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Kohata, Y., Tatsuoka, F., Wang, L., Jiang, G. J., Hoque, E. & Kodaka, T. (1997). GeÂotechnique 47, No.

3, 563±580

Modelling the non-linear deformation properties of stiff geomaterials

Y. KO H ATA ,  F. TAT S U O K A , { L . WA N G , { G . L . J I A N G ,  E . H O Q U E } a n d T. KO DA K A i

The modelling of non-linear stiffness, based on L'article preÂsente une modeÂlisation de la rigiditeÂ
elastic characteristic moduli for stiff geomater- non lineÂaire baseÂe sur les modules d'eÂlasticite de
ials, is proposed, on the basis of the results of a mateÂriaux rigides, qui repose sur les reÂsultats
large number of triaxial compression tests on d'un grand nombre d'essais de compression
sedimentary soft rocks, tuff, weathered granite, triaxiale sur des roches tendres seÂdimentaires,
cement-treated soils, densely compacted gravels du tuf, du granit deÂsagreÂgeÂ, des sols traiteÂs au
and sands. Axial strains from less than 0´001% ciment, des graviers fortement tasseÂs et des
to about 1% were measured by using a local sables. Un extensomeÁtre local a permis de me-
gauge, while elastic Young's moduli Ee were surer des contraintes axiales allant de moins de
obtained by applying a series of small un- 0,001% aÁ 1% environ, tandis qu'une seÂrie de
load=reload cycles of axial stress during each cycles de deÂcharge=recharge de contraintes axi-
monotonic loading test. Strain increments less ales pendant chaque essai de charge monotone a
than about 0´001% were nearly recoverable and permis d'obtenir des modules d'eÂlasticite E e de
strain-rate-independent. For sedimentary soft Young. Les eÂcarts de contrainte de moins de
rocks and cement-treated soils, the elastic 0,001% eÂtaient presque reÂcupeÂrables et ne deÂ-
Young's moduli Ee from laboratory tests using pendaient pas du taux de contrainte. Dans le cas
high-quality undisturbed samples were very des roches tendres seÂdimentaires et des sols
similar to the equivalent values obtained from traiteÂs au ciment, les essais de laboratoire sur
®eld seismic surveys. The dependence of Ee on des eÂchantillons non perturbeÂs de grande qualiteÂ
stress state is summarized, and the effects of ont produit des modules d'eÂlasticite E e treÁs
geomaterial type are analysed. The non-linearity semblables aux valeurs correspondantes fournies
during shear deformation is regarded as being par les releveÂs sismiques sur le terrain. L'article
caused by damage to the elastic deformation reÂsume la facËon dont l'eÂlasticite E e deÂpend de
properties and the occurrence of plastic strains. l'eÂtat de contrainte et analyse les effets du type de
The effects of cementation and structuration on mateÂriau. La modeÂlisation suppose que la non-
elastic deformation properties are discussed. A lineÂarite du cisaillement est causeÂe par la
method to estimate the tangent Young's modulus deÂteÂrioration de l'eÂlasticite et l'apparition de
Etan of a given geomaterial at a given stress deÂformations plastiques. L'article examine les
state from the Ee value evaluated by ®eld seis- effets de la cimentation et de la structuration
mic surveys and the non-linear tangent stiffness sur les proprieÂteÂs des mateÂriaux. En®n, il propose
model is proposed. une meÂthode qui permet d'estimer le module
tangent de Young Etan d'un mateÂriau donne aÁ un
eÂtat de contrainte donneÂ, aÁ partir de la valeur E e
KEYWORDS: deformation; elasticity; fabric=structure eÂvalueÂe aÁ l'aide des leveÂs sismiques sur le terrain
of soils; laboratory tests; stiffness. et du modeÁle de rigidite tangentielle non lineÂaire.

INTRODUCTION cement-treated soils and well-compacted granular


The deformation characteristics at small strains of materials) are important in many geotechnical
stiff geomaterials (e.g. sedimentary soft rocks, engineering problems, for example, precise predic-
tion of the displacements of the foundations of
large important structures or the ground movements
caused by deep excavation. In such cases, strains in
Manuscript received 9 October 1996; revised manuscript the ground at working loads are smaller than about
accepted 14 February 1997. 0´1%, or at the largest, about 0´5% (e.g. Burland,
Discussion on this paper closes 1 November 1997. 1989; Tatsuoka & Kohata, 1995). Therefore, the

Railway Technical Research Institute, Tokyo.
{ University of Tokyo. elastic deformation properties and stiffness at these
{ Chuo Kaihatsu Corporation, Japan. strains are essential design parameters. However, in
} Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology. many case histories in the past, the stiffnesses of
i Institute of Industrial Science, University of Tokyo. the ground determined by conventional laboratory

563
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564 KOHATA, TATSUOKA, WANG, JIANG, HOQUE AND KODAKA

and ®eld testing methods, except for ®eld seismic (a) air-dried Hostun sand (D50 ˆ 0:31 mm and
survey, were found to be too small to explain the Uc ˆ 1:94) (h 150 mm, ö 75 mm), prepared
full-scale ®eld behaviour. by pluviating particles in air
Results of recent triaxial tests with accurate (b) an air-dried well-graded crushed sandstone,
axial strain measurements using very small strains namely Nerima gravel (D50 ˆ 3:9 mm and
have revealed the following. Uc ˆ 14:0) (h 600 mm, ö 300 mm and h
570 mm, w 230 mm 3 230 mm), well-com-
(a) Axial strains obtained from the axial displace-
pacted to a dry density rd ˆ 1:77ÿ1:98 g=cm3
ment of the loading piston or the top cap in
by vibrator compaction (Jiang et al., 1997);
conventional triaxial tests are larger than the
and similar gravels, namely Chiba gravel
true values, owing to the effects of bedding
(D50 ˆ 6:6 mm and Uc ˆ 12:1) (h 570 mm,
error and system compliance.
w 230 mm 3 230 mm), vibration-compacted to
(b) Apparently different stiffnesses obtained from
rd ˆ 1:80 g=cm3 , and Nagoya gravel (D50 ˆ
different laboratory and ®eld tests and from
4:76 mm and Uc ˆ 91:8) (h 600 mm, ö
full-scale ®eld behaviour can be linked to each
300 mm), vibration-compacted to rd ˆ 2:21ÿ
other only when the effects of in¯uencing
2:25 g=cm3 (Kohata et al., 1994)
factors including sample disturbance, the de-
(c) saturated, undisturbed samples from a rock-®ll
pendences of stiffness on strain level and
dam core constructed by compacting weath-
pressure level, and viscous effects are properly
ered sandstone (D50 ˆ 1:5 mm and Uc ˆ 676),
considered.
sampled 21 years after construction (h 200
(c) For cohesionless soils, the elastic Young's
mm, ö 82 mm) (Tatsuoka & Kohata, 1995)
modulus de®ned for the major elastic principal
(d) saturated core samples of sedimentary soft silt-
strain increment occurring in a certain direc-
to-sandstone of about 5 million years age
tion is a unique function of the normal stress
(Kobe group) (h 100 mm, ö 50 mm), obtained
in that direction (e.g. Jamiolkowski et al.,
by block sampling at the bottom of an exca-
1991; Tatsuoka & Shibuya, 1992; Kohata et
vation taken to a depth of 61 m at the con-
al., 1994; Tatsuoka & Kohata, 1995; Jardine,
struction site of Anchor 1A for the Akashi
1995).
Kaikyo (Strait) Suspension bridge, one of the
Therefore, the elastic properties of geomaterials Honshu±Shikoku bridges
become anisotropic under anisotropic stress states (e) saturated core samples of sedimentary soft
(i.e. stress-system-induced anisotropy). mudstone of about 2 million years age (Kazusa
Strain non-linearity is a common feature of a group) (h 150 mm, ö 55 mm), obtained by
variety of geomaterials. This property has usually block sampling at the bottom of an excavation
been represented by the relationship between taken to a depth of 70 m at the Sagamihara
the secant Young's modulus Esec and axial strain Test Site (Tatsuoka & Kohata, 1995; Tatsuoka
åv (or between secant shear modulus Gsec and et al., 1997)
shear strain ã). However, this relationship is ( f ) saturated samples of cement-treated sandy soil
not unique, but depends on the de®nition of the (CTSS-dry), block-sampled from a test pit
origin for strain and on the stress path followed. for full-scale placement tests (h 630 mm, w
Therefore, the use of the tangent modulus Etan (or 250 mm 3 250 mm) (Uchida et al., 1993;
Gtan ) as a function of the current stress state (i.e., Tatsuoka et al., 1997a) (this cement-treated
as a function of shear stress level and pressure sandy soil, called `dry type', was used to
level), instead of Esec (or Gsec ), can be more construct the ¯at part of the Kisarazu man-
appropriate. made island on the Trans-Tokyo Bay Highway;
This paper describes ®rst the dependence of the the material was produced, ®rst, by mixing
elastic Young's modulus Ee on the current stress sand in air at a natural water content (about
state for various stiff geomaterials. Then, a method 10%) with cement containing 7´5% by weight
is proposed to obtain the value of Etan of a given of dry sand and an anti-segregation chemical,
geomaterial at a given stress state, from the stress- and then by pouring into the sea through a
state-dependent Ee value, while taking into account large-diameter pipe; the strength of this ma-
the non-linearity due to shearing. terial after placement beneath the sea is lower
than that of another type of CTSS prepared in
a slurry state prior to underwater placement.
TRIAXIAL TESTING METHOD
Test materials
The test materials and the specimen dimensions Triaxial testing systems
(height h and diameter ö for solid cylindrical Small triaxial apparatuses were used for testing
specimens and height h and width w for rectan- sand, weathered sandstone and sedimentary soft
gular prismatic specimens) were as follows: mudstone, and a large triaxial apparatus was used

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MODELLING NON-LINEAR DEFORMATION PROPERTIES 565
for testing gravels and cement-treated sandy soil. load=reload cycle, for which the strains were
The specimens of sand and gravel were kept air- essentially elastic. Therefore, for a given deviator
dried throughout the tests. A very sensitive load stress increment, Etan and Eeq re¯ect the total and
cell was installed inside the triaxial cell. Local elastic strain increments dåv t and dåv e respectively.
axial strains were measured accurately by means of
a pair of local deformation transducers (LDTs)
(Goto et al., 1991) attached to the surface opposite TYPICAL STRESS±STRAIN RELATIONS OF
diametrically of the cylindrical specimen or to GEOMATERIALS
opposite surfaces of a rectangular prismatic speci- Figures 2±7 present typical stress±strain curves
men. An external displacement transducer and two for the various materials. Each ®gure is in three
proximity transducers were also used to measure parts, (a), (b) and (c), each with a successively de-
the displacements of the loading piston and of the creasing strain scale. The values of Etan are
top cap of the specimen respectively. For the small presented later.
cylindrical specimens of sand, lateral strains were The following two types of stress±strain curve
obtained by measuring the change in the specimen were obtained from the TC tests. In the ®rst type,
diameter with two sets of three proximity transdu- the value of Etan decreased consistently from the
cers, positioned opposite each other around the start of loading until the peak stress state (de-
specimen diameter (Tatsuoka et al., 1994). For the creasing Etan type). In the second type, as the axial
rectangular prismatic specimen of gravel, lateral stress increased, ®rst the value of Etan decreased,
strains were obtained by averaging the readings but soon it started increasing, until as failure was
from four pairs of lateral LDTs placed horizontally approached, it began decreasing again (increasing
on the lateral surfaces of the specimen (Hoque et Etan type).
al., 1996).
Each specimen was isotropically consolidated
(except where stated otherwise), followed by Decreasing Etan type
drained triaxial compression (TC) at an axial strain This type of stress±strain curve was observed in
rate of 0´06%=min under a constant con®ning most of the TC tests on virgin samples of sands
pressure. A number of small unload=reload cycles and gravels, which had not been pre-sheared.
were applied during TC. Typical examples (marked `virgin') are shown in
Three types of Young's moduli were de®ned as Fig. 2 (Hostun sand), Fig. 3 (well-graded, crushed
shown in Fig. 1. The initial Young's modulus E0 sandstone gravel) and Fig. 4 (undisturbed dam-core
was obtained from the initial linear elastic part of material). This type was also observed for the
the stress±strain curve at axial strains åv less than well-cemented geomaterials, namely sedimentary
about 0´001%, measured with LDTs. The tangent soft mudstone from Sagamihara and cement-treated
modulus Etan ˆ dq=dåv was obtained from each sandy soil (CTSS-dry) (Figs 5 and 6). These spe-
primary stress±strain curve. The equivalent cimens were consolidated isotropically to ó h 9 ˆ
Young's modulus Eeq was obtained from the 0:70 MPa for Sagamihara mudstone and 196 kPa
peak-to-peak secant modulus for each small un- for the CTSS-dry specimen.
The following features of behaviour may also be
noted from Figs 2±6. (a) Owing to the effects of
q 5 σv 2 σh
bedding error and system compliance, the exter-
nally measured axial strains are considerably larger
E0
Eeq than the locally measured ones, and therefore the
1 stress±strain relations based on conventional axial
1
strain measurements are totally unreliable. (b) The
1 behaviour at small strains is more linear and more
Etan
recoverable for the cemented materials than for the
uncemented granular materials. It is considered
that the decreasing Etan type stress±strain relation
d εvp d εve results from an increasing rate of development of
plastic strains with q, while the effects of the
d εvt
increase in the elastic Young's modulus with an
increase in q (as discussed later) are masked.

Increasing Etan type


0 εv In addition to the result from the virgin sample
(HOSTN6), the results from the other TC tests on
Fig. 1. De®nitions of Young's moduli the three specimens of Hostun sand, which had

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566 KOHATA, TATSUOKA, WANG, JIANG, HOQUE AND KODAKA

400 500
Hostun sand (CD)

400

Deviator stress q : kPa


TCNA (prestrained)
Deviator stress q : kPa

300
e0.2 5 0.374, ‘e at the start of TC’ 5 0.363
300
Prestrained TEST6 (virgin)
200 e0.2 5 0.4
σh′ 5 78.4 kPa 200
Virgin e
HOSTN6 (v) 0.76
100 . σh′ 5 49 kPa
HOSTN5 (p) 0 78 100
v: virgin HOSTN3 (p) 0.72
p: prestrained HOSTN1 (p) 0.75 Well-graded gravel (Nerima) (CD)
0 0
0 2 4 6 0 1 2 3 4 5
Axial strain εv: % Axial strain εv: % (external)
(a) (a)

200 300
HOSTN6 (v)
HOSTN5 (p)
HOSTN3 (p)
Deviator stress q : kPa
TCNA
Deviator stress q : kPa

150
HOSTN1 (p) Prestrained (prestrained)
200

100

100
TEST6
50 (virgin)
Virgin

0 0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
Axial strain (εv)LDT: % Axial strain (εv)LDT: %
(b) (b)

20 10
Deviator stress increment ∆q : kPa

HOSTN6 (v)
HOSTN5 (p) TEST6 (virgin)
8
HOSTN3 (p)
Deviator stress q : kPa

15
HOSTN1 (p)
1
6
E0 5 406 MPa
10
U
4

5 TCNA (prestrained)
R
2
U: start of unloading
R: start of reloading
0 0
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020
Axial strain (εv)LDT: % Axial strain (εv)LDT: %
(c) (c)

Fig. 2. CD TC test results, Hostun sand Fig. 3. CD TC test results, well-graded crushed gravel
(Nerima)

been cyclically prestrained under drained condi-


tions, are presented in Fig. 2. The cyclic pre- 40 000 cycles respectively of axial stress between
straining (CP) was applied symmetrically about an 78´4 and 196 kPa, with a single-amplitude axial
isotropic or anisotropic neutral stress state after strain at the residual condition (åv )SA equal to
isotropic consolidation. Specimens HOSTN5 and about 0´03%, until the residual axial strains (åv )res
HOSTN3, which had been isotropically consoli- became 0´98% and 0´1% respectively at the end of
dated to 78´4 kPa, were subjected to 65 000 and CP. Specimen HOSTN1 was subjected to CP at

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MODELLING NON-LINEAR DEFORMATION PROPERTIES 567
700 10

Volumetric strain
εvol: %
Dam-core material (CD)
600 qmax 5 527 kPa Sagamihara soft mudstone (CD)
qmax 5 499 kPa σh′ (5in situ σv′) 5 0.7 MPa
Deviator stress q : kPa

500 8

Deviator stress q : kPa


400 q (prestrained) σh′ 5 98 kPa
300 6
q (virgin) LDT
200 εvol (prestrained) 20.2
100 20.1 4
External
0 0.0
εvol (virgin)
0.1 2
qmax 5 6.32 MPa
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
E0 5 2520 MPa
Axial strain εv: % (external)
0
(a)
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Axial strain εv: %
300 (a)

250
Deviator stress q : kPa

Prestrained 2.0
200

150
1.5
Deviator stress q : kPa

Virgin
100

50 1.0 LDT

0 External
0 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20
0.5
Axial strain εv: % (LDT)
(b)

0.0
10 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
Axial strain εv: %
(b)
Deviator stress q: kPa

8
Prestrained
E0 5 506 MPa
6 0.06

4
Deviator stress q : kPa

2 E0 5 435 MPa
Virgin 0.04

0 LDT
0 0.0004 0.0008 0.0012 0.0016 0.0020
Axial strain εv: % (LDT)
(c) 0.02
E0 5 2520 MPa
1
Fig. 4. CD TC test results, undisturbed dam-core
material
0.00
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020

three stages: CP-1 (ó v 9 ˆ 78:4ÿ196 kPa, 25 000 Axial strain (εv)LDT: %


(c)
cycles of CP, (åv )SA about 0´03% and (åv )res ˆ
0:23%), CP-2 (ó v 9 ˆ 39:2ÿ196 kPa, 30 000 cycles
of CP, (åv )SA about 0´06% and (åv )res ˆ ÿ0:08%) Fig. 5. CD TC test results, Sagamihara soft mudstone
and CP-3 (ó v 9 ˆ 24:5ÿ132:3 kPa, 120 000 cycles
of CP, (åv )SA about 0´05% and (åv )res ˆ ÿ0:01%).
In Fig. 2(a), axial strains åv measured with a
The following features may be noted.
proximeter are used after approximately åv ˆ
1:5%, where the LDTs stopped functioning. In (a) For specimens HOSTN3 and HOSTN5, which
Fig. 2(c) for comparison purposes, these relation- had experienced CP entirely on the TC side,
ships have been plotted after shifting to a common the stress±strain relations exhibit a noticeable
origin. S-shape (Fig. 2(b)).

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568 KOHATA, TATSUOKA, WANG, JIANG, HOQUE AND KODAKA

1200 12
Cement-treated sandy soil (dry) (CD) Sedimentary soft sandstone (Kobe formation)
σh′ 5 196 kPa 10 σh′ 5 0.51 MPa (CD)
1000

Deviator stress q : MPa


Deviator stress q : kPa

LDT External
800 8

600 6
LDT

400 Displacement of 4
loading piston
External
200 Proximeter 2
qmax 5 9.39 MPa, E0 5 1520 MPa
0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0 1 2 3
Axial strain εv: % Axial strain εv: %
(a) (a)

600 0.8

Deviator stress q : MPa


0.6
Deviator stress q : kPa

LDT
400

LDT
0.4

200
Proximeter External
0.2

0 0.0 .
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0 00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
Axial strain εv: % Axial strain εv: %
(b) (b)

200 0.04

150 U2
Deviator stress q : MPa
Deviator stress q : kPa

1 0.03
E0 5 1980 MPa

100 0.02
(Start of reloading)
R1

50 0.01
R2 E0 5 1520 MPa
U1 (Start of unloading) 1
0 0.00
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020
Axial strain (εv)LDT: % Axial strain (εv)LDT: %
(c) (c)

Fig. 6. CD TC test results, cement-treated sandy soil Fig. 7. CD TC test results, sedimentary soft silt-to-
(dry type) sandstone (Kobe formation)

(b) Owing to the effects of CP, the linear range in intermediate strain levels during monotonic
the stress±strain relations increased up to loading (Fig. 2(a)). This result is considered to
about åv ˆ 0:01% (Fig. 2(c)). be due to the effect of CP-3, during which the
(c) Specimen HOSTN1 exhibits a softer response specimen came close to the failure state in
than that of the virgin specimen (HOSTN6) at triaxial extension.

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MODELLING NON-LINEAR DEFORMATION PROPERTIES 569
Figures 3(a)±(c) compare the results from the eral directions alternately at 108 stress points for a
CD TC tests on the virgin specimen (TEST6) and range of ó h 9 of 49±441 kPa and a range of ó v 9=ó h 9
the prestrained specimen (TCNA) for Nerima of 0´5±2´2. The single amplitude of axial strain in
gravel. For the virgin specimen, the behaviour is the `vertical' cyclic loading tests and that of lateral
recoverable up to åv of about 0´001% (Fig. 3(c)). strain in the `horizontal' cyclic loading tests was
The cyclically prestrained specimen had been about 0´002%. The numbers of cycles at each stress
subjected to cyclic loading in the axial and lat- point were 6 and 3 respectively in the vertical and

1000
m
Toyoura sand 0.49
SLB sand 0.47
Ticino sand 0.53
Hostun sand 0.47
Hime gravel 0.51
E e/f (e) (5E0/f (e)): MPa

Nerima gravel 0.52


Chiba gravel 0.52
Nagoya gravel 0.57

100

0.01 0.1 1
σv′ 5 σh′: MPa
(a)

Sedimentary soft mudstone Sedimentary soft siltstone


Sagamihara site (m 5 0.0) Tokoname formation (m 5 0.15)



Tsunashima site (m 5 0.0)  Kannonzaki site (m 5 0.22)
 Rainbow Bridge site (m 5 0.0) Sedimentary soft silt-to-sandstone
 Negishi site (m 5 0.11) 

Uraga site (m 5 0.46)
Napolitan fine-grained tuff (m 5 0.0)  Kobe formation (m 5 0.73)
Napolitan yellow tuff (m 5 0.0) Weathered granite (m 5 0.80)
10 000

1000
E e(5E0): MPa

100

10
0.01 0.1 1 5
σv′ 5 σh′: MPa
(b)

Fig. 8. Summary of the relationships between the elastic Young's modulus


E0 and the con®ning pressure óh 9: (a) uncemented granular geomaterials;
(b) cemented geomaterials (sedimentary soft rocks)

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570 KOHATA, TATSUOKA, WANG, JIANG, HOQUE AND KODAKA

horizontal cyclic loading tests. The total numbers of E0 for each type of geomaterial can be expressed
cycles were 648 in the vertical cyclic loading tests as
and 324 in the horizontal cyclic tests. It is seen that
the stress±strain relation of the CP specimen is S- E0 ˆ Có v 9 m (1)
shaped (Figs 3(a) and (b)) and it has a larger linear It may be seen from Fig. 8(b) that the stiff-
initial part (Fig. 3(c)), similar to the case of Hostun nesses of the sedimentary soft mudstones and
sand. The peak strength of the CP specimen is siltstones are independent of pressure change (i.e.
considerably larger than that of the virgin specimen. m ˆ 0), while those of the sedimentary silt-to-
This difference is caused partly by the difference in sandstone and the weathered granite are as sensitive
void ratio and partly by the effects of the CP and to pressure as the granular materials. The values of
overconsolidation. the power m for the granular materials are similar
The stress±strain relations from the TC tests at to each other and nearly equal to 0´5. A power
ó h 9 ˆ 98 kPa of the undisturbed dam-core samples m ˆ 0:5 for dry Hostun sand was also reported by
are shown in Figs 4(a)±(c). The CP specimen had Hicher (1996). It was also found that for sedimen-
been consolidated anisotropically to a stress state tary soft rocks having similar geological ages, the
of ó v 9 ˆ 196 kPa and ó h 9 ˆ 98 kPa, followed by value of the power m increases with an increase in
10 000 cycles of drained cyclic loading with (åv )SA the mean diameter D50, in contrast to nearly no
about 0´02%. As a result of the relatively large dependence of m on D50 for the uncemented
amount of CP, the E0 value increased slightly, granular materials (Fig. 9; the symbols for the
while the linearity increased noticeably and the uncemented granular materials are the same as
stress±strain relation became S-shaped. those used in Fig. 8(a)). It is considered that for
It has been shown above that the stress±strain similar geological ages, cementation becomes
relations of sand and gravel can become S-shaped weaker as the particle size increases.
as a result of cyclic prestraining. Similar but more
noticeably S-shaped stress±strain relations were
obtained from CD TC tests on `virgin' specimens
of sedimentary soft silt-to-sandstone of the Kobe STRESS-SYSTEM-INDUCED ANISOTROPY OF
formation (Fig. 7). ELASTIC YOUNG'S MODULUS
The elastic Young's modulus Eeq increases with Figure 10 shows the Young's moduli Ev and Eh
an increase in the axial stress; this is more or less de®ned for major elastic principal strain incre-
re¯ected in the Etan value. It is considered that in ments occurring in the axial and lateral directions
the tests on sand, gravel and soft rock which respectively, plotted against the axial stress ó v 9 and
exhibited the increasing Etan type of stress±strain the horizontal stress ó h 9 for a well-graded crushed
relation, this effect of the increase in Eeq over- sandstone gravel (Nerima gravel). Similar results
whelmed the effect of increasing plastic strain for Chiba gravel have been reported by Jiang et al.
increments, resulting in an increase in the Etan (1997). The values of Ev , denoted by Eeq above,
value with an increase in q (i.e. S-shaped stress± were obtained from vertical cyclic loading tests,
strain relation). applying small cyclic axial stresses ó v 9 with a
single-amplitude axial strain of about 10ÿ5 while

PRESSURE-LEVEL-DEPENDENCE OF ELASTIC
YOUNG'S MODULUS
This feature is one of the key components of 0.8
the model. Fig. 8 summarizes the relationships
between the elastic Young's modulus E0 and the
con®ning pressure ó h 9 obtained at different iso- 0.6
Sedimentary soft rocks
Uncemented soils

tropic stress states. This type of data for cement- (1–2 million years age)
treated soils is reported in Tatsuoka et al. (1995a).
Power m

In these tests, each E0 value was obtained by TC 0.4


loading up to an åv of about 0´005% and sub-
sequent unloading, repeated at different isotropic
and anisotropic stress states using a single speci- 0.2
men. In Fig. 8(a), the E0 values have been nor-
malized by using a function f (e) ˆ (2:17 ÿ e)2 =
(1 ‡ e) (Hardin & Richart, 1963) to account for 0.0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
differences in the void ratio, which was 28% at the 50% diameter of soil particles D50: mm
largest. This void function has been found to be
relevant to cohesionless sands by a number of other Fig. 9. Dependence of power m on D50 for stiff
workers (e.g. Iwasaki et al., 1978). The values of geomaterials

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MODELLING NON-LINEAR DEFORMATION PROPERTIES 571
2000
σh′: kPa Nerima gravel
49
TC test (σh′ 5 49 kPa)


1000 98
147
Ev–σv′


196
245
294
Ev or Eh: MPa


343 σv′: kPa
392 025–108


441 049–216
074–323
Eh–σh′


098–431
123–539
147–647


100
172–755
Isotropic stress states 196–862
221–970
50
0.01 0.1 1
σv′ or σh′: MPa

Fig. 10. Relationships between Ev and óv 9 and between Eh and


óh 9, for Nerima gravel

keeping the two lateral stresses ó h 9 constant. The of ó v 9 covered at each ó h 9 value is indicated. It
values of Eh were also obtained from horizontal may be seen from Fig. 10 that Ev is a unique
cyclic loading tests in which the two lateral function of ó v 9 and independent of ó h 9, while Eh is
stresses ó h 9 were changed cyclically, with a a unique function of ó h 9 and independent of ó v 9.
small-amplitude lateral strain of about 10ÿ5 while Then, the ratio Ev =Eh becomes a function of
keeping ó v 9 constant. These cyclic loading tests ó v 9=ó h 9, as summarized in Fig. 11 for the granular
were performed at various isotropic and anisotropic materials.
stress states after having consolidated the specimen The following trends of behaviour can be noted
suf®ciently at each stress state. According to the from Fig. 11.
theory of elasticity, the following equations can be
(a) The ratio Ev =Eh at ó v 9=ó h 9 ˆ 1:0 re¯ects the
derived for the vertical and horizontal cyclic
inherent anisotropy, which is noticeably large
loading tests:
for compacted Nerima and Chiba gravels and
Ev ˆ Äó v 9=åv , ívh ˆ ÿÄåh =Äåv (2)

Eh ˆ (1 ÿ íhh )Äó h 9=Äåh , 2íhv =(1 ÿ íhh ) 4.0


Stress-system-induced
ˆ ÿÄåv =Äåh (3) anisotropy
3.5 Toyoura sand
SLB sand
The values of íhh could not be determined from Ticino sand
these cyclic tests (Jiang et al., 1997). In the pre- 3.0 Hime gravel
sent study, it was assumed that íhh ˆ `ívh at Chiba gravel
isotropic stress states'. Similar tests were performed 2.5
Nerima gravel
for other types of granular materials (Hoque et al.,
Ev /Eh

1996), and the values of `ívh at isotropic stress


2.0
states' were found to be 0´17, 0´10, 0´16, 0´14, 0´24
and 0´24 for Toyoura, SLB and Ticino sands, and
Inherent anisotropy
Hime, Nerima and Chiba gravels respectively. 1.5
When the values of íhh are of the same order as
these values, which are much smaller than unity, the 1.0
effects of possible errors in the values of `1 ÿ íhh '
Perfectly isotropic material
(i.e. the values of Eh based on equation 3) are 0.5
not signi®cant. For example, the ratio (1 ÿ 0:25)= 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
(1 ÿ 0:15) is 0´88. In Fig. 10, different symbols are σv′/σh′
used for Ev values measured at different ó h 9
values, while the same symbol is used for Eh Fig. 11. Stress-system-induced anisotropy for sands
values measured at each ó h 9 value and the range and gravels

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572 KOHATA, TATSUOKA, WANG, JIANG, HOQUE AND KODAKA

for subrounded SLB sand and Hime gravel, 5000


and small for air-pluviated subangular Toyoura Sedimentary soft silt-to-sandstone (CD)
Uraga site
and Ticino sands. These values of Ev =Eh at
ó v 9=ó h 9 ˆ 1:0 are affected by the assumption
regarding the íhh values. To con®rm the in-
herent anisotropy observed in this study, more

Ev: MPa
1000 Isotropic stress state
σh′: kPa
sophisticated tests, where only one horizontal 98
stress component ó h 9 is changed while keeping 294
the other horizontal component ó h 9 and the 490
vertical component ó v 9 constant (i.e. true tri- 784
1176
axial tests) will be required. 1568
(b) Ev =Eh increases as ó v 9=ó h 9 increases, for all 1960
the materials. The stress-system-induced aniso- 100
0.1 1 5
tropy of the elastic deformation properties of σv′: MPa
sand as shown above has been discussed by (a)
many other researchers (Jamiolkowski et al.,
1991; Lo Presti & O'Neill, 1991; Stokoe et al.,
1991; Tatsuoka & Kohata, 1995). For the 5000
testing conditions in the present study, cross- Sedimentary soft silt-to-sandstone (CD)
anisotropic elasticity is a realistic model for Uraga site
the materials. σv′: kPa
98
The stress-state dependence of the stiffness of 294
Ev: MPa

1000
sedimentary soft silt-to-sandstone was examined by 490
measuring the values of elastic modulus Ev after 784
suf®cient consolidation at each isotropic or aniso- 1176
1568
tropic stress state (only under TC stress condi- 1960
tions), using a single specimen with a con®ning 2352
pressure up to 1960 kPa and an axial stress up to 2744
3136 kPa. It may be seen from Fig. 12 that the 100
3136
values of Ev are controlled by ó v 9 to a much 0.1 1 5
larger extent than they are by ó h 9, particularly at σh′: MPa
low pressure levels. These results suggests that the (b)
elastic properties of sedimentary soft rock also
become anisotropic at anisotropic stress states. Fig. 12. Stress-system-induced anisotropy for sedimen-
Correspondingly, the elastic modulus Ev of tary soft silt-to-sandstone, Uraga site: (a) Ev ÿóv 9
sand and gravel increases as the axial stress ó v 9 relations; (b) Ev ÿóh 9 relations

400
L (B)
Hostun sand
U (B) L: loading; U: unloading
L (A) B: before CP; A: after CP
U (A)

Triaxial
compression
E e/f (e): MPa

200 Isotropic stress states


(virgin specimen)

Elastic parameters
Loading Unloading
E1: MPa m E1: MPa m
σh′ 5 78.4 kPa
Before CP 193 0.43 206 0.48
After CP 184 0.78 188 0.80
100
0.1 0.2
σv′ MPa

Fig. 13. Relationships between Ee =f (e) and óv 9 along the CP


stress path for Hostun sand

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MODELLING NON-LINEAR DEFORMATION PROPERTIES 573
increases during triaxial compression (TC) at a 10 000
constant ó h 9 (Hoque et al., 1996; Jiang et al., Dam-core material (CD)
1997). It may be seen from Fig. 13 that for Hostun
(σv′/σh′)c
sand (test HOSTN3, Fig. 2), the Eeq values E0
C-3  .
measured during the ®rst cycle of loading and m 5 0.62

E0 or Eeq: MPa
 2 0
C-4 
unloading in TC at a constant ó h 9 (78´4 kPa)
change as the axial stress ó v 9 changes in the same 1000

way as they do at isotropic stress states. This is also


the case with the Ev values measured after a large
number of cyclic loads with the same axial stress Eeq during TC; (σv′/σh′)c 5 1
amplitude, but the power m has increased notice- Virgin
Start of TC Prestrained
ably, owing to the effects of cyclic prestraining. 100
Figure 14 shows the pressure-level dependence 0.05 0.1 1 5
of E0 and Ev (ˆ Eeq ) for uncemented soils and σv′: MPa
cemented soil. Note that (ó v 9=ó h 9)c is the con- (a)
solidated stress ratio. The E0 values were obtained
after suf®cient consolidation, either at different
anisotropic stress states of (ó v 9=ó h 9)c ˆ 2:0 (Fig.
50 000
Sedimentary soft silt-to-sandstone (CD)
14(a)) or at isotropic stress states (Figs 14(b)) and (Kobe formation)
(c)). The Eeq values were measured by applying E0
10 000
small unload=reload cycles during monotonic TC
E0 or Eeq: MPa
 at istropic  m 5 0.70
shear to failure. It is seen from Fig. 14 that the  stress states 

values of Ev (ˆ Eeq ) of both the dam-core material


(Fig. 14(a)) and the sedimentary soft silt-to-
sandstone (Fig. 14(b)) increase noticeably with 1000
σh′ (MPa)
ó v 9 during TC, as do the E0 values. However, the
rate of increase of Eeq with an increase of ó v 9 Eeq during

TC 
0.51
0.98
during TC is smaller than that of E0 . On the other 

hand, the E0 value of the arti®cially cemented 100


0.1
material (Fig. 14(c)) does not increase with ó v 9 at 1 10

isotropic stress states, while the Ev value decreases σv′: MPa


(b)
with increasing ó v 9 during TC. The observations
described above could be considered to be due
to both damage to the microstructure by shear 10 000
straining and creep deformation during TC. That is, Cement-treated sandy soil (CD)
a sort of microstructure should have been formed E0 (at isotropic stress states)
by heavy compaction of Nerima gravel. For the
dam-core material, some microstructure should m 5 0.0
E0 or Eeq: MPa

have been formed in the dam core during heavy


compaction and by ageing effects during the 1000
subsequent long period of time, and also to some
σh′: kPa
extent by cyclic prestraining in the laboratory.
Natural and arti®cial cementation of sedimentary  49
Eeq during TC  98
silt-to-sandstone and CTSS-dry material, which do  196
not have very strong cementation, are also damaged
by shearing. 100
0.01 0.1 1
σv′: MPa
(c)
COMPARISON OF G0 AND Gf FOR CEMENTED
GEOMATERIALS
Fig. 14. Pressure level dependence of E0 at isotropic
It is very convenient when the elastic deforma-
stress states and of Eeq during TC: (a) dam-core
tion modulus E0 or G0 ˆ E0 =2(1 ‡ í) can be esti- material; (b) sedimentary soft silt-to-sandstone; (c)
mated from the ®eld shear wave velocity Vs. It has cement-treated sandy soil (dry type)
been shown that the G0 values of high-quality sand
samples measured by TC tests are very similar to
the respective ®eld values Gf ˆ rVs 2 (Tokimatsu & obtained from TC tests with the respective values
Hosaka, 1986), and this is also the case with stiff of Gf from ®eld seismic surveys, for cemented
clays (Tatsuoka et al., 1995a, 1995b). geomaterials and stiff Pleistocene clays. In this
Figure 15 compares the elastic shear moduli G0 comparison, some effects of anisotropy on the G0

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574 KOHATA, TATSUOKA, WANG, JIANG, HOQUE AND KODAKA

Sedimentary soft rock formation Cement-treated soil the respective Gf values. This result also indicates
Kazusa Kobe Sagara Miura Uraga Slurry Dry DMM that Gf and Ef represent the elastic shear and
RCT Young's moduli of the geomaterial in the ®eld;
BS 1 DC
they can be used in evaluating ground movements
5000
and structure displacements when the ground is
Local axial strain measurements
subjected to static and dynamic loads, taking into
account the effects of inherent and stress-system-
1000 induced anisotropy, non-linear effects and viscous
Range for soft rocks and effects, among others.
Cement-treated soils
G0: MPa

(BS 1 DC) and clays

MODELLING OF NON-LINEAR DEFORMATION


PROPERTIES
100 The model presented below is based on the
Pleistocene clay site following two types of non-linearity: non-linearity
Tokyo Osaka OAP Suginami due to pressure change, which is modelled through
Bay Bay the dependence of the elastic Young's moduli on
)
:1

)
(1

pressure as described above, and non-linearity due


:2

TS
(1

BS
10 to shear straining. The second part will be dis-
10 100 1000 5000 cussed ®rst.
Gf: MPa

Fig. 15. Summary of relations between G0 and Gf for Dependence of stiffness on shear strain or shear
cemented geomaterials (data for sedimentary soft stress level
rocks of Sagara, Miura and Uraga groups from A plot of the secant Young's modulus Esec
Tatsuoka et al., 1995a); BS, block sampling; DC, against axial strain åv has been the most popular
direct coring; DMM, deep mixing method; RCT, method to represent the strain non-linearity of the
rotary coring; TS; ®xed-piston thin-wall sampling; stiffness of geomaterials. However, Esec is not
OAP; Osaka Amenity Park in Osaka City unique, but is controlled by the stress state at the
start of the loading or the de®nition of the origin
for the axial strain åv . As the value of Etan is not
and Gf values may be involved. Sedimentary soft affected by the de®nition of the origin for åv, the
mudstone of the Kazusa group at Sagamihara relationship between Etan and åv obtained by TC
exhibited only slight inherent anisotropy (Tatsuoka tests, for Hostun sands and Nerima gravel, is
et al., 1997), and the effects of stress-system- plotted in Figs 16(a) and (b). However, the åv
induced anisotropy would also be very small, value depends on the de®nition of the origin for åv.
considering that the power m is nearly zero (Fig. One of the other, more general, methods of pre-
8(b)). Because of scatter among the data, however, sentation would be the Etan against q=qmax plot, as
it is dif®cult to evaluate the possible effects of shown in Fig. 17. This relation is much more
anisotropy on the G0 and Gf values. In Fig. 15, independent of the de®nition of the origin of åv . In
`DMM' refers to the deep mixing method by this ®gure, the values of Eeq (ˆ Ev ) measured
which a clay deposit can be improved by being during TC are also shown. Also plotted against
mixed with cement slurry at a large depth. The q=qmax is the Young's modulus Ee de®ned for
values of G0 were evaluated from the respective elastic axial strain increments measured at undam-
E0 values obtained from local axial strains, by aged elastic states (i.e. at isotropic stress states),
using an appropriate value of Poisson's ratio. Each given as
data point represents the average value of several Ee ˆ E0 (ó v 9=(ó v 9)0 ) m (4)
G0 values obtained from a set of TC tests for a
similar condition, plotted against the equivalent where ó v 9 and (ó v 9)0 are the axial stresses during
value of Gf . For both the cemented materials and and at the start of TC, and E0 is the value of the
the clays, the values of G0 are generally close to undamaged Young's modulus Ee measured at the
the respective values of Gf . However, the values of start of TC. It is known that the structure of
G0 from TC tests using samples of cemented geomaterials can be damaged by large plastic
materials obtained by rotary core tube sampling strains associated with isotropic compression up to
(RCT) showed a large scatter; some of the values relatively large pressures. It is assumed here that the
are noticeably lower than the respective Gf values. effect of this damage is insigni®cant within the
In contrast, the values of G0 of the least-disturbed range of pressure involved in these tests. It may be
samples, obtained by block sampling (BS) and noted that the rate of increase of Eeq with q=qmax
direct sampling (DS), are generally much closer to is similar to the one that is obtained from equation

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MODELLING NON-LINEAR DEFORMATION PROPERTIES 575
400 peculiar, and it is dif®cult to model this behaviour
HOSTN1 (p) in a uni®ed manner together with that of the virgin
σh′ 5 78.4 kPa HOSTN3 (p) specimens. An attempt has been made to model
300 HOSTN5 (p) the very different patterns of behaviour shown
HOSTN5 (v) above for a wide variety of stiff geomaterials
having different stress±time histories, on the basis
Etan: MPa

p: prestrained
200 v: virgin of the elastic deformation characteristics, intro-
ducing the damage function f (SL), the plasticity
function g(SL) and the combined function h(SL)
100 ˆ f (SL) g(SL) (Fig. 18) (Kohata et al., 1994;
Tatsuoka & Kohata, 1995). The function h(SL)
represents the total non-linearity of Etan caused by
0
0.001 0.01 0 .1 1 10
shear deformation.
Axial strain εv: %
The relationship between the ratio Eeq =Ee and
(a) the stress ratio SL ˆ q=qmax could be called the
damage function f. The ratio Eeq =Ee is equal to
1´0 at SL ˆ 0 and decreases with SL. As the ratio
500
Etan =Eeq represents the ratio of elastic axial strain
Nerima gravel σh′ 5 49 kPa increment dåv e to total axial strain increment dåv t ,
400 the relationship between Etan =Eeq and SL could be
Virgin
TEST6
called the plasticity function g. The ratio Etan =Eeq
300 TCNA is always less than unity and decreases continu-
Etan: MPa

ously with SL, from 1´0 at SL ˆ 0´0. The ratio


Prestrained Etan =Ee is equal to (Etan =Eeq )(Eeq =Ee ), thus the
200
function h representing the relationship between
Etan =Ee and SL is a combination of the damage
100 function f and the plasticity function g. The re-
lationships between Eeq =Ee , Etan =Ee and SL are
0 shown in Fig. 19. The Etan =Ee against SL relations
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 for the cyclically prestrained specimens of Hostun
Axial strain εv: % sand, Nerima gravel and the dam-core material are
(b) different from those for the respective virgin
specimens. Yet, the functions h for the virgin and
Fig. 16. Relationships between Etan and log åv : (a) prestrained specimens have a similar feature in that
Hostun sand; (b) Nerima gravel the ratio Etan =Ee decreases with SL, from 1´0 at
SL ˆ 0´0. Therefore, they could be modelled by
similar equations, taking into account the effects
(4) for Hostun sand (Fig. 17(a)) and Sagamihara of strain history. When the function h (i.e. the
soft mudstone (Fig. 17(d)). However, Eeq becomes Etan =Ee ÿq=qmax relation) is known, the relationship
smaller than Ee as q=qmax increases, for Nerima between Etan and SL ˆ q=qmax can be obtained by
gravel (Fig. 17(b)), the dam-core material (Fig. knowing the Ee value. The value of Ee at a certain
17(c)), cement-treated sandy soil (Fig. 17(e)) and ó v 9 can be obtained by using the relationship
Kobe sandstone (Fig. 17(f )). The reason for this Ee ˆ Ef (ó v 9=(ó v 9)0 ) m , where the value of Ef is the
may be the effects on the Eeq values of damage to value measured at a certain vertical stress (ó v0 9) in
the structure by shear straining and creep during the ®eld. The power m could be evaluated by
TC, as discussed in relation to Fig. 14. On the other relevant laboratory tests. To obtain the value of m
hand, as seen from Fig. 17(d), the effects of damage in a ®rst approximation, the relationships shown in
are not noticeable on the Eeq values of well- Fig. 8 can be referred to.
cemented sedimentary soft mudstone from Sagami- It may be noted from Fig. 19 that the rate of
hara. Note that this mudstone showed a negligible decrease of Etan =Ee with SL still varies greatly
pressure dependence of E0 at isotropic stress states among different types of geomaterial having dif-
(i.e. m ˆ 0:0). ferent degrees of cementation and different strain
histories. It may also be noted that, generally, a
cemented material which exhibits a larger rate of
Modelling decrease of Eeq =Ee with SL shows a larger rate of
The relations shown in Fig. 17 depend greatly decrease of Etan =Ee . Fig. 20(a) shows the relation-
on the type of geomaterial. Furthermore, as can be ships between f (SL) and g(SL) when SL is equal
seen from Figs 16 and 17, the non-linearity of Etan to 0´2 and Fig. 20(b) shows the relationships
in the cyclically prestrained specimen is very between f (SL ˆ 0:2) and the power m obtained

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576 KOHATA, TATSUOKA, WANG, JIANG, HOQUE AND KODAKA

400 1000
. Nerima gravel
Hostun sand E e 5 E0(σv′/(σv′)0)0 47
.
Eeq from HOSTN3 E e 5 E0(σv′/(σv′)0)0 52
σh′ 5 78.4 kPa 800
300 Eeq

Etan, Eeq, E e: MPa


Etan, Eeq, E e: MPa

Etan 600
HOSTN6 (v) σh′ 5 49 kPa
200
HOSTN5 (p) TCNA (prestrained)
HOSTN3 (p) 400
HOSTN1 (p) TEST6 (virgin)
100
200
Etan

0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0 .6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
q /qmax q /qmax
(a) (b)

1000 4000
Dam-core material (CD) σh′ 5 98 kPa Sagamihara soft mudstone (CD)
800 0.62
E 5 E0(σv′/(σv′)0)
e
3000
E e (constant)
Etan, Eeq, E e: MPa

Etan, Eeq, E e: MPa

600
Eeq Eeq
2000
400
Virgin Prestrained Etan
1000
200
Etan (q /qmax)max σh′ 5 0.7 MPa

0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0 .6 0.8 1 .0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
q /qmax q /qmax
(c) (d)

3000 8000
Cement-treated sandy soil (CD) Sedimentary soft silt-to-sandstone (CD)
σh′: kPa Ee 5 E 0
G F (Kobe formation)
.
6000 (σv′/(σv′)0)
0 73
E e (constant) 49
G
98
Etan, Eeq, E e: MPa

Etan, Eeq, E e: MPa

2000 Eeq
196
Eeq σh′: MPa
F F 0.98
4000
G 0.51

1000 G
Etan 2000 Etan

F
0 0.
0.0 0.2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8 1.0 00 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
q /qmax q /qmax
(e) (f)

Fig. 17. Relationships between Etan , Eeq , Ee and q=qmax obtained from CD TC tests: (a) Hostun sand; (b) Nerima
gravel; (c) undisturbed dam-core material; (d) Sagamihara soft mudstone; (e) cement-treated sandy soil (dry type);
(f) sedimentary soft silt-to-sandstone (Kobe formation)

from the TC tests on the cemented materials, where effect of damage, exhibiting a lower value of
the con®ning pressure ranged from 0´1 MPa to f (SL ˆ 0:2), shows more non-linearity by plastic
1´96 MPa. The general trend seen from Fig. 20(a) is shear straining, with a lower value of g(SL ˆ 0:2).
that a cemented material which is prone to the It may be seen from Fig. 20(b) that a material

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MODELLING NON-LINEAR DEFORMATION PROPERTIES 577

σv
case, modelling based on elastic deformation char-
e acteristics is more relevant.
The values of f and g at SL ˆ 0:2 for the dam-
(εv )undamaged
A
(εve)damaged core material are also plotted in Fig. 20(a), and the
values of f at SL ˆ 0:2 and m are shown in Fig.
f (SL) g(SL) 20(b). It may be seen that these data points are
εvt located in the same zones as the soft rocks,
indicating that the mechanism of non-linearity is
E e at SL
SL similar for cemented materials (i.e. soft rocks) and
structured uncemented materials (i.e. dam-core ma-
terial).
Etan at SL
On the other hand, for less-structured uncemen-
ted materials (sands and gravels), the decrease in
Eeq at SL g ˆ Etan =Eeq with SL is much larger than the de-
(σv)0 crease in f ˆ Eeq =Ee with SL, as shown in Fig. 21.
0 εv This means that non-linearity by shear deformation,
which is re¯ected in h ˆ Etan =Ee , is mainly due
to the occurrence of plastic deformation, which is
E e (σv)0 re¯ected in g ˆ Etan =Eeq , but not due to destruc-
turation or damage to cementation, which is
re¯ected in f ˆ Eeq =Ee .
In this paper, Poisson's ratio at small strains has
E
Eeq 5 E ef (SL)
not been discussed because only a limited amount
of data for stiff geomaterials is available (e.g.
Etan 5 Eeqg(SL)
Hoque et al., 1996; Jiang et al., 1997; Hayano et
Etan 5 E eh(SL) al., 1997).

0 SL 5 q /qmax 1.0
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions were derived from
the results of triaxial compression tests on rela-
tively stiff geomaterials.
1.0 f (SL)
(a) The deformation at strains less than about
0´001% was nearly recoverable. The initial
elastic Young's modulus E0 from laboratory
tests using high-quality, undisturbed samples
g(SL) was very similar to the value obtained from
®eld seismic surveys. This result suggests that
h(SL)
®eld seismic surveys are very useful in
0
0 1.0 evaluating the full-scale deformation of ground
SL and the displacement of structures.
(b) For the granular materials, the elastic Young's
Fig. 18. Schematic illustration of the damage function modulus de®ned for the major elastic strain
f (SL) ˆ Eeq =Ee , the plasticity function g(SL) ˆ Etan = increments in the axial direction was a unique
Eeq and the combined function h(SL) ˆ f (SL)g(SL) function of the axial stress, while that de®ned
for strain increments in the lateral direction
was a unique function of the lateral stress.
That is, the elastic deformation characteristics
which has a higher value of m exhibits lower values of granular materials become anisotropic at
of f (SL ˆ 0:2). All these results indicate that for anisotropic stress states. Because of this fea-
cemented materials, the effects of pressure level on ture, for a material having a noticeably stress-
the elastic modulus and non-linearity by shear dependent elastic Young's modulus, the
deformation, which consist of the effect of damage Young's modulus de®ned for elastic axial strain
and the occurrence of plastic deformation, become increments increased noticeably as the axial
more important as the degree of cementation stress increased during triaxial compression.
decreases. On the other hand, when g ˆ Etan =Eeq (c) For small strains occurring in a given stiff
is closer to unity, elastic strain increments are more geomaterial, a recoverable strain increment
dominant than plastic strain increments. In such a dåv e is the major component of the total strain

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578 KOHATA, TATSUOKA, WANG, JIANG, HOQUE AND KODAKA

increment dåv t . In such a case, the tangent On the basis of the facts described above, a
Young's modulus Etan de®ned for dåv t could be model for the non-linear tangent Young's moduli
linked to the elastic Young's modulus evaluated Etan has been proposed, which consists of functions
at the stress state where the Etan value was representing the pressure-level dependence of the
obtained. elastic Young's modulus, the damage to the elastic

1.5 1.5
Hostun sand (CD) Nerima gravel
σh′ 5 78.4 kPa Eeq/E e 5 f (SL) σh′ 5 49 kPa
HOSTN3 (p)

Eeq/E e or Etan/E e
Eeq/E e or Etan/E e

1.0 1.0
Etan/E e 5 h(SL) Eeq/E e 5 f (SL)

HOSTN6 (v)
HOSTN5 (p)
HOSTN3 (p) 0.5
0.5 TEST6 (virgin)
HOSTN1 (p) TCNA (prestrained)
Etan/E e 5 h(SL)

0.0 . 0.0
00 0.2 0 .4 0 .6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
SL 5 q /qmax SL 5 q /qmax
(a) (b)

1.5 1.5
Dam-core material (CD) Sagamihara soft mudstone (CD)
σh′ 5 98 kPa σh′ 5 0.7 MPa
Eeq/E e or Etan/E e

Eeq/E e or Etan/E e

1.0 1.0
Eeq/E e 5 f (SL)
Eeq/E e 5 f (SL)

0.5 0.5 Etan/E e 5 h(SL)


Virgin
Prestrained

SLmax Etan/E e 5 h(SL)


0.0 . 0.0 .
00 0.2 0 .4 0 .6 0.8 1.0 00 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
SL 5 q /qmax SL 5 q /qmax
(c) (d)

1.5 1.5
Cement-treated sandy soil (CD) Sedimentary soft silt-to-sandstone (CD)
σh′: MPa (Kobe formation)
0.98
.
0 51
Eeq/E e or Etan/E e
Eeq/E e or Etan/E e

1.0 1.0
e
Eeq/E 5 f (SL)
Eeq/E e 5 f (SL)

0.5 0.5
σh′: kPa
Etan/E e 5 h(SL)
49
98 Etan/E e 5 h(SL)
196
0.0 0.0 .
0.0 0.2 0 .4 0.6 0 .8 1 .0 00 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
SL 5 q /qmax SL 5 q /qmax
(e) (f)

Fig. 19. Relationships between f (SL), h(SL) and shear stress level SL ˆ q=qmax : (a) Hostun sand; (b) Nerima
gravel; (c) undisturbed dam-core material; (d) Sagamihara soft mudstone; (e) cement-treated sandy soil (dry type);
(f) sedimentary soft silt-to-sandstone (Kobe formation)

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MODELLING NON-LINEAR DEFORMATION PROPERTIES 579
Sedimentary soft mudstone Sedimentary soft siltstone Young's modulus and the ratio of the elastic to the



Sagamihara site
Tsunashima site



Tokoname formation
Kannonzaki site
plastic strain increments.
Napolitan fine-grained tuff Sedimentary soft silt-to-sandstone
Napolitan yellow tuff  Uraga site

 Kobe formation
Weathered granite (SL 5 0.15) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
1.5 All the tests presented in this paper were
Soft rocks SL 5 0.2 performed at the Institute of Industrial Science,
University of Tokyo. Hostun sand was provided by
Damage function f (5Eeq/E e)

Professor H. Di Benedetto of the Ecole Nationale


1.0
des Travaux Publics de l'Etat, Lyon, France. The
authors are indebted to their colleague Mr T. Sato
for his continuous support given to the experi-
0.5 mental work. Ms M. Torimitsu is also appreciated
for her help in preparing the manuscript.
Dam-core material
 Prestrained

 Virgin
0.0 .
00 0.5 1.0 1.5
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