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Abstract
An overall rational methodology for open stope planning process is detailed. The basic input consists of an
orebody delineation and rock mass characterization stage followed by a selection of the stoping method and
an estimate of the likely loading conditions from the mining sequences. The process requires two design
stages. The global design issues are relevant and applicable within entire areas of a mine, such an extension
of an existing orebody, while detailed design issues are applicable to the extraction of individual stopes.
Finally, a monitoring and back analysis strategy that allows a documented closure of the mine design loop is
presented.
1 Introduction
Mine planning is an engineering process encompassing all major technical functions undertaken in sublevel
stoping with the key performance indicators being safety, dilution control, recovery, productivity and cost
criteria. Mine planning provides the means for a safe, efficient, continuous and economic recovery of ore
while considering the life of mine issues and their implications for short term planning and design.
Mine planning prepares and evaluates all future design and operating strategies. Parameters such as of ore
reserve estimation, overall sequences of extraction, dimensioning of regional pillars and sublevel intervals,
design of ore haulage systems, backfill and ventilation systems are determined during the process. Although
it is beyond the scope of this paper to review such topics in detail, the geotechnical aspects of the process
from orebody delineation to stope extraction are briefly discussed.
The approach suggested here requires the interaction among geology, mine planning, rock mechanics and
operating personnel throughout the entire mine planning process (Villaescusa, 1998). The overall rational
methodology for the underground mine planning process is shown below.
Table 1 Key stages within the mine planning process of open stopes
Basic Input:
An initial orebody delineation
Rockmass characterization
Mining method selection
Six key stages are identified, with the orebody delineation and rock mass characterization stages as the basic
input. The requirements consist of an early determination of rockmass properties on a block scale, followed
by a selection of the mining method and an estimate of the likely loading conditions from the mining
sequences. The process requires a global and a detailed design stage, where global design issues are relevant
and applicable within entire areas of a mine, such an extension of an existing orebody, while detailed design
issues are applicable to the extraction of individual stopes (Villaescusa, 2004). Finally, a monitoring and
back analysis strategy that allows a documented closure of the mine design loop is required.
2 Global design
Global design issues are related to the design and stability of large sections of a mine, such as a new
orebody, extensions at depth or at the abutment of an existing deposit. Global design issues are listed in
Table 2 (Villaescusa, 2004). The issues involved include global orebody delineation, mine access and
infrastructure, dimensions of sublevel intervals, backfill requirements, equipment and ventilation
considerations, etc. Stress analysis of the global production schedules are critical to determine the loading
conditions (stress and displacement) likely to result from a proposed mine-wide stoping sequence. A limited
number of geotechnical issues are briefly discussed here.
Table 2 Global (block) design issues
Area wide rock mass characterization from borehole data and direct
access
Equipment requirements
Ventilation
Figure 1 Main principal stress distribution in a stoping block using the program MAP3D
A model pre-processing must be linked to a three-dimensional model of the excavation geometries in order
to reduce mesh generation times. A link to mine scheduling is required in order to analyze the different
extraction sequencing options.
A limitation of linear elastic modelling include the inability to predict movement, fall-off or dilution from
fault or shear zones. Finite element based non linear models are required to predict a complete failure of the
rock mass and any resultant stress re-distribution from such failures (Beck et al, 2006). Progressive orebody
extraction may induce several phases of post-peak behaviour in a rock mass, and small changes to the stress
field induced by distant stope extraction may cause significant rock mass damage around the stope
boundaries.
4500 mN
5000mN
L473
M422 L47 3
a ry
70
M4
rim
4
U418 80
° U434 U43 8 °
55
V4 09
T4
V401
P41
5
V405 Y434
V43 0
W426
Filled stope Producing or empty stope Recently filled stope S che dule d stope
Figure 2 Plan view of the Mount Isa Mines 1100 orebody showing transverse pillar access
Stress re-distributions from a global stoping sequence may cause damage to transverse or regional pillars.
This damage may require rehabilitation or loss of access development through the pillar. Extension strain
cracking (Stacey, 1981) parallel to the direction of the major principal stress orientation may be experienced,
especially in rock masses exhibiting a high modulus. Consequently, an eventual recovery of transverse
pillars must be planned carefully, ideally with the initial pillar stope located in the least structured areas.
Extraction of the initial stope may allow an overall stress reduction within the pillar, as a stress shadow is
likely to be created for the adjacent transverse pillar stopes.
Damage to permanent pillars is not entirely determined by stress induced behaviour, as pre-existing
geological discontinuities can also influence the performance of a pillar. Geotechnical monitoring has linked
stoping activities and instability in concurrent extraction areas along the strike length of large fault zones
(Logan et al, 1993). The resulting behavior can be linked to induced stress relief along the structures with
increased loading and degree of freedom. Large stope blasts can transmit energy along continuous fault
zones, and fill drainage may introduce water into fault systems. As a result, production and filling strategies
must minimize stope interaction along common faults that intersect permanent pillars (Logan et al, 1993).
F 60 61 62 63 64
G
H
I
J
K
L Restricted mining
N643
M
N645
N
O
P
Q
R62 supply & ore shaft
6000 N
6500 N
R
S
No mining
Figure 3 Plan view of no mining and restricted mining pillars around the R62 shaft complex in
Mount Isa Mines
The design and monitoring of shaft pillars usually include the prediction of strain profiles as a first pass
design using numerical modelling. This is followed by physical monitoring of rock mass response to mining
in order to identify displacement on pre-existing geological discontinuities intersecting the shaft.
- 150m
- 250m
- 350m
- 600m
100m
Planned delineation drillhole
Figure 4 Long section view of crown pillar at the Kundana Gold Mine
The actual crown pillar dimension will depend upon the stress environment. Indications of high stress could
include obvious signs of mining induced stress fracturing. High stresses may also be induced in low stress
environment near the surface, due to the geometry of the orebody and the percent extraction below and
above the pillar. Numerical modelling is required to determine the stress concentration within the pillar. In
addition, if a crown pillar is situated within a stress shadow environment, consideration must also be given to
potential unravelling due to loss of clamping across the pillar. A crown pillar maybe recovered early in a
stoping life by incorporating extraction of portions of the crown pillar above each individual stope
extraction.
Table 3 indicates the recommended range of hole lengths for different drilling technology, in order to
minimize hole deviation. They represent a starting point and the results should be evaluated against local
experience.
Hole diam (mm) Burden (m) Stand-off distance (m) Drilling technology Hole depth (m)
S50 N52
Fill pass Fill pass Screening Crushing KSOC
Conveyor
2468m 384m
Fill passes
(2-4m diam)
13C Sub
530-560
15 Level
530
545
522
538
515
500
492
507
484
476
469
461
454
446
19 Level
Figure 6 Schematic of fill distribution system at Mount Isa Mines (Bloss, 1996)
3 Detailed design
Detailed design is related to the extraction of individual stopes within a global area (Villaescusa 1998, 2004).
Detailed design is the process of establishing an optimum extraction method for an individual stope, subject
to a number of variables and constraints. Blasthole geometry, firing sequence, ground support, ventilation
and economics are some of the key variables considered. The constraints include the orebody boundaries, the
geological structures, any existing development, and in some cases, any adjacent backfill masses.
Figure 7 shows a typical process for taking an open stope from conceptual design through to production. The
detailed design process begins when a geological team undertakes detailed orebody delineation for a
particular stope extraction. In-fill delineation drilling, mapping, sampling and geological interpretations on a
stope scale are then completed. The mine planning engineer uses geological sections from a mine design
package to do a preliminary stope design, while the rock mechanics engineer completes a rock mass
characterization program, providing guidelines for dilution control, reinforcement and blast sequencing.
Geological considerations such as the presence of major geological discontinuities often influence the
blasting sequences. Other factors considered are the stress re-distributions within and around a stope and
likely to control fall-off behavior on the exposed walls. In addition, the retreat direction of the blasthole rings
must take into account the stope ventilation network, with a retreat direction into fresh air. A stope design
note covering many aspects involved in the development and production of a stope has been described in
detail by Villaescusa (2004).
Preliminary design
Final design
Survey pickup Development and ground support Face mapping, geological mark -up
Production drilling
Blasting, mucking
CMS survey
Filling
Reconciliation
Figure 7 A typical process for detailed stope design used at Mount Isa Mines.
Once a final stope design status has been achieved, the blasthole ring design is undertaken by considering the
production rigs that will be used, the ore limits, the survey pick-up of the access development, the extent and
sublevels of the stope, as well as the ring burden and toe spacing. The ore limits are usually updated in
accordance with the completed stope development. A scaled floor plan showing details of the latest survey
information including any vertical openings and status of surrounding stopes will be provided to assist the
drillers. Location of hangingwall, footwalls, cut-off detail and location of the main rings are also included
(Figure 8). A long section that includes a schematic view of the stope cut-off raise, the cut-off, the
production rings and the trough undercuts, is also completed. This section helps to explain the stope design
philosophy, and becomes a useful tool during drilling and blasting of the stope. Table 4 list a number of
issues that should be considered during stope design.
6750 XC
16 A 16 B
Bench limit 6730N Bench limit 6730N
6700N 6700N
11C9 SILL DRIVE
6650N 6650N
Figure 8 Floor plan of a bench stope showing cut-off slot position and main rings
Table 4 Detailed stope design checklist
Equipment needs for development including drilling, mucking, charging and ground support
Water drainage
Overall rock mass (and fill mass) stability of the area prior, during and after stope extraction
4 Stope reconciliation
Regular inspections of a producing stope are required, especially after each firing in order to monitor walls,
crown and drawpoint conditions. Any significant rock noise, fall-off or underbreak should be documented. In
addition, dilution exceeding more than 10% should be reported, so that the actual stope grade can be adjusted
accordingly. Geologist should conduct drawpoint investigations to estimate the grade of the ore being
produced. Secondary blasting of oversized rocks and hung-up drawpoints may be required. In some cases a
bomb bay may be available for stockpiling oversized rocks and undertaking secondary blasting.
Broken ore is mucked conventionally when the drawpoints are full, but it is sometimes required to remote
muck the last ore remaining in the floor of a stope, especially in large flat-bottomed stopes with retreating
drawpoints. Significant disruptions to mucking productivity can occur when excessive delays are
experienced during a stope extraction. Stopes left open over long periods of time may be influenced by time-
dependent regional fault behaviour. Stress re-distribution, production blasting and backfill drainage from
adjacent stopes are likely to influence stope stability over a period of time. Blast damage and the effects of
water from backfill can be transmitted along common fault structures intersecting a number of stopes.
Instability may create difficult remote mucking conditions due to large material falling off into the stope.
These delays (stope production tails) actually extend the stope life, which in turn may contribute to more
overbreak and more mucking delays.
The estimated cash per tonne of extraction reserves is calculated using the delineated mining reserve (tonnes
and grade), the metal prices and the extraction and dilution factors expected. The total cash profit (or loss) is
determined using a proper ore value model suited to the particular economics of a mine site. The input
factors may include tonnes mined, grades and metal prices, mining, milling, smelting, overheads and
royalties, exchanges rates, etc.
In periods of excess mining, hoisting and milling capacity the total net cash revenue can be increased by
mining marginal stopes or marginal ore within stope boundaries. Marginal ore can be included within a stope
design provided that little or no extra cost (no excessive extra development or additional reinforcement, etc.)
will be incurred. An individual stope should be extracted if it can return a positive total net cash revenue
after covering the costs of the remaining work required for extraction. Specific stopes may not make break
even but may be sufficiently advanced in terms of development, ground support, etc. to warrant a reduction
in the break even value.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to gratefully acknowledge Mount Isa Mines for their permission to publish some of the
figures presented in the paper.
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