Cells of the Epidermis

- 3 basic cell types
o Keratinocytes
o Melanocytes
o Langerhans cells
• Largest organ of the body
• 1.5- 4.0-mm thick
- Additional cell types
• Appendages:
o Merkel cells
– HAIR FOLLICLES
o Indeterminate dendritic cells
– SEBACEOUS AND SWEAT GLANDS
– ARRECTORES PILORUM
Keratinocytes
– NAILS
- Squamous cell
- Ectodermal origin
Functions of the skin:
- Production of keratin
• Permeability barrier
o Surface coat of the epidermis
• Protection from pathogens
o Structural protein of hair & nails
• Thermoregulation
• Sensation
Layers of the Epidermis
• Ultraviolet protection
- Stratum basale – single layer of tall columnar cells
• Wound repair/ regeneration
- Stratum spinosumpolyhedral cells with “intercellular
• Physical appearance
bridges”
- Stratum granulosum – cells with keratohyalin granules
- Stratum lucidum- nonnucleated cells with eleidin granules
o palms/soles
- Stratum corneum- layer of dead cornified cells

• Epidermis
- Avascular
- stratified squamous keratinizing epithelium (ectodermal)
• Dermis
- Vascular
- Dense irregular C.T. (Mesodermal)
• Hypodermis/ Subcutis
- varying amounts of adipose C.T.
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Stratum Basale (Basal Cell Layer) Merkel cells

- Single layer, cuboidal or columnar cells - found in stratum germinativum in association with
- Germinative cells intraepithelial nerve endings
o increased mitotic activity o palms, soles, infundibula, epithelium of nail
- Desmosomes beds, oral mucosa, genital regions
o cell junctions - EM: possess distinctive electron-dense granules w/in their
- Hemidesmosomes cytoplasm
o attachment to the basement membrane zone - Mechanoreceptors

Stratum Spinosum (Prickle Cell Layer) Merkel cell-neurite complex

- 4-6 rows of cells Mc – Merkel cell
- numerous cytoplasmic extensions/ spines K – Keratinocytes
o represent the sites where desmosomes are G – Core granules
anchored to tonofilaments A – Axon
- Tonofilaments
o maintain cell cohesion
o provide resistance to abrasions

Stratum Granulosum (Granular Cell Layer)

- 3-5 layers of flattened cells
- Secretory granules
- Filaggrin
- filled w/ coarse, basophilic (keratohyaline) granules

Stratum Lucidum
- palms and soles
- translucent and barely visible
- flat cells
- contains densely packed keratin filaments Basement Membrane Zone
• Junction between epidermis & dermis
Stratum Corneum (Cornified Layer)
- anucleate 4 zones:
- consists of flattened, dead cells filled with soft keratin 1. Plasma membrane
filaments o basal keratinocytes that constitute the upper
- continuous shedding (desquamation) boundary of the interface
2. Lamina lucida
Melanocytes o electron-lucent region that lies beneath basal
- neural crest origin keratinocytes
- long, irregular cytoplasmic and dendritic extensions 3. Lamina densa
- between stratum basale and spinosum o electron-dense plate below lamina lucida &
- production of melanin above papillary dermis
- epidermal melanin unit 4. Sub-basal lamina fibrous zone
o 1 melanocyte:4 basal keratinocytes (cheeks) o below lamina densa, consisting of uppermost
o 1:10 (limbs) portion of papillary dermis
- activity of melanocytes increases with exposure to Xrays
and UV light

Langerhans cells
- Star shaped cells with numerous dendritic processes found
in stratum spinosum
- by E/M: indented nucleus, well developed RER and Golgi
complex, clear cytoplasm with rodlike inclusions, Birbeck
granules (Rod/Racquet inclusions)
- potent stimulators of T-cell mediated immunoreactions
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o bulbous expansion
o highly vascularized
Dermis - surrounded by external and internal root sheaths (ERS and
- derived from mesenchyme IRS)
- composition: collagen (70%), elastin (1-3%), ground
- substance (proteoglycans)
- contains sweat glands, sebaceous glands, and hair
- follicles
- highly vascular
- 2 parts:
o Papillary dermis
o Reticular dermis

Papillary Dermis
- thin zone immediately beneath the epidermis
- thin, haphazardly arranged collagen bundles (highly
irregular; accounts for the whorls, loops and arches that
constitute fingerprints)
- delicate branching elastic fibers
- plentiful fibrocytes
- abundant ground substance
- highly developed circulation
- made up mostly of capillaries Hair Follicle
 transverse section of the hair bulb:
Reticular Dermis
- thick collagen bundles arranged in orthogonal
- pattern
- collagen fibers have parallel orientation (accounts for
- lines of cleavage)
- elastic fibers course along collagen bundles
- fewer fibrocytes, blood vessels & ground substance

Elastic Tissue
- 2 - 4% of dermis
- for retractile properties of the skin HAIR PAPILLA
- synthesized by fibroblasts - small blood vessels and myelinated and nonmyelinated
- wavy, branching nerve
- papillary dermis: thin and run at right angles to the skin - Germinative cells GC
surface o forms the follicle
- reticular dermis: thicker and oriented parallel to skin
surface Hair Follicle
- demonstrated by van-Gieson stain - transverse section

Subcutis/Panniculus
- deepest layer
- derived from mesenchyme
- consists of adipose tissue, blood vessels & nerves
- also contains sweat glands & bases of hair follicles

SKIN APPENDAGES
- Hair Follicles
- Sebaceous glands
- Eccrine glands
- Apocrine glands
- Nails ERS
- separated from the CT tissue sheath by the glassy
Hair Follicle membrane
- Tubular structure - homogenous
o perifollicular CT and epithelium IRS
- Hair bulb - eosinophilic (keratohyaline)
o Base - granules
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• DERMAL DUCT
Hair Follicle o double layer
- transverse section above the sebaceous glands o eosinophilic lumen
o Na+ reabsorption

Apocrine/Odoriferous Sweat Gland

- found in axilla, mammary areola, labia majora and
circumanal region
- larger than eccrine glands
- opens into a hair follicle
- coiled and tubular
- wider and dilated lumen
- myoepithelial cells more numerous
- non-functional until puberty
- viscous secretion
Hair Shaft o unpleasant odor
- cuticle layer surrounding the cortex and medulla o stimulus: emotional stress, sympathetic discharge

Pilo Sebaceous Unit Comparison Between Eccrine and Apocrine Gland

- Hair follicle, Arrector pili muscle, Sebaceous glands

Sebaceous Glands
- assoc. with hair follicles
- lateral protrusions from the hair follicle
- simple or branched alveolar in morphology appearing like
a bunch of grapes
- Holocrine gland- total disintegration of secretory
- cells with sebum
o activity increase during puberty
- found everywhere on the body except the palms and soles Eccrine gland Aporine gland (diameter several times >)
o more abundant in the scalp, face, midline of the
back, perineum and orifices of the body Nails
- eyelids: Meibomian glands
- buccal mucosa & vermilion of lip: Fordyce spots
- areola of women: Montgomery glands
- labia minora & glans: Tyson glands

Arrector Pili Muscle

- oblique bands of smooth muscle inserted into middle of
hair follicle creating a triangle with surface
- controlled by the autonomic nervous system
- contraction: “goose flesh appearance”

Eccrine Sweat Glands

- found in palms, soles and foreheads
- Merocrine /eccrine in type-secretion discharged by
exocytosis - Nail apparatus:
- Stimulus is heat, under control of hypothalamic 1. Nail plate
thermostat 2. Specialized epithelia:
- Simple coiled tubular in morphology made up of clear and a) Prox Nail Fold
dark cells b) Nail Matrix
- Duct opens into epidermis as sweat pore, re-absorb c) Nail Bed
sodium without water d) Hyponychium
- found on dorsal surfaces of terminal phalanges
• SECRETORY COIL - consists of clear cells with shrunken degenerated nuclei;
o shows only one distinct layer composed of contain hard keratin
secretory cells - nail growth occurs in matrix of nail plate, a semilunar area
o 3 distinct cell types: of proliferative cells on proximal ventral surface of nail
1) Clear (secretory) groove
2) Dark (mucoid)
3) Myoepithelial
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Blood Vessels of Skin

Thick Skin
- Cutaneous plexus- between the dermis and subcutis
- Subpapillary or superficial plexus- between the papillary
and reticular dermis
- Glomus bodies- special type of AV anastomosis for
- temperature regulation; fingers, toes and nails

Small arteries (deep vascular plexus) and arterioles (dermis) possess

three layers:
o Intima - composed of endothelial cells and an internal
elastic lamina
o Media – contains collagen, elastic fibers, & several
concentric layers of smooth muscle cells bounded by
an external elastic lamina (in arteries)
o Adventitia – composed of fibrocytes, collagen, &
elastic fibers

Walls of veins generally are thinner than those of arteries and less
clearly divided into the three classic layers Thin Skin

Innervation and Nerve Endings

- both efferent and afferent nerve supplies
- free nerve endings
o pain, itch and temperature
- specialized encapsulated nerve endings
o Meissner: mechanoreceptors
o Pacinian: deep pressure and
- Vibration

Types of SKIN
THICK SKIN
palms of hands, fingers,
soles, toes
thickness of epidermis
considerable
abundant sweat glands
no pilosebaceous follicles
grooves and ridges
prominent because of tall
dermal papillae
numerous arterio-venous
anastomosis
THIN SKIN
Other regions except palms,
soles, fingers, toes
thin epidermis
small number of sweat
glands
presence of pilosebaceous
follicles
lacks ridges and grooves
with checkered network of
lines
absent or few arterio-venous
anastomosis