CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

 Conceptual design includes assumptions of aircraft mission requirements, performance

and configuration needed for the company or customer We actually design the aircraft
on the concept basis with the help of referring many aircraft and taking some
assumption values.
 For designing the fighter aircraft, the following things are to be considered. 
 Mission Requirements
 Configuration
 Performance Characteristics

1.2 MISSION REQUIREMENTS

Table 1.1 Results from aircraft Design Project I

PARAMETERS VALUES
CREW 2 (Two)
ROLE Passenger Aircraft
ENDURANCE
PAYLOAD 82635 kg
TYPE OF PAYLOAD Passengers & Cargo

1.3 CONFIGURATION

Table 1.2 Results from aircraft Design Project I

PARAMETERS SHAPES
FUSELAGE Conventional
WING Mid Wing
TAIL V- Tail
LANDING GEAR Conventional
ENGINE Turbo Fan Engine
1.4 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

Table 1.3 Results from aircraft Design Project I

PARAMETERS VALUES
MAXIMUM SPEED 948 km/hr
CRUISE SPEED 892 km/hr
SERVICE CEILING 13.1 km
RATE OF CLIMB 64 km/hr

1.5 SPECIFICATION OF DESIGNED AIRCRAFT

The calculated values of our desired aircrafts as shown in table 1.1

Table 1.4 Results from aircraft Design Project I

DESIGN POINT PARAMETERS VALUES

Overall Weight 348900 kg

Empty Weight 235300 kg

Weight
Fuel Weight 63600 kg

Payload Weight 50000 kg

Cruise speed 892 km/hr

Performance Maximum Speed 948 km/hr

Range 13522 km

Thrust Required 310.5 KN

Area 845 m2

Span 65 m

Root Chord 9.3 m

Wing
Tip Chord 3.7 m

Aerofoil NACA-SC(2)-7414
 CHAPTER II
V-n DIAGRAM
2.1 INTRODUCTION

Flight regime of any aircraft includes all permissible combinations of speeds, altitudes,
weights, centres of gravity, and configurations. This regime is shaped by aerodynamics,
propulsion, structure, and dynamics of aircraft. The borders of this flight regime are called flight
envelope or manoeuvring envelope. The safety of human on board is guaranteed by aircraft
designer and manufacturer. Pilots are always trained and warned through flight instruction manual
not to fly out of flight envelope, since the aircraft is not stable, or not controllable or not structurally
strong enough outside the boundaries of flight envelope. A mishap or crash is expected, if an
aircraft is flown outside flight envelope.

The flight envelope has various types; each of which is usually the allowable variations of
one flight parameter versus another parameter. These envelopes are calculated and plotted by flight
mechanics engineers and employed by pilots and flight crews. For instance, the load masters of a
cargo aircraft must pay extra caution to the centre of gravity location whenever they distribute
various loads on the aircraft. There are several crashes and mishaps that safety board's report
indicated that load master are responsible, since they deployed more loads than allowed, or
misplaced the load before take-off. Nose heavy and tail heavy are two flight concepts that pilots
are familiar and experienced with, and are trained to deal with them safely.

Pilots are using several graphs and charts in their flight operations. Four important envelopes are
as follows:

1. Diagram of variations of aircraft lift coefficient versus Mach number (C L – M)

2. Diagram of variations of airspeed versus altitude (V – h)

3. Diagram of variations of centre of gravity versus aircraft weight (Xcg – W)

4. Diagram of variations of airspeed versus load factor (V – n)

One of the most important diagrams is referred to as flight envelope.

This envelope demonstrates the variations of airspeed versus load factor (V – n). In another
word, it depicts the aircraft limit load factor as a function of airspeed. One of the primary reasons
that this diagram is highly important is that, the maximum load factor; that is extracted from this
graph; is a reference number in aircraft structural design.

If the maximum load factor is under-calculated, the aircraft cannot withstand flight load
safely. For this reason, it is recommended to structural engineers to recalculate the V-n diagram
on their own as a safety factor.

In this section, details of the technique to plot the V- n diagram in introduced. Figure 9.10
shows a typical V-n diagram for a GA aircraft. This diagram is, in fact, a combination of two
diagrams: 1. The V-n diagram without consideration of gust, 2. The V-n diagram on the effect of
gust. In this section, we first have another look on the load factor and then present new concepts
on load factor. Then the phenomena of gust and gust load are described. At the end of this section,
the technique to plot V – n diagram is completely described. This description is supported by a
solved example.
2.2 LOAD FACTOR

The load to the aircraft on the ground is naturally produced by the gravity (i.e. 1 times g).
But, there are other sources of load to the aircraft during flight; one of which is the acceleration
load. This load is usually normalized through load factor (i.e. "n" times g). In another word, aircraft
load is expressed as a multiple of the standard acceleration due to gravity (g = 9.81 m/sec 2 = 32.17
ft/sec2).
𝑛=

Fig: 2.1 A Typical V-n Diagram for a GA Aircraft.

In some instances of flight such as turn and pull-up, the aircraft must generate a lift force such that
it is more than weight. For instance, load factor in a pull-up from equation 9.86 can be re-written
as:
𝑛 = +1
Where "a" is the centrifugal acceleration (V2/R). As this acceleration increases; i.e.
airspeed increases or radius of turn decreases; the load factor will increase too. For other flight
operations, similar expressions can be drawn. In some instances; especially for missiles; this load
factor may get as high as 30. As the table 2.2 illustrates, a low load factor fighter may end up
getting targeted by a high load factor missile.
Table 2.1. Load factor for various types of aircraft:

S.NO AIRCRAFT TYPE MAXIMUM MAXIMUM

POSITIVE LOAD NEGATIVE LOAD
FACTOR FACTOR
1 Normal (non-acrobatic) 2.5 – 3.8 -1 to -1.5

2 Utility (semi-acrobatic) 4.4 -1.8

3 Acrobatic 6 -3

4 Homebuilt 5 -2

5 Transport 3– 4 -1 to -2

6 Highly manoeuvrable 6.5 – 12 -3 to -6

7 Bomber 2– 4 -1 to -2

2.3 V – N DIAGRAM WITHOUT GUST EFFECT

As figure 9.10 shows, V-n diagram is an envelope that indicates the limits of load factor
and speed for a safe flight. It is usually composed of two curves plus few lines. The two curves on
the left hand side represent the aerodynamic limit on load factor imposed by stall (C Lmax). The
expression for the top curve is extracted from stall equation in turn (i.e. equation 9.10) as follows:
2𝑛𝑚𝑔
𝑉st =
𝜌𝑆𝐶LMAX
Where the value of corresponds to that at point A in figure 9.10. This speed sometimes is
referred to as manoeuvring speed (VA), and is summarized as:
𝑉A = √𝑛Max 𝑉s
The point A is then called the manoeuvre point. At this point, both lift coefficient and load
factor are simultaneously at their highest possible values. The corner velocity is an interesting
velocity for fighter pilots. At speeds less than V*, it is not possible to structurally damage the
aircraft due to generation of load factor less than nmax. However, the bank angle is not high enough
for a tight turn. In contrast, at speeds greater than V*, manoeuvrability decreases, since the speed
is too high. Thus fighter pilots are recommended to select this speed for much of their manoeuvring
missions. For majority of the cases; and according to the discussions presented in sections 2.3 and
2.4; this point simultaneously corresponds to the tightest turn and fastest turn of an aircraft. Typical
corner velocities of current advanced fighters are around 300 to 350 KEAS.

The right hand side of the V – n diagram, vertical line BC, is a high speed limit. This speed
is usually selected to be the dive speed. At flight speeds higher than this limit, the dynamic pressure
(q) is higher than the design value for the aircraft. At the speed above dive speed, destructive
phenomena such as flutter, aileron reversal, and wing divergence, may happen that leads structural
damage, or failure, or disintegration. This speed limit (dive speed) is a red-line speed for the
aircraft; it should never be exceeded. The dive speed (VD) is usually higher than aircraft maximum
speed (Vmax), and the aircraft maximum speed (Vmax) is often higher than aircraft cruising speed
(VC). From FAR Part 23, the following regulations have been directly copied:
VD ≥ 1.4VC (Normal Aircraft)
VD ≥ 1.5VC (Utility Aircraft)
VD ≥ 1.55VC (Acrobatic Aircraft)
For Passenger Aircraft:
npos = 3 to 4
nneg = -1 to -2
Dive Speed:
VD = 1.55 VC = 384 m/s
Vs =
Top Curve:
. 2 LMAX
𝑛= =
n = 2.437253369 x 10-5 V2
For Point B
n=3
V* = 106.93 m/s
V* = 350.84 ft/s
B (3, 350.84)

BOTTOM CURVE:
G
𝑉=
max

CN = 1.1 CLmax
neg G
𝑉=
Nmax

CNmax = 1.5862

nneg ≥ 0.4 npos for normal and utility aircraft

nneg ≥ 0.4 npos for acrobatic category aircraft
nneg = -0.2 * 5 = -1
Vs = 72.22 m/s
Thus K(-1,473.054545)
. 2 ( LMAX)
−𝑛 = =
-n = 2.437253369*10-5*V2
V = 61.737 m/s
J(-1, 61.737)
Figure 2.2 V-n diagram for Passenger Aircraft
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CHAPTER III
GUST LOAD DIAGRAM
3.1 DESCRIPTION

The atmosphere is a dynamic system that encompasses variety of phenomena. Some of

these phenomena include turbulence, gust, wind shear, jet stream, mountain wave and thermal
flow. In this section, we concentrate on only gust, since it is not predictable, but is happening
during most high altitude flights. When an aircraft experiences a gust, the immediate effect is an
increase or decrease in the angle of attack. Figure 9.11 shows the geometry of an upward gust.
When an upward gust with a velocity of Vg, hits under the nose of an aircraft with the velocity of
V, the instantaneous change (increase) in the angle of attack (∆), is determined through:

There are various models for gust prepared by various researchers. Here, we refer to FAR
for the gust modelling. According to FAR 232, a GA aircraft must be able to withstand gust with
a velocity of 50 ft/sec from sea level up to 20,000 ft. From 20,000 ft to 50,000 ft the gust velocity
decreases linearly to 25 ft/sec. an aircraft must safely fly at manoeuvre speed when encounters a
gust with the velocity of 66 ft/sec. The aircraft must carry gust load during dive speed, if the gust
speed is 25 ft/sec. These data are employed to plot the gust V-n diagram. FAR recommends using
the following equation for modelling the "gust induced load factor" as a function of gust speed:

𝐾g𝑉gE𝑉E𝑎𝜌𝑆
𝑛 =1+
2𝑊

Where kg is a coefficient that is determined by the following expression:

0.88µg
𝐾𝑔 =
5.33 + µg
And µg is called the aircraft mass ratio and is calculated through:

2𝑚
µg =
𝜌𝐶𝑎𝑆

where,

m=aircraft mass

V_GE=aircraft gust equivalent speed

V_E=aircraft equivalent speed

C ̅=mean aerodynamic chord

a = is wing lift curve slope during gust encounter.

The gust V-n diagram is plotted using lines based on the equation 9.103 for various speeds
(i.e. 25, 50, and 66 ft/sec). Then the intersections between these three lines respectively with
manoeuvre speed (VA), cruising speed (VC), and dive speed (VD) must be marked. The gust V-n
diagram is plotted for several altitudes to determine the highest load factor.
 Figure 3.1. A typical gust V-n diagram

2𝜋
𝑎=
2
1+
𝐴𝑅
For Supersonic Fighter Aircraft:
a = 4.6
2𝑚
µg =
𝜌𝐶𝑎𝑆

µg = 200.438
0.88 µg
𝐾g =
5.3 + µg
Kg = 0.8572

For Velocity at points Equivalent air speed Derived Gust Velocity

VE (m/s) Vg (m/s)
B,G 384.4 15
C,F 248 30
D,E 460.71 45
 n Equivalent air speed Derived Gust
VE (m/s) Velocity Vg (m/s)
n1 = 1.2246 384.4 15
n2 = 0.7753 384.4 15
n3 = 1.289 248 30
n4 = 0.71 248 30
n5 = 1.8078 460.71 45
n6 = 0.1921 460.71 45

Figure 3.2A typical gust V-n diagram

 CHAPTER IV
COMBINED GUST AND V-N DIAGRAM
4.1 CRITICAL LOADING PERFORANCE:

Section 2.1 technique to plot the basic V-n diagram is introduced. In Section 9.6.3, the
technique to plot the gust V-n diagram is presented. This section is about combination technique
of basic V-n diagram with gust V-n diagram. Since the gust in the atmosphere is a true story,
aircraft designers must predict the gust load and add them to the aircraft regular load (maneuver
load), to have a safe and strong structure in flight operations.

The maximum combined load factor is usually higher than separate load factor in each
diagram. A typical combined V-n diagram for an aircraft is illustrated in figure 9.13.

The V-n diagram is unique for each aircraft, and pilots and flight crew are required to fly and
operate inside this flight envelope. The following example demonstrates details of the technique
to plot the combined V-n diagram for an acrobatic aircraft.

Figure 4.1A typical combined V-n diagram for an aircraft

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Figure 4.2 combined V-n diagram for supersonic aircraft

 CHAPTER V
SCHRENK’S CURVE
5.1 WING DESCRIPTION

Lift varies along the wing span due to the variation in chord length, angle of attack and
sweep along the span. Schrenk’s curve defines this lift distribution over the wing span of an
aircraft, also called simply as Lift Distribution Curve. Schrenk’s Curve is given by
𝑌1 + 𝑌2
𝑌=
2
Where,
y1 is Linear Variation of lift along semi wing span also named as L1

y2 is Elliptic Lift Distribution along the wing span also named as L2

𝑏
𝑎=
2𝑐𝑜𝑠Г
65
𝑎=
2𝑐𝑜𝑠11.13

𝑎 = 33.12
5.2 LINEAR LIFT DISTRIBUTION:
Lift at root
𝜌𝑉2𝐶L𝐶root 0.33135 ∗ 2482 ∗ 0.67 ∗ 5.081
𝐿𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 = =
2 2
𝑁
𝐿root = 34688.4 2
𝑚
Lift at tip
𝜌𝑉2𝐶L𝐶tip 0.33135 ∗ 2482 ∗ 0.67 ∗ 0.5090
𝐿𝑡𝑖𝑝 = =
2 2
𝑁
𝐿tip = 6949.96 2
𝑚
By representing this lift at sections of root and tip we can get the equation of the wing.

34688.4 N/m 6949.96 N/m

Figure 5.1: Linear lift distribution

Equation of linear lift distribution for starboard wing
𝑌1 = −𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑌1 = (−837.52)𝑥 + 34688.4
Equation of linear lift distribution for port wing we have to replace x by –x in general,
𝑌1 = (837.52)𝑥 + 34688.4
 X Y1
34688.4
1 33850.88
2 33013.36
3 32175.84
4 31338.32
5 30500.8
6 29663.28

Figure 5.2: Linear Variation of lift along wing semi span

5.3 ELLIPTIC LIFT DISTRIBUTION:

Twice the area under the curve or line will give the lift which will be required to
overcome weight
Considering an elliptic lift distribution, we get
𝐿 𝑊 𝜋𝑎𝑏1
= =
2 2 4
𝜋𝑎𝑏1
𝐴=
4
Where b1- is Actual lift at root
And a- is wing semi span
Lift at tip
4𝑊
𝑏1 =
2𝜋𝑎
4 ∗ 1098720
𝑏1 = = 21522.05
2𝜋 ∗ 32.5
21522.05 N/m

32.5
Figure 5.3: Elliptic lift distribution

EQUATION OF ELLIPTIC LIFT DISTRIBUTION:

𝟐𝒃1 (𝒂2 − 𝒙2)
𝒀2 =
𝒂
𝒀2 = 𝟏𝟐𝟗𝟗. 𝟔𝟒 √𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟔. 𝟗𝟑 − 𝒙2

X Y2
0 43043.99
1 43024.37
2 42965.44
3 42867.04
4 42728.91
5 42550.66
6 42331.77

Figure 5.4: Elliptic lift distribution

5.4 CONSTRUCTION OF SCHRENK’S CURVE:
Schrenk’s Curve is given by
𝑌1 + 𝑌2
𝑌=
2
−(837.52)𝑥 + 34688.4 + 1299.64 (1096.93 − 𝑥2)
𝑌=
2
( )
𝑌 = − 418.751 𝑥 + 17344.2 + 649.82√1096.93 − 𝑥2

Table 5.1: Lift distribution table along semi span

x y1 y2 y
0 34688.4 43043.99 38867.2
1 33850.9 43024.37 38438.62
2 33013.4 42965.44 37990.4
3 32175.8 42867.04 37522.44
4 31338.3 42728.91 37034.62
5 30500.8 42550.66 36526.73
6 29663.3 42331.77 35998.53
7 28825.8 42071.62 35449.69
8 27988.2 41769.43 34879.83
9 27150.7 41424.28 34288.5
10 26313.2 41035.09 33675.15
11 25475.7 40600.6 33039.14
12 24638.2 40119.32 32379.74
13 23800.6 39589.56 31696.1
14 22963.1 39009.34 30987.23
15 22125.6 38376.37 30251.98
16 21288.1 37687.99 29489.04
17 20450.6 36941.11 28696.83
18 19613 36132.1 27873.57
19 18775.5 35256.67 27017.1
20 17938 34309.76 26124.88
21 17100.5 33285.25 25193.86
22 16263 32175.74 24220.35
23 15425.4 30972.09 23199.76
24 14587.9 29662.84 22126.38
25 13750.4 28233.31 20992.86
Figure 5.5 Load distribution on wing