Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
net
ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
Contents
w.E
Inverters................................................................................................ 21
asy
AC - AC Converters ................................................................................ 26
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
Why K-Notes?
Towards the end of preparation, a student has lost the time to revise all the chapters
from his / her class notes / standard text books. This is the reason why K-Notes is
specifically intended for Quick Revision and should not be considered as comprehensive
ww study material.
asy
A 40 page or less notebook for each subject which contains all concepts covered in GATE
Curriculum in a concise manner to aid a student in final stages of his/her preparation. It
En
is highly useful for both the students as well as working professionals who are preparing
for GATE as it comes handy while traveling long distances.
ee rin
It is highly recommended to use K-Notes in the last 2 months before GATE Exam
(November end onwards).
1.
w.E
Classification of switches
asy
Switching state cannot be controlled by any control signal E.g. Diode
2. Semi-controlled switch
En
gin
Only one switching state can be controlled by an external control signal. E.g. SCR
Other Classification
g.n
1. Unipolar switch
The switch can block only one polarity of voltage when it is in OFF state.
et
2. Bipolar switch
This switch can block both polarity of voltage when it is in blocking state.
3. Unidirectional switch
This switch can carry current in only one direction when it is in conduction state.
4. Bidirectional switch
This switch can carry current in both the directions when it is in conduction state.
Device Characteristic
Diode
BJT
ww
w.E
MOSFET
asy
En
IGBT
gin
SCR
ee rin
g.n
GTO
et
TRIAC
ww
2) If the device is modeled as a resistance, as in case of a MOSFET
P Irms
2
R ON Vrms
2
R ON
w.E
3) If the device is modeled as a voltage source.
P V Iavg
Latching Current
This is the minimum value of anode current above which SCR turns ON. This is related to
minimum gate pulse width requirement for SCR.
Holding current
di
Slope of characteristics =
dt
If ta trr
Area under the curve = QR
1
QR IRM trr
2
IRM di dt trr
ww QR
1 di 2
2 dt
trr
w.E
Device & Circuit Turn-off time
Device turn off time, tq trr tgr
asy
trr = reverse recovery time
t gr = gate recovery time
En
Circuit turn-off time t c is the time period for which communication circuit applies reverse
Ic C j
dv
, if
dv
et
is high, charging current increase and SCR conducts when Ic Ilatching .
dt dt
3) Light Triggering
If light is incident on J2 , charge carriers are generated and J2 starts conducting.
4) Thermal Triggering
When temperature is increased then charge carriers are generated & SCR conducts.
5) Gate Triggering
By applying gate pulse in SCR, VBO is lowered and SCR can easily conduct.
ww
w.E
Communication of thyristor
asy
Communication is defined as process of turning OFF the thyristor.
Types of Commutations:
En
1. Natural or line communication
gin
ee
In this case nature of supply supports the commutation.
E.g. Rectifier, AC voltage controllers, Step-down cyclo-converters.
rin
2. Forced Commutation
1) Class A commutation
g.n
Circuit should be under-damped.
et
4L
R2 for damped oscillations.
C
1 R2
Ringing frequency, r 2
LC 4L
Thyristor conducts for a period of =
r
a) ITM peak Io
C
b) ITA peak Vs
L
IP
ww
d) Conduction time of TA LC
e) tCM
w.E CVR
Io
= circuit turn off time
I
Where VR VS cos sin1 o
Ip
asy
Other Implementation En
I
tCM 2 sin1 o
LC
gin
Ip
V 2V
I T2 peak S S
R 2 R1
tC1 R1 ln2
tC2 R 2 ln2
C
ITM peak Io VS L
ITA peak Io
TON min for TM LC
CVs
tCM
ww Io
w.E
VO avg
VS
Io
Unit of 0 C / w
ee rin
In electrical circuit representation g.n
et
RF =
ww
Ripple Factor
FF2 1
w.E
Distortion factor
V
DF 01
Vor
asy
V01 : rms value of fundamental components of Vo
Vor : rms value of output voltage.En
Total harmonic Distortion gin
THD
1
DF2
1 ee rin
Single phase half wave uncontrolled rectifier
g.n
VO
R – load
Vm
RL – Load
Vm
2
1 cos
L – Load
0 et
IO Vm Vm Vm
1 cos
R 2R L
ϒ 2
IO max
2 2 ,
If a free-wheeling diode is connected across the load (RL) that behaves as R-load as output
voltage goes to zero after t when FD conducts.
10
ww 4 2
Vor
2
R Vor
w.E
Input power factor =
VS IS
Vm
VS
α = firing angle
VS
asy 2
ii) R – L load En
Voavg
Vm
2
cos cos gin
Io avg
Vm
2R
cos cos ee rin
Vor
2
Vm
12 sin2 sin2
g.n
Circuit turn off time, t c
2
et
Single phase full – wave rectifier
11
1 1
full converter Semi converter
VO 2Vm Vm
cos
1 cos
IS1 2 2 2 2
Io I cos
O 2
IS Io
IO
ww DF 2 2
2 2
cos
2
w.E DPF
IPF
cos cos
2
asy 2 2
cos
2
1 cos
En
gin
DPF: Displacement power factor = cos angle b w VS & IS1
12
3Vml
Vo cos
2
1
1 3 3 2
ww 2 8
w.E
Vmp : Peak value of phase voltage
13
3 3
Full converter Semi converter
Vo 3Vml 3Vml
cos
2
1 cos
Vor 1 3 3 Expression varies for 600 & 600
Vml cos 2
2 4 For 600 , it becomes 3-pulse converter.
IS1
6
IO
6
O
I cos
2
ww
IS 2
3
IO IO
DF
w.E 3
6
cos
2
DPF
IPF
cosα
3
asy cos
2
cos
En 6
x
cos2
2
gin
IS1 : Fundamental rms value of source current
Due to source inductance, there is an overlap b/w incoming and outgoing thyristor, given by
et
overlap angle .
2Vm L
VO cos S IO
Vm
VO cos cos
14
3Vm 3LS
VO cos I
O
3Vm
VO cos cos
2
ww
w.E
Chopper
asy
En
Buck Converter
gin
When CH is ON o t DT
TON
D = duty cycle =
T
Where T = switching period = 1
f
f = switching frequency
15
ww
When CH is ON 0 t DT
VL VS VO 1 D VS
w.E
During this period, since voltage is positive current increase from minimum value to maximum
value.
i Imax Imin
t DT 0 DT
asy
i
1 D V En
L
DT
D 1 D VS
S
gin
i
fL ee rin
This formula gives approximate value of output ripple current for maximum ripple, D = 0.5
imax
VS
g.n
Imax IO
IL
2
4fL
et
I
Imin IO L
2
Lc
1 D R
2f
16
1
CC
8fR
ww
when CH is ON 0 t DT ,
VL VS VO
w.E
Applying volt-sec balance across inductor
asy
VS DT VS VO 1 D T 0
VO
VS
1 D En
Since D < 1, VO VS gin
when CH is ON 0 t DT ,
when CH is OFF DT t T , IC IL IO
ee
IC IO
rin
Applying Ampere sec balance across capacitor
IO DT IL IO 1 D T 0
g.n
IL
IO
1 D
et
Ripple in inductor current
17
when CH is ON , IC IO
VC
C. I O
DT
IO DT
VO VC
C
ww
-ve sign indicates voltage decrease
IO DT
w.E
VO
C
18
Buck-Boost Converter
ww IC IL IO
w.E
Applying volt-sec balance across inductor
VS DT VO 1 D T 0
VO
DVS asy
1 D
En
Applying Ampere-sec balance across inductor
gin
IO DT IL IO 1 D T 0
I O
ee rin
IL
1 D
g.n
IL
VO
R 1 D
DVS
R 1 D
2 et
Ripple in inductor current
IL
L VS
DT
DVS
IL
fL
19
CVO
I O
DT
DIO
VO
ww fC
w.E
Critical inductance (Lc)
IL
IL
2 asy
R 1 D
2
En
LC
2f
gin
Critical capacitance (Cc)
ee rin
VO
VO
2 g.n
CC
I O 1 D T
2VS
et
If internal resistance (r) of inductor is also considered then
D 1 D
VO VS
r 1 D
2
R
R = load resistance
20
Inverters
Inverters circuits will convert DC power to AC power at required voltage & required frequency.
Classification
ww
2) Current source Inverters
w.E
Input source is a current source.
Switching device is bidirectional & bipolar
When S1 is ON, VO 0, IO 0 En
When S2 is ON, VO 0, IO 0
gin
When D1 is ON, VO 0, IO 0
When D 2 is ON, VO 0, IO 0
ee rin
V
The output voltage is a square wave of amplitude dc
2 g.n
The fourier series of output voltage is given by
VO
n1,3,5
2Vdc
n
sin nt
et
rms value of fundamental components is given by
2V 1 2
Vor1 dc V
2 dc
Vdc
rms value of output voltage Vor
2
Vor1 2 2
Distortion Factor(DF) =
Vor
1
% Total Harmonic Distortion THD 1 = 48.43%
DF2
21
When S1 , S2 conduct VO 0, IO 0
When D1 , D 2 conduct, VO 0, IO 0
ww
When S3 , S 4 conduct, VO 0, IO 0
w.E
When D3 ,D 4 conduct, VO 0, IO 0
Vor1
2 gin
rms value of fundamental components is given by
2 2
ee
Vor Vdc
rin
Distortion Factor(DF) =
Vor
g.n
% Total Harmonic Distortion THD
1
DF2
1 = 48.43%
et
Three phase full bridge VSI
22
1800conduction mode
In this mode, each switch will conduct for a period of 1800 and phase displacement between
any two poles is 1200
Phase voltage
2
V
ph rms V
3 dc
ww
VRN
2Vdc
n
sin nt
w.E n6k 1
VR1
2Vdc
asy
Distortion factor, DF
VR1
Vph,rms
3
En
1 gin
THD
DF2
1 100 31%
ee rin
Line voltage
g.n
VL L rms 2
V
3 dc
et
4Vdc
3 sinn t 6
VRY sin n
n6k 1 n
6
VRY 1 = rms value of fundamental component of V RY = VRY
1
Distortion factor = 3
In each phase, each switch conducts for 1800 out of 3600
Io, rms 2Vdc Vdc
Ir.rms , Where R = load resistance
2 3R 2 3R
23
This conversion from total rms to fundamental rms can be performed by multiplication of
ww
3 DF .
This conversion from phase to line voltage can be performed by multiplication of 3.
w.E
1200conduction mode
asy
For each thyristor, conduction angle is 1200 & last 60 0 for commutation.
Phase Voltage
V
Vdc En
ph rms
6
2Vdc
sin n
g ine
sin nt n
VRN
n6k 1
6
n 3
e 6
rin
VR1 V
dc
Distortion factor, DF 3
g.n
THD = 31%
et
Line Voltage
Vdc
VL RMS
2
3Vdc
VRY n
sin n t
3
n6k 1
3
VRY 1 Vdc
2
24
ww
Phase
Line
Vdc
6
Vdc
6
3
Vdc
w.E 2 2
Vdc
asy
The conversion factor remain same as in 1800 conduction mode.
harmonics. En
In both 1200 & 1800 conduction mode both phase & line voltages are free from even & triplen
gin
Voltage control using PWM techniques
n1,3,5
4V
n
S
sin n sin nd sin nt
25
ww
AC - AC Converters
w.E
These circuits control AC power. They are of 2 types:
1) AC voltage regulator
2) Cyclo-converter
asy
AC voltage regulator En
gin
These transfer AC power from 1 circuit to another by controlling output voltage & fixed
frequency.
ee rin
Single phase half wave ACVR
g.n
VO avg
Vm
2
cos 1 et
Vm
IO avg
2R
cos 1
1
V 1 2
VOrms m 2 sin2
2 2
1
Vor 1 1 2
pf 2 sin2
Vsr 2 2
26
ww
w.E
asy
Vo avg 0
En 1
V
2
1
Vo rms m sin2
2
2
gin
wL
tan1
ee
If R – L load is used, then in steady state I O lags VO by an angle
rin
R
g.n
If r , then above formulas remain valid & output voltage is controllable by controlling α.
If r , output voltage is not controllable & Vor Vsr
If in fully controlled ACVR, thyristors conduct for m cycle & are OFF for n cycle then
1
m 2
VO rms Vsr
mn
1
V m 2
For R – load, pf or
Vsr m n
27
Vm m
I T1 avg
R m n
1
V m 2
I T1 rms m
2R m n
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
28
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t