British Journal of Guidance & Counselling

ISSN: 0306-9885 (Print) 1469-3534 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cbjg20

Well-being on campus: testing the effectiveness

of an online strengths-based intervention for first
year college students

Selda Koydemir & Z. Eda Sun-Selışık

To cite this article: Selda Koydemir & Z. Eda Sun-Selışık (2015): Well-being on campus: testing
the effectiveness of an online strengths-based intervention for first year college students,
British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, DOI: 10.1080/03069885.2015.1110562

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03069885.2015.1110562

Published online: 16 Nov 2015.

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 BRITISH JOURNAL OF GUIDANCE & COUNSELLING, 2015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03069885.2015.1110562

Well-being on campus: testing the effectiveness of an online

strengths-based intervention for first year college students
Selda Koydemira and Z. Eda Sun-Selışıkb
a
Guidance and Psychological Counselling Programme, Middle East Technical University Northern Cyprus Campus,
Mersin, Turkey; bStudent Development and Counseling Center, Middle East Technical University Northern Cyprus
Campus, Mersin, Turkey
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ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The present research examined the effectiveness of an 8-week online Received 20 June 2015
strengths-based intervention in promoting subjective and psychological Revised 5 September 2015
well-being of first year university students. The intervention was Accepted 8 October 2015
composed of five modules pertaining to (a) finding and cultivating on
KEYWORDS
character strengths, (b) regulation of emotions and increasing positive Well-being; quality of life;
emotions, (c) constructive communication, establishing social happiness; higher education;
connectedness and positive relationships (d) effective decision-making life satisfaction
and problem solving and (e) achieving flow and practicing gratitude. A
total 92 students volunteered to participate in the study. They were
randomly assigned to either the intervention or a control group.
Students’ quality of life (psychological health and social relations
domains), life satisfaction, subjective happiness and ontological well-
being were measured before and after the intervention. Significant
improvements in well-being of intervention group participants were
observed over an 8-week period whereas control group participants did
not show a significant increase in any of these well-being variables.

Building on such concepts as strengths, positive emotions, positive relationships, resilience, and
purpose and meaning, positive psychology investigates the factors that contribute to optimal func-
tioning and positive mental health of individuals, groups and institutions (Seligman & Csikszentmiha-
lyi, 2000). Well-being is one of the most widely studied concepts of positive psychology, and is a
major concern for researchers, practitioners and the policy-makers given that it is an important indi-
cator of living a good, healthy and meaningful life (Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999; World Health
Organization, 2009).
The concept of well-being is especially important in the lives of university students since young people
between the ages 18 and 25 are confronted with various developmental changes associated with specific
challenges (Sher, Wood, & Gotham, 1996). First year students experience more challenges than do stu-
dents in more senior years of university especially because of the difficulties associated with the transition
from high school to university (Dyson & Renk, 2006). Among the most evident challenges experienced by
first year students are homesickness and friendsickness (Fisher & Hood, 1987; Paul & Brier, 2001), loneli-
ness and social dissatisfaction (Bohnert, Aikins, & Edidin, 2007), managing interpersonal conflicts (Keup,
2007), health problems such as low-quality sleep (El Ansari & Stock, 2010), and dealing with various aca-
demic difficulties (Dextras, 1993). The psychological well-being of individuals is known to be threatened
as they start to university (Cooke, Bewick, Barkham, Bradley, & Audin, 2006). In this respect, one of the
biggest tasks of higher education institutes is to facilitate well-being among first year students and to
prevent potential emotional and behavioural problems in upcoming university years.

CONTACT Selda Koydemir kselda@metu.edu.tr, skoydemir@gmail.com

© 2015 Taylor & Francis
 2 S. KOYDEMIR AND Z. E. SUN-SELIŞIK

Utilising positive psychology concepts, many efforts have been made to promote various aspects
of individual well-being such as life satisfaction, positive affect, resiliency, positive relationships, opti-
mism and effective coping (Seligman, Steen, Park, & Peterson, 2005; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009). The
main idea behind these interventions is the notion that the absence of a problem or alleviation of
symptoms of unhealthy behaviours and attitudes cannot guarantee the presence of well-being,
and that positive functioning is a core element of mental health (Diener, 2000; Keyes, 2007). Examples
of theory-based short interventions include practice of kindness (Otake, Shimai, Tanaka-Matsumi,
Otsui, & Fredrickson, 2006), feeling and expression of gratitude (Lyubomirsky, Dickerhoof, Boehm,
& Sheldon, 2011), identifying and using character strengths (Seligman et al., 2005), and counting bles-
sings (Chan, 2010). There is empirical evidence that emotional well-being of university students and
adult populations can indeed be enhanced through intentional motivational, cognitive and behav-
ioural activities (e.g. Lyubomirsky et al., 2011; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009). In addition, college students
who received well-being interventions in the classroom during a semester showed improvement in
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different areas of well-being (Flinchbaugh, Moore, Chang, & May, 2011).

Despite the significance of theory-based comprehensive well-being programmes on university
campuses, existing programmes have limitations. For instance most of them focus on wellness of stu-
dents, and mainly encompass the physical fitness and health-related issues such as dieting, exercise
or certain health-related beliefs (e.g. Sivik, Butts, Moore, & Hyde, 1992; Swinford, 2002). Other prac-
ticed interventions, although effective, aim at rather limited areas such as increased positive affect
and use one or two interventions (e.g. Seligman et al., 2005; Sheldon & Lyubomirsky, 2006). In this
study, our aim was to develop a comprehensive, multifaceted well-being intervention for first year
university students and test its effectiveness in increasing several well-being outcomes.
In forming our intervention programme, we attempted to utilise different concepts that are known
to be positively associated with well-being including goal-setting (Sheldon, Kasser, Smith, & Share,
2002), identifying and using character strengths (Seligman et al., 2005), positive relationships
(Diener & Seligman, 2002), empathy (Wei, Liao, Ku, & Shaffer, 2011), positive emotions (Conway
et al., 2014), gratitude (Emmons & McCullough, 2003) and flow (Rogatko, 2009). The details of the pro-
gramme are discussed in the following section.
Two distinct, though complementary approaches to well-being have dominated the literature:
hedonic well-being and eudaimonic well-being. The hedonic approach, conceptualised as happiness
or subjective well-being, is concerned with increased positive affect and life satisfaction, and
decreased negative affect (Diener et al., 1999). The eudaimonic well-being is concerned with a flour-
ishing and fulfilling life, and is known to include such factors as purpose in life, personal growth and
self-acceptance (Ryan, Huta, & Deci, 2008; Ryff & Keyes, 1995). We attempted to base our intervention
and measures on both hedonic and eudaimonic models in order to have a broader conceptualisation
of well-being. This is also consistent with Seligman’s (2011) well-being theory which argued that posi-
tive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning and accomplishment are components of a flour-
ishing life, and that they should be part of positive interventions.
Considering the importance of technology in young people’s lives, the high rate of accessibility to
a computer among university students, and the power of technology-based interventions (Mitchell,
Stanimirovic, Klein, & Vella-Brodrick, 2009; Seligman et al., 2005), we designed and delivered a
web-based intervention. Web-based interventions have the opportunity to reach a wide range of
individuals in different locations at a low cost, and have the possibility to provide personalised
and interactive feedback. They also ensure anonymity, are convenient, and provide with multi-
media options (Christensen & Griffiths, 2003; Mitchell, Vella-Broderick, & Klein, 2010). Many studies
(e.g. Mitchell et al., 2009; Seligman et al., 2005) showed promising benefits of such web-based pro-
grammes in delivering well-being promotion interventions.
There are very few empirical studies that demonstrate the potential of university-based positive
psychology intervention programmes in promoting well-being among students. We specifically
examined whether participation in a theory-driven intervention designed specifically for a university
setting longitudinally predicted better well-being outcomes among first year university students. Our
 BRITISH JOURNAL OF GUIDANCE & COUNSELLING 3

intervention is strengths-based given that the programme aims at helping students discover, explore
and practice their strengths and assets, and that the activities aim at cultivating positive feelings,
positive behaviours and positive cognitions (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009). When we look at the literature,
we can find only a handful of studies that look at the effectiveness of online interventions specifically
on well-being (e.g. see Mitchell et al., 2010 for a review). The others target-specific problems such as
depression and anxiety (e.g. Ryan, Shochet, & Stallman, 2010; Warmerdam, van Straten, Jongsma,
Twisk, & Cuijpers, 2010) or are designed for populations other than university students such as
employees (e.g. Yuan, Liu, Tang, & Zhang, 2014). Therefore, rather than using the existing well-
being programmes, we developed a new programme which included several positive psychology
activities.
After the development and implementation of the programme, we tested the extent to which stu-
dents show an improvement in subjective happiness, life satisfaction, two aspects of quality of life –
psychological health and quality of social relationships, and ontological well-being. Subjective happi-
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ness and life satisfaction are measured as part of the hedonic approach, whereas ontological well-
being, psychological health and social relationship dimensions of quality of life are measured as
part of the eudaimonic model.

Method
Participants
The total study sample consisted of 92 students (48 males, 44 females) between 17 and 23 years of
age (M = 18.75, SD = 1.03) selected from Middle East Technical University Northern Cyprus Campus
(METU NCC). METU is a very competitive Turkish university in the capital of Turkey. The education
students receive in Northern Cyprus Campus is an exact match of that in the main campus. Most
of the students in Northern Cyprus Campus have Turkish background. In this study, we included
only those who have a Turkish background.
Although there were 92 during the intervention, complete post-test data were collected from 44
students (26 males, 18 females) in the experimental and 36 students (20 males, 16 females) in the
control group. We statistically evaluated whether the groups differed regarding demographic charac-
teristics. We showed that the groups were comparable in terms of age, gender and socio-economic
status.

Data collection instruments

Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS; Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985) was used to assess partici-
pants’ global life satisfaction. Scale items (e.g. ‘In most ways, my life is close to my ideal’) are rated on a
Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly agree) to 7 (strongly disagree). Items are summed to get a total
score with higher scores indicating a higher level of life satisfaction. In previous studies SWLS was
significantly correlated with positive affect, negative affect and quality of life measures (Pavot &
Diener, 1993). Turkish version of the scale created by Köker (1991) was used in this study. For the
current data we found the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient as .86.
The Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS; Lyubomirsky & Lepper, 1999) was used to measure global sub-
jective happiness level of participants. The SHS consists of 4 items rated on a 7-point Likert scale. The
ratings vary in each item. For example, the item ‘In general I consider myself … ’ can be completed by
choosing a rating from 1 (not a very happy person) to 7 (a very happy person). The items are summed
to get a general subjective happiness score. Sufficient validity and reliability evidence of the scale has
been demonstrated (Lybomirsky & Lepper, 1999; Mattei & Schaefer, 2004). In this study we used the
Turkish version by Doğan and Totan (2013). The Cronbach’s alpha for the present study was .84.
Ontological Well-being Scale (OWB; Şimşek & Kocayörük, 2013) was used to measure emotional
well-being of participants. The scale consists of 24 items rated on a 5-point scale ranging from 1
 4 S. KOYDEMIR AND Z. E. SUN-SELIŞIK

(very slightly) to 5 (not at all). Participants are asked to think about their past, present and future life
project and rate their related affective states. Sample items are: ‘I feel regret’, ‘I feel motivated’, and ‘I
feel hopeful.’ Evaluation in ontological well-being model refers to individuals’ affective reactions to
their life projects within a time perspective. Şimşek and Kocayörük (2013) found that OWB explained
unique variance in eudaimonic indicators such as purpose in life and personal growth above and
beyond the scores of hedonic measures of happiness. A total score can be obtained to assess
general well-being by summing up items in each subscale. In the present study, the alpha coefficient
for the total scale was .80.
‘Psychological Health’ and ‘Social Relationships’ subscales of WHO Quality of Life-BREF (WHOQOL
Group, 1998) were used to assess psychological and social domains of quality of life. Psychological
health was measured by 6 items (e.g. ‘How satisfied are you with yourself?’) whereas social relation-
ships were measured by 4 items (e.g. ‘How satisfied are you with your personal relationships?’) rated
on a scale of 1 (very dissatisfied) to 5 (very satisfied). Psychological health domain incorporates facets
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such as self-esteem, personal beliefs, thinking, and positive and negative affect. Social relationships
domain represents aspects such as social support and personal relationships. The Turkish version by
Eser, Fidaner, and Fidaner (1999) was used in this study. The alpha reliabilities in the present study
were .76 for the psychological health and .79 for social relationships scales.
Beck Depression Inventory (BDI; Beck, Ward, Mendelson, Mock, & Erbaugh, 1961) was used to
measure characteristic attitudes and symptoms of depression. It consists of 21 questions each with
four possible responses which are assigned a score ranging from 0 to 3. Higher scores indicate the
severity of the symptoms. Sufficient reliability and validity evidence is present for the BDI (e.g.
Groth-Marnat, 1990). The Turkish version by Hisli (1989) was used in the present study, and the
alpha reliability was found to be .89.

Procedures
Upon obtaining ethics committee approval, the intervention was implemented during 2013–2014
Fall Semester. The students were provided with a consent form which included the aim of the
study, information about researchers, the voluntary nature of the study and any risks associated
with the study such as confronting with a change at the end of the programme even if it is in a posi-
tive way. All participants signed this consent form and they were also informed that they could leave
the study any time they wanted and that it would not have any effect on their grades.
Students were selected from among those who attended a 1-credit mandatory course entitled
‘First Year on Campus Seminar.’ This course, designed to assist new students to orient themselves
to the academic and social life of the university is taken by all students during the first year of enrol-
ment at the university. It is delivered through a combination of group seminars/activities and small
group discussion sessions. Grading is based on regular attendance.
In the first meeting of the course which was taken by around 800 students at that time, the regular
course format was introduced to students along with the intervention programme. The announce-
ment of the intervention included explanations on the aim of the study, the content, the require-
ments of the intervention, and the voluntary nature of the study. Then all students taking the
course were provided with two options to choose from: to follow the regular course (12 weeks) or
attend the 8-week intervention. All students were informed of their right to withdraw from the
study (intervention) at any time and continue with the regular course programme.
One of the selection criteria was absence of major depressive symptoms. Thus, all volunteers were
requested to fill out the BDI and those who scored above the threshold were not included in either
the experimental or control group.1 Those who were selected were randomly assigned to control and
intervention groups. However, because the computer lab where students took the intervention had
48 available seats, among 92 students who volunteered to take part in the study we assigned 48 stu-
dents to experimental and 44 students to control group. The reason why we did not assign 46 stu-
dents to each group is that we wanted to make use of all the seats available so that as many students
 BRITISH JOURNAL OF GUIDANCE & COUNSELLING 5

could take the intervention as possible at that time. Both intervention group and the control group
students filled in the pre-test measures at the same time. Those who were assigned to the control
group were informed that they would be following the regular course and that they could receive
the intervention in the Spring Semester.
Before the intervention started, participants received a 1-hour straining on how to use the web-
based software and related applications in the computer lab. Students received the intervention in
the same computer lab each week during the regular class time. One graduate student, one senior
student and a technical staff were present during each session in order to assist the students.
Each session lasted approximately 60–75 minutes. Participants were sent a reminder e-mail two
days before the intervention and informed about each week’s topic. One week after the intervention
is completed participants and the students in the control group were invited to fill out the post-test
measures in a class setting. Post-test assessment included the aforementioned pre-test measures
except for the BDI.
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The intervention programme

The intervention programme consisted of five modules which were delivered in 8 weeks. The
summary of each module is presented in Table 1. In positive psychology literature, most of these
theory-based activities were found to influence different facets of well-being. We devoted one
module of the programme to goal-setting and character strengths. In their goal-based model of per-
sonality integration Sheldon and Kasser (1995) proposed that goal striving relates to growth in terms
of self-actualisation and vitality. Intervention studies (e.g. Sheldon & Kasser, 1995; Sheldon et al., 2002)
confirmed this proposition and found that goal-setting is actually related with psychological well-
being. Besides, many studies (for a review see Quinlan, Swain, & Vella-Brodrick, 2011) documented
that identifying and capitalising on one’s character strengths increase subjective well-being.
Emphasising the positive aspect of interpersonal relationships – one of the aspects of our interven-
tion – is also in line with the propositions of positive psychology. Seligman (2011) proposed that posi-
tive relationships are an essential part of a flourishing life, and thus should be included in the models
of well-being. Empirical studies (e.g. Gable & Impett, 2012; Myers, 1999; Reis & Gable, 2003; Wei et al.,
2011) documented that positive interactions such as constructive communication and empathy are
associated with greater well-being. Besides, one of the modules of our programme made use of

Table 1. Summary of well-being intervention.

Modules and
weeks Content Weekly homework
Module 1: Strengths and goals
Week 1 Review of the aims of the intervention, identification of Exploring strengths through movies
and capitalising on character strengths
Week 2 Identifying positive goals, identifying resources, use of Using strengths in a different way
strengths in goal pursuit
Module 2: Emotion regulation and increasing positive emotions
Week 3 Awareness of emotions. Emotion expression and Exploring verbal and non-verbal emotional
managing emotions expression through sitcoms
Week 4 Identifying and disputing irrational thoughts Observing and recording one’s positive emotions
Increasing positive emotions and related situations
Module 3: Social support, positive communication and positive relationships
Week 5 Active listening and establishing positive communication None
Week 6 Assertiveness skills, seeking out social support and help- Practicing positive communication and active
seeking responding throughout the week
Module 4: Effective problem solving and decision-making
Week 7 Steps for effective decision-making and problem solving Application of problem-solving steps to problem
Exploring values for healthy decisions situations
Module 5: Motivation, flow and gratitude
Week 8 Understanding the flow experience Practicing gratitude by identifying three good
Understanding gratitude things every day during one week
 6 S. KOYDEMIR AND Z. E. SUN-SELIŞIK

positive emotions. The broaden-and-build theory of emotions (Fredrickson, 2004) suggested that
positive emotions broaden a person’s thought-action repertoire, and assist with better relationships,
as well as better well-being. Lastly, we focused on two more theoretically relevant concepts in our
programme, namely gratitude and flow. Theorists (e.g. Lazarus & Lazarus, 1994) emphasised the
importance of gratitude in increasing positive emotions. Indeed, gratitude interventions (e.g.
Emmons & McCullough, 2003; Sheldon & Lyubomirsky, 2006) are linked to increased well-being.
According to the theory of flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990), people are happy when they have in a
state of concentration or absorption with the activity at hand and the situation. Several studies (e.
g. Asakawa, 2004; Rogatko, 2009) showed that practicing flow is positively associated with increased
happiness.
The modules were delivered using a variety of methods such as psycho-education (in the form of
webinars or audio/texts), experiential activities, game-based exercises, videos and demonstrations,
and activities requiring personal sharing. Participants were also given the opportunity to practice
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the material between sessions via homework activities. Examples of homework are watching a
movie from a list provided and trying to find character strengths demonstrated by the characters;
watching a sitcom and examining a character in terms of emotional expression; increasing the fre-
quency of activities that facilitate positive emotions in participants; daily practice of gratitude; and
applying constructive communication and empathic skills in daily life.
The student assistants who were trained by the researchers sent feedback to participants one day
after each session. The aim of the feedback was either to appreciate the participants’ completion of
any assigned homework, or to follow-up with their responses.

Statistical analysis
In order to test whether pre-test differences existed in scores of study measures between groups,
independent sample t-test was used. Statistical significance was tested at .05. A series of repeated-
measures ANOVAs were performed to examine the changes in outcome measures (life satisfaction,
subjective happiness, ontological well-being, psychological health and quality of social relationships)
between groups. Time of assessment (pre-intervention and post-intervention) was entered as a
within-subjects factor and Group (intervention versus control group) as between-subjects factor.
Where interaction effects were found, main effects were not interpreted. Differences in simple
main effects were analysed for significance if a significant interaction was not obtained. To
account for the numerous simple effect contrasts, alpha was set to .05.

Results
Pre-test data comparison
In terms of pre-test group differences, independent samples t-test revealed no significant differences
between experimental and control groups in any of the variables, namely life satisfaction t(78) 1.89,
p = .06, subjective happiness t(78) .52, p = .60, ontological well-being t(78) 1.72, p = .09, psychological
health t(78) 1.90, p = .09 and quality of social relationships t(78) .11, p = .90. Thus, random group
assignment was confirmed.

Effectiveness of the programme

Means and standard deviations of pre- and post-test measures for intervention and comparison
group participants are presented in Table 2. ANOVA revealed a significant group by time interaction
for life satisfaction (F(1, 78) = 18.26, p < .01, partial η 2 = .20), subjective happiness, (F(1, 78) = 5.44,
p < .05, partial η 2 = .07), psychological health, (F(1, 78) = 8.11, p < .01 partial η 2 = .11) and ontological
well-being (F(1, 78) = 12.37, p < .01, partial η 2 = .14). These interactions indicated that the degree of
 BRITISH JOURNAL OF GUIDANCE & COUNSELLING 7

Table 2. Values for mean and standard deviation of pre- and post-test measures for intervention and comparison group
participants.
Time 1 Time 2
Measure Group M SD M SD
SWLS Intervention 20.23 5.49 24.79 3.66
Comparison 22.22 3.46 22.28 3.86
SHS Intervention 16.11 3.21 19.09 3.21
Comparison 16.25 3.98 17.13 3.08
OWBS Intervention 81.77 8.96 91.27 12.89
Comparison 83.31 9.32 85.36 11.51
SRS Intervention 10.86 2.17 10.61 2.03
Comparison 10.81 2.30 10.19 1.80
PHS Intervention 14.16 2.33 16.78 2.85
Comparison 14.81 2.22 14.11 2.15
Note: SWLS, Satisfaction with Life Scale; SHS, Subjective Happiness Scale; OWBS, Ontological Well-being Scale; SRS, WHOQOL-BREF
Social Relationships Scale and PHS, WHOQOL-BREF Psychological Health Scale.
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change from Time 1 and Time 2 in life satisfaction, psychological health and ontological well-being
was dependent on group (experimental or control), and different patterns of change of the exper-
imental and control groups over time were observed. Specifically, participants in the experimental
group experienced significant improvements in life satisfaction (t(44) = 4.56, p < .001), subjective hap-
piness(t(44) = 3.08, p < .001), psychological health (t(44) = 4.76, p < .001) and ontological well-being (t
(44) = 6.55, p < .001) over time while those in the control group did not (Figures 1–4).
For social relationships, no significant time (F(1, 78) = 2.82, p = .10), group (F(1, 78) = .37, p = .55) or
interaction effect (F(1, 78) = .50, p = .48) was found.
We also ran further analyses to see the whether there was any difference in terms of demographic
factors (age, gender and socio-economic status). However, we could not find any significant differences.

Discussion
Our study showed the potential of such an intervention by revealing improvements over an 8-week
period in several well-being measures, namely subjective happiness, life satisfaction, subjective hap-
piness, ontological well-being and psychological well-being among first year university students
versus a comparable control group. Control group participants did not show a significant increase

Figure 1. Life satisfaction score outcomes.

 8 S. KOYDEMIR AND Z. E. SUN-SELIŞIK
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Figure 2. Psychological health score outcomes.

Figure 3. Subjective happiness score outcomes.

in any of these measures. Thus, the programme appeared to influence multiple aspects of well-being
which matches the aim of the programme. Youth development programmes are often successful to
the extent that they are comprehensive, delivered over an extended period of time and structured by
theories (Nation et al., 2003). The success of our programme can partly be attributed to these funda-
mental characteristics.
There is some evidence that well-being can be increased through intentional activities and inter-
ventions which focus on strengths development (e.g. Seligman et al., 2005; Sheldon & Lyubomirsky,
2006). Our study supported previous studies in showing that combination of such activities as posi-
tive goal pursuits, emotion regulation, facilitation of positive affect, flow experiences, working on
positive relationships, empathy and gratitude are effective in enhancing well-being. As previously
discussed, most of the positive psychology interventions use one activity or a few activities, or
aim at facilitating one aspect of well-being. We, on the other hand, developed our study
 BRITISH JOURNAL OF GUIDANCE & COUNSELLING 9
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Figure 4. Ontological well-being score outcomes.

considering the importance of multifaceted approaches (Luthans, Vogelgesang, & Lester, 2006).
Therefore, the effectiveness of the programme on promoting various well-being outcomes could
be a result of incorporating different aspects of well-being and using a variety of activities
derived from different well-being theories such as self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2001),
flourishing (Seligman, 2011), model of sustainable happiness (Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, & Schkade,
2005) and flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990).
The study also provided evidence for the effectiveness of positive psychology and strengths-
based activities in increasing well-being in a non-Western cultural context. Contemporary Turkish
society presents an interesting context for studying psychological constructs given that an inter-
action of Western and non-Western values are observed in the society in particular among
young educated people and that both individualistic and collectivist orientations are salient
among these people (Kagitcibasi, Ataca, & Diri, 2010). Since it is important to test whether the out-
comes of well-being studied in the West could be generalised to other cultures, we believe that
validating the effectiveness of a well-being intervention in a Turkish cultural context provides
some evidence for this generalisability. In this respect, our findings are consistent with the previous
findings reported in the West (e.g. Seligman et al., 2005; Wood, Linley, Maltby, Kashdan, & Hurling,
2011).
Many scholars (e.g. Green, Oades, & Robinson, 2012; Proctor et al., 2011) have stressed the impor-
tance of incorporating elements of positive psychology in school context and noted that strengths-
based education can facilitate healthy relationships, positive behaviours and positive emotions. The
present study was an empirical application of the previous remarks of scholars in the field. The devel-
opment of emotional and social resources among students can be quite important in prevention of
negative outcomes given that these resources have the potential to improve positive coping (Weiss-
berg, Kumpfer, & Seligman, 2003).
Besides, technology is an important tool in university students’ lives. Our study provided evidence
that well-being promotion through technology can be effective in facilitating a flourishing life among
students. Similar to past studies (e.g. Mitchell et al., 2009; Seligman et al., 2005) we showed that stu-
dents may benefit a lot from interventions which are delivered through the use of technology. The
key difference between technology-based and other forms of interventions (e.g. individual or group
 10 S. KOYDEMIR AND Z. E. SUN-SELIŞIK

counselling, group psycho-education programmes) is that with the help of technology, more individ-
uals can be reached at once and the sustainability of the delivery is ensured (Mitchell et al., 2010).
Especially for those who have continuous access to the Internet, web-based interventions play an
important role in the delivery of such interventions. Additionally, it has been discussed that Internet
interventions can reduce and prevent psychological problems such as anxiety and depression more
effectively than other forms of treatments (Crone et al., 2004).

Limitations, implications and recommendations

Some limitations of the study should be noted. First of all, although we used different indicators of
well-being, the data were based on self-report which is subject to several biases. Second, we were not
able to collect follow-up data from the participants. Thus, it is not clear whether effects of the inter-
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vention is apparent over a longer period of time. It is known that sustainable happiness over time is
not easy and that individuals quickly reach their base line happiness levels after a short period of time
any activity is completed (Lyubomirsky et al., 2011; Sheldon & Lyubomirsky, 2006). Third, the findings
can only be generalised to university students with similar characteristics to METU NCC which is a
Turkish university. We did not control any cultural or individual level variables, but future research
may benefit from working with variables such as values, individualism and collectivism. Fourth, we
did not measure aspects of well-being after each module is completed. This is a major limitation
given that we do not know which module was more effective in increasing which aspect of well-
being of students. Future research should take assessments after each module. Fifth, reduced
power due to small sample size and generalisability of the findings are also among the limitations
of this study. Sixth, the students volunteered to participate in the study; however, they took the inter-
vention in a lab setting. The study should be replicated with the option that students complete the
tasks remotely. Finally, because of not being able to reach students during the finals week, we were
not able to get qualitative data from the students regarding their perceptions of the programme,
their feelings, as well as suggestions to improve the intervention. Such qualitative data would
improve our findings to a great extent.
The well-being programme used in this study seems to be a promising start for the development
of further comprehensive strengths-based online interventions that may assist first year university
students be empowered and increase well-being. The novelty of this intervention is that unlike
other positive interventions, it taps different aspects of well-being, and uses a variety of activities.
Not only the subjective well-being but also eudaimonic well-being (i.e. psychological well-being) is
targeted in this intervention. The findings suggested that students can learn effective ways of improv-
ing positive feelings, positive behaviours and positive cognitions. These findings are encouraging for
higher education institutions and mental health professionals trying to promote well-being by means
of cost-effective programmes. We hope that the programme is implemented in universities which
have similar aims. The results are also promising from a practical standpoint in that students can
benefit from an easily used, online positive intervention.

Note
1. Those who scored above the threshold were given information about the counselling services available on campus.
However, none of them were willing to take any of these services at that time.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
 BRITISH JOURNAL OF GUIDANCE & COUNSELLING 11

Funding
This research was supported by Middle East Technical University Northern Cyprus Campus Research
Fund.

Notes on contributors
Selda Koydemir, Ph.D., is a full-time faculty at the Psychological Counselling Department of Middle East Technical Uni-
versity, Northern Cyprus Campus. She obtained her Ph.D. in psychological counselling from Middle East Technical Uni-
versity in Ankara, Turkey. Her current research interests include understanding personal, interpersonal, as well as cultural
predictors of subjective well-being and happiness. She is also interested in developing and testing the effectiveness of
well-being interventions for different populations.
Eda Sun-Selışık, Ph.D. is the director of Student Development and Counselling Centre at Middle East Technical University,
Northern Cyprus Campus. She obtained her Ph.D. in psychological counselling from Middle East Technical University in
Downloaded by [Orta Dogu Teknik Universitesi] at 17:18 01 April 2016

Ankara, Turkey. Her research interests include peer mentoring and peer guidance programmes in university campuses,
well-being of university students and counselling needs of students.

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