SYLLOGISMS

Syllogisms
Welcome to the fourth module of this course, Philosophy of man
with Logic! For this lesson, you will be able to understand and
apply the use of syllogism in reasoning.

Reasoning, Argument, Syllogism

Reasoning is the third act of the intellect. It is the act by which the
intellect, from truths previously known, derives and pronounces
the truth of another proposition based on these truths. Thus,
the intellect, by way of inference, is able to know a new truth
based on previously known truths.

Reasoning, as a mental act, is also known as an inference.

Inference is the process of deriving or deducing another
proposition from given propositions. There are two kinds of
inference: immediate inference and mediate inference.

 Immediate Inference – this is an inference from one

proposition without the use of a third term. One may infer
or derive another proposition from the truth of one
proposition. Logical opposition and logical equivalence are
regarded as immediate inference.

E.g.
Some models are beautiful [ladies]
Some beautiful ladies are models.

 Mediate Inference – this is an inference based on at least

two propositions and it employs a third term.

E.g.
All commercial models are highly paid personalities.
Some commercial models are actresses.
Some actresses are highly paid personalities.

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The product of mediate inference is the argument. An argument

is a sequence of propositions in which from statements taken as
true another statement is inferred or derived. In this series of
propositions, the first two propositions are called the premises,
which provide the reason for the truth of another proposition called
the conclusion.

Two Kinds of Reasoning

a) Deductive Argument

Deduction (etym. Deduco – I lead down) is a process of reasoning

which proceeds from universal or general laws, principles or
statements to particular instances or propositions. An argument is
deductive when the truth of its premises is intended to guarantee
the truth of its conclusion.

The conclusion is already implied in the premises. Hence, if the

premises are true the conclusion becomes necessarily true.

b) Inductive Argument

Inductive argument (etym. Induco = I lead to) is a process of

reasoning which proceeds from specific or particular instances to
the formulation of general or universal principles or statements.
An argument is inductive when the truth of its premises is intended
to make likely or probably (but not guarantee), the truth of its
conclusion. Hence, in an inductive argument, true premises do not
necessarily guarantee or yield a true conclusion, even if all
premises are true, the conclusion could be false.

The premises of inductive arguments appeal to evidence

through sense experience. The premise only provides a partial
support to the conclusion and unlike in deductive arguments, the
conclusion is partly contained in the premises. The strength or
weakness of an inductive argument is based on its degree of
probability or risk of uncertainty. The strength of the argument
depends on a higher degree of probability.

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E.g.

Since Jane had a racquet in her hand, she was coming from the
tennis court.
Dressed in tennis outfit, she was perspiring heavily and was talking
about the game with somebody. Then it is likely that she had been
playing tennis.
---

Paolo is a Filipino. He is very sentimental and romantic.

Daniel is a Filipino. He is very sentimental and romantic.
Patrick is a Filipino and he is very sentimental and romantic.
---
Jojo is Filipino.
Therefore, he is very sentimental and romantic.

Syllogism

One form of deductive argument is the syllogism. The syllogism is

the standard expression of argument in Aristotelian logic. It is a
basic form of argument wherein it is arranged orderly so as to
show the structure or form of the argument and important terms
and propositions to facilitate logical analysis. The syllogism is a
set of three propositions, the first two being the premises and the
last is the conclusion. The conclusion must always follow and must
be derived from the premises.

A set of propositions is considered valid argument or a valid

syllogism by virtue of the logical connection among the
propositions and terms. This logical connection gives the syllogism
its consistency and logical force. For the syllogism to be consistent
and valid, it must follow the various rules and laws of deductive
inference.

Matter and Form of Syllogism

A syllogism has two basic elements, the matter and form. The
matter consists of the various ideas/terms and
judgments/propositions of the argument or syllogism. It is what the
syllogism or argument is all about, its substance, its content and its
meaning. In other words, it is what the argument says. The form

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consists of the logical connection of the ideas/terms and

judgments/propositions by virtue of which the conclusion follows
necessarily from the given premises. This logical connection of the
terms and proposition gives the syllogism its formal consistency or
consequence.

Formal consistency does not mean truth. An argument can still be

consistent or valid for as long as it follows the various inferential
rules, even if the propositions were false. Of course, it is important
that the propositions be true, so that the argument or syllogism is
both substantially true and formally correct.

Kinds of Syllogisms

Categorical Syllogism – is composed of categorical propositions.

The first two are the premises and the third is the conclusion. It
contains three terms: major, minor and middle terms.

E.g.
All inventors are scientists.
Some inventors are well-known worldwide.
Hence, some people who are well-known worldwide are scientists.

Hypothetical Syllogism – is composed of hypothetical

propositions. Unlike categorical, the terms in the hypothetical are
not identified as major, minor or middle.

E.g.
If the suspect is found guilty, then he will serve time in prison.
But he will not serve time in prison.
Ergo, he was found guilty.

Categorical Syllogism
The categorical syllogism is composed of three categorical
propositions and three terms. The first two propositions are called
the premises, while the last is called the conclusion. The first
premise is called the major premise and the second premise is

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called the minor premise. The conclusion expresses the agreement

or disagreement between the two main terms in the premises.

There are three terms: the major term which is the predicate of the
conclusion and it is contained in the major premise, the minor
term, which is the subject of the conclusion and it is contained in
the minor premise, and the middle term, which is the common term
and appears in both premises.

E.g.:

Premise Syllogism Term

Major Premise All bankers are businessmen Businessmen Major Term (P)

Minor Premise Mr. Cruz is a banker. Mr. Cruz Minor Term (S)

Conclusion Mr. Cruz is a businessman. Banker Middle Term (M)

Schema or Pattern of the Categorical Syllogism

stands for major term u indicates universal quantity of the term

stands for minor premise p indicates particular quantity of the term

stands for middle term

indicates affirmative quality − indicates negative quality

Syllogism Schema

All bankers are businessmen Mu + Pp

Mr. Cruz is a banker. Su + Mp

Mr. Cruz is a businessman. Su + Pp

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The General Laws Governing Categorical Argument

1. Dictum de Omni – this law states that whatever is
affirmed universally, in a formal manner, of a logical whole or
class, should also be affirmed of its logical parts.
E.g.

All X are Y
Some Z are X
Some Z are Y

2. Dictum de Nullo – this law states that whatever is

denied universally, in a formal manner, of a logical whole or
class, should also be denied of its logical parts.
E.g.

All X are not Y

Some Z are X
Some Z are not Y.

3. If each of two concepts agrees respectively with the same

third concept, then they also agree with each other. If A agrees
with B, and B agrees with C, then A agrees with C.

4. If one concept agrees with a third term and the other

disagrees with the same third term, then they disagree with each
other. If A agrees with B, but C does not agree with A, then B and
C do not agree with each other.

5. If each of the two terms disagrees respectively with the

same term then nothing can follow or can be concluded. If A is not
B and C is not A, then nothing follows.

Eight Laws of Categorical Syllogism

Rule 1. There must only be three terms in the syllogism.

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Fallacy of the four-term construction is committed when there

are four terms instead of three terms in the syllogism.

E.g.
All fruits are produced by plants.
Some things produced by plants are poisonous.
Some poisonous things are bananas.

Fallacy of Equivocation happens when one term expresses two

different meanings in the syllogism. Equivocation is committed
when the supposition of a term shifts or when an equivocal term
is used in the argument.

This applies to the two terms in the conclusion namely the major
and the minor terms. If a term is used as a particular in the
premise, it must remain particular in the conclusion, otherwise
the same term would have a wider extension in the conclusion and
that may not be the same term used in the premise. Under
deductive rules we cannot proceed with certainty from particular
to the universal, we cannot use a particular term in the
premise, and then conclude universally with the same term.
However, if a term is used as a universal in the premise,
then it may be used either as a universal or particular in the
conclusion. Under deductive rules we can proceed with
certainty from the universal to the particular, for the
particular is already included in the universal. If this rule is
violated, then an illicit process is committed: either illicit
process of the major term or illicit process of the minor term.

Fallacy of Illicit Major Term This is committed when major

term has a wider or greater extension in the conclusion than in
the major premise, or when the major term in particular in the
major premise and universal in the conclusion.

E.g.

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Rule 7. No valid conclusion can be derived from two particular

premises.

Fallacy of Double Particular Premises – A syllogism

with two particular premises will always violate one or
more rules of inference, like undistributed middle term or
illicit process. Hence, for a syllogism to be valid, one premise
must be universal.

E.g.
Some government officials are elected by the people.
Some individuals who are elected by the people are politicians.
Some politicians are government officials.

Rule 8. The conclusion always follows the weaker side.

This means that if one premise is negative, the conclusion must be
negative; if one premise is particular, the conclusion must be
particular. So if the major or minor premise is negative, while the
other premise is affirmative, the conclusion must be a negative
proposition; if the major or minor premise is particular and the
other premise is universal, then the conclusion must be a particular
proposition. Otherwise, one commits a fallacy of a stronger
conclusion than in the premises.

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VI. Moods of the Syllogism

The mood of the syllogism is the pattern of syllogism based in the
type of the propositions (A, E, I, O) that composed the syllogism.
There are 64 possible combinations of these propositions assuming
that they will be combined by three. But there are only 19 valid
moods in all the four figures: four in the first figure, four in the
second figure, six in the third figure and five in the fourth figure.

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References:

Corbi and Cohen, Logic: Language, Deduction and Induction (2005). Singapore: Pearson
Prentice Hall.

Jevons, Elementary Lessons in Logic Deductive & Inductive (2010). London and New York:
MacMillan and Co.

Moore and Parker, Critical Thinking (2006). Boston: McGraw Hill.

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