Section 07 - Fired Heaters PDF

Section 7
FIRED HEATERS
7.00
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the session you should:
Be familiar with the basic types of furnaces and their

applications.
• Know the meaning of common furnace terms.

• Understand and be able to calculate furnace
efficiency.
• Have a basic understanding of key furnace design
concepts.
• Know where to look for more detailed information.
7.01
PROCESS ENGINEER’S FURNACE WORK
• Furnace Screening/Design -
– Grass Roots & Modifications, Check of Vendor Designs
• Rating/Troubleshooting Existing Furnaces
• Checking/Monitoring Furnace Operation

– Efficiency Calculations/Encon
– Analyzing Plant Data
• References:
– ExxonMobil Design Practices Sec. VIII
– Blue Book Section 10 - Combustion Data
– Global Practices: Sec 7-Fired Heaters; and Sec. 15-1-1 Instruments
• Computer Programs:
– 3558 Fired Heater Simulation
– 3660 Furnace Pressure Drop
7.02
FURNACE TERMINOLOGY
Horizontal Tube, Box Heater
Vertical
Cylindrical
Heater
JOHN
ZINK (Can or
CO. Cylindrical
Updraft)
7.03
STACK
FURNACE
TERMINOLOGY
CONVECTION Vertical Cylindrical Heater
SECTION
(Cylindrical Updraft)
BRIDGEWALL
AREA (ARCH)
TUBE CIRCLE DIAMETER
RADIANT SECTION
INSIDE REFRACTORY
7.04
STACK
FURNACE
TERMINOLOGY
SECTION
Most common type of refinery

heater.
Usually less expensive when
<100 MBtu/h (29 MW) heat
BRIDGEWALL absorption.
AREA (ARCH)

Has the smallest footprint of all
heaters
RADIANT SECTION
INSIDE REFRACTORY
7.05
FURNACE
TERMINOLOGY
Vertical Cylindrical Heater
TUBES
The cylindrical updraft
heater requires a smaller
plot area than other
BURNER BURNER heaters. It is frequently
used when plot space is
BURNER CIRCLE limited.
DIAMETER
Tubes are expanded
BURNER BURNER vertically for larger heaters
rather than horizontally on
horizontally-tubed heaters
ACCESS
DOOR
7.06
STACK
FURNACE
TERMINOLOGY
SECTION
SHOCK (SHIELD)
BANK (AT BOTTOM)
Most common type of refinery
heater.
Usually less expensive when
<100 MBtu/h (29 MW) heat
BRIDGEWALL absorption.
AREA (ARCH)

Has the smallest footprint of
all heaters
RADIANT SECTION
INSIDE REFRACTORY
7.07
PURGE STACK
STEAM
DAMPER
SAMPLE
CONNECTIONS
TUBE SHEET
FURNACE
INLET
TERMINOLOGY
SECTION
SAMPLE
TUBES
CONNECTIONS
SHOCK (SHIELD)
BANK (AT BOTTOM)
CROSSOVER Most common type of
TUBE PULLING
refinery heater.
DOOR
Usually less expensive
when <100MBtu/h (29
BRIDGEWALL REFRACTORY MW) heat absorption.
AREA (ARCH)
TUBE
HANGERS TUBE CIRCLE DIAMETER
Has the smallest footprint
of all heaters
RADIANT SECTION
TUBES
INSIDE REFRACTORY
INSPECTION
DOOR
TUBE
GUIDE
BURNER
ACCESS
DOOR 7.14
FURNACE
TERMINOLOGY
TUBES
Vertical Cylindrical Heater
BURNER BURNER
In any heater, the flame
dimensions should be sized for
BURNER CIRCLE the tube arrangement. Too
DIAMETER
small of a flame could increase
tube metal temperatures. Too
BURNER BURNER large of a flame could reduce
the radiant section efficiency
and lead to flame impingement
ACCESS
of the shield tubes. Burners
DOOR placed too close to the tubes
could overheat the tubes or
cause flame impingement.
7.15
FURNACE
TERMINOLOGY
BREECHING
EXTENDED
SURFACE
(STUDS OR
FINS)
SHOCK (SHIELD)
BANK
(BOTTOM BARE
ROWS)
7.16
FURNACE
TERMINOLOGY
7.17
FURNACE
TERMINOLOGY
HEADER
BOX RETURN
BENDS
BREECHING
EXTENDED
SURFACE
(STUDS OR
SOOTBLOWING OR STEAM FINS)
LANCING LANE
SHOCK (SHIELD)
BANK
(BOTTOM BARE
ROWS)
END TUBE
INTERMEDIATE
SHEET
TUBE SUPPORT
SNUFFING 7.22
STEAM REFRACTORY
FURNACE TERMINOLOGY--- TUBE BANK ARRANGEMENT
The allowable pressure
Definition: drop for a given service
determines the tube
Pass: A flow circuit size and the number of
consisting of one passes for that service
or more tubes in within a heater.
series with or
without connecting
fittings. 4 PASSES
2 PASSES
1 PASS
7.26
FURNACE
TERMINOLOGY
BREECHING
The bare tubes at the
bottom of the convection
section “shield” the
extended surface (fins or
studs) tubes from the
effects of direct radiation.
It prevents the extended
surface tubes from coking
or deteriorating as a
result of too great of a
CORBEL
heat pick-up.
SOOTBLOWING, STEAM LANCING

OR INSPECTION LANE This convection section
contains a bank of 8 passes.
SHOCK (SHIELD)
BANK
7.27
HORIZONTAL TUBE, CABIN HEATER
Horizontal, bottom-fired heaters provide an equal heat flux along the
length of the firebox.
STACK
Horizontal tubes are often used in coking services where it may be
necessary to turbine the coke out of the tubes.
CONVECTION
SECTION
RADIANT
SECTION
6.12
7.28
CABIN HEATER VARIATIONS
The use of a firebrick

centerwall in the radiant
section allows each side of
the heater to be controlled
independently of the other. 7.29
The use of a firebrick Sometimes an air-cooled

centerwall in the radiant centerwall is used should
section allows each side of a firebrick wall be too
the heater to be controlled high to support itself or in
independently of the other. greater seismic areas 7.30
Horizontal
firing is
often used
when oil
must be at
least one
of the
fuels.
Any oil
drippage
will fall into
the firebox.
It could fall
on the
operator
The use of a firebrick Sometimes an air-cooled when
centerwall in the radiant centerwall is used should vertically
section allows each side of a firebrick wall be too firing.
the heater to be controlled high to support itself or in
independently of the other. greater seismic areas 7.32
BOX-TYPE
HEATER STACK
JOHN STACK BOX-TYPE,
ZINK VERTICALLY
(Horizontal COMPANY
Tubes) TUBED HEATER
CONVECTION
CONVECTION SECTION
SECTION
Vertically-tubed
designs are
preferred over
Horizontal tube horizontal
RADIANT designs are heaters when
RADIANT
SECTION preferred for footprint is
SECTION
coking services. limiting or
multiple passes
Spalled coke is are employed
less likely to get
wedged in the Tubes are
bottom return extended
bends and upward rather
turbining out than over a
coke (last wider area
resort) is easier. horizontally.
7.33
STACK Multi-cell heaters are used
MULTI-CELL when the size of a heater
becomes too large for one cell.
BOX-TYPE or
The distribution of the number
HEATER CONVECTION
SECTION
of passes cannot easily be
provided in one cell.
A multi-cell heater can be

used for different services
in each cell.
RADIANT RADIANT The convection section can

SECTION be used for one or both of
SECTION
these services as well.
7.35
SINGLE WING HEATER
This is an old design although several remain

within the ExxonMobil system.
Proper operation requires burners in good working
order with sufficient combustion air to each burner;
otherwise, hot gases will strike the far wall tubes
and swirling flue gas will circulate to the roof tubes.
This can overheat the tubes.
Radiant Section
7.36
To stack VERTICAL TUBE, BOX-TYPE
FIRED HEATER
PROPRIETARY EXXON HIGH
INTENSITY, FIRED HEATER
Wall tubes are fired from one

side. Tubes banks crossing
between sidewalls are fired
from two sides.
RADIANT PLAN VIEW
Wall tubes fired

from 1 side
Center tubes fired

from 2 sides
Burners
Forced draft air
supply duct 7.37
Arbor-type heaters are often used for low pressure drop applications.
ARBOR-TYPE “U’ or inverted “U” tubes are placed one behind the other. These
HEATER multiple passes are as required to reduce the pressure drop to
acceptable levels without elevating tube metal temperatures too high.
The arbor-type heater utilizes

several passes, one behind the other.
The tube arrangement can
be a wicket or a “U”
(inverted wicket).
7.38
Double-fired heaters better utilize
the tube surface. Firing from both
sides transfers around 50% more
heat to the tubes than tubes fired
from only one side.
This rarely makes the heater

less expensive . . . but with
fewer tubes, the ∆P can be
DOUBLE-
less. The savings in
FIRED
compressor and utility costs
RADIANT
may outweigh the additional
SECTION,
cost of the heater.
BOX-TYPE
HEATER
7.40
ACTUAL AVERAGE
AVERAGE FLUX FLUX
ACTUAL
FLUX
FLUX
TUBE
TUBE
Note the majority of heat is A double-fired tube better utilizes

transferred to the fireside of the tubes. the tube surface for heat transfer.
7.42
MAX.AVE.CIRCUMFERENTIAL FLUX DISTRIBUTION
AROUND A HEATER TUBE DUE TO RADIATION
3.5
2 NOMINAL 3 NOMINAL
DIAMETER DIAMETER
3
SPACING SPACING
2.5
Max./Ave. Flux
1 ROW OF TUBES, SINGLE-FIRED

2
1.5
1 1 ROW OF TUBES, DOUBLE-FIRED
0.5
0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Spacing Ratio (Center to Center Distance/Tube O.D.)
7.43
7.44
7.45
FURNACE SELECTION & DESIGN
Design Conditions for Process Heaters are Listed in the Design
Practices, Section VIII-B, Page 55, Table 1.
• Usually limit average heat density for design to 12,000 Btu/hrft2 (37,800
W/m2) but this is dependent on the service.
– Many services that coke tubes are designed for lower heat densities
to reduce tube metal temperatures and increased run length.
- Mass velocity is normally 250-400 lb/sec ft2 (1200-1950 kg/s*m2) for most
heaters. Once again this is dependent on the service.
Service Ave. Radiant Section Suggested Design
Heat Density, Mass Velocity,
2 2
Btu/hrft lb/secft
Crude Heater 12000 300 - 400
Vacuum Heater 10000 350 - 450
Preheaters and 12000 250 - 350
Reboilers
Asphalt Heaters 6000 250 – 350
Catalytic Reforming 12000 35 -60
Gas Preheat
See following slide for metric table

7.46
7.46a
Heat Flux Density

= (Heat Absorption/Unit Time)/ Tube Outside Surface Area
= (Btu/hr)/ft2
= Btu/hr•ft2 (W/m2)
Mass Velocity
= (Mass Flow Rate/Pass)/Tube Cross-sectional Area
= (lb/sec)/ft2
= lb/sec•ft2 (kg/s*m2)
7.47
Heater Specifications
It is important to examine the precise operating conditions for all
cases for a heater. This is applicable for a new heater or a revamp
condition for an existing heater. The following cases and conditions
should be examined:
A.Normal operating
conditions for each case
(i.e., lean feed, rich feed):
7.49
It is important to examine the precise operating conditions for all cases for a
heater. This is applicable for a new heater or a revamp condition for an
existing heater. The following cases and conditions should be examined:
A. Normal operating conditions

for each case (i.e., lean feed,
rich feed):
1. Start of cycle (SOC)
2. End of cycle (EOC)
7.50
A. NORMAL OPERATING CASES
The normal operating cases are fairly straightforward. These are the
operating conditions at which the heater is expected to operate for a
given portion of the operating cycle. They can involve different
feedstocks, each having its own SOC and EOC cases. They are usually
the extremes of the cycle for each stock. One occurs at the beginning
of the run. The other occurs at the end of the run. Remaining
operations usually fall in between.
Specifying only one case may be possible. This should be done only in
consultation with a heater specialist. The maximum heat absorption
case will not always provide all the information necessary to specify a
heater. The maximum heat absorption case often provides the
maximum, average radiant section heat flux. It does not always
provide the maximum or design tube metal temperature.
7.51
• It is important to examine the precise operating conditions for all cases for a
heater. This is applicable for a new heater or a revamp condition for an existing
heater. The following cases and conditions should be examined:
A. Normal operating conditions for each case (i.e., lean feed, rich feed):
1. Start of cycle (SOC)
2. End of cycle (EOC)
B. Turndown operation for

each case
7.53
B. TURNDOWN CASES
The turndown case may place another, necessary constraint upon the
heater.
Burners may not be able to meet the desired turndown rate. Burners
must be shutdown to increase the turndown.
The heater designer may be forced to use a greater number of smaller
burners to provide the desired turndown with adequate heat
distribution. A greater number of burners allows more burners to be
shutdown to meet the desired turndown.
0% of Max. Max. Turndown Max. Operation

Operation
(Min. Operation) (Zero Turndown)
7.54
Heater Specifications--- Consider:
Future capacity Undersurfacing? Future Feed?

increase?
Fouling?
SURGE
DRUM
TO
SEPARATOR
COLUMN
CHARGE FEED/BOTTOMS
PUMP EXCHANGER
FRACTIONATOR
FEED HEATER REBOILER
HEATER
BOTTOMS
PUMP
7.63
Heater Specifications--- Consider:
Future capacity Undersurfacing? Potential heat

increase? of reaction
Fouling? error?
SURGE DRUM
HYDROGEN-RICH
RECYCLE GAS
FROM
COMPRESSOR
TO SEPARATOR
FEED/PRODUCT
CHARGE EXCHANGER REACTOR
PUMP
CHARGE
HEATER
7.64
C. DESIGN CASE
Sometimes the design case can reflect a

desired operating condition during start-up.
An increased heat load may shorten the
start-up time. The heater may have a larger
capital cost due to the greater heat
absorption desired for the start-up case. The
added cost may be economical if the time
saved in start-up is paid back by additional
days on stream (more product).
7.68
D. REGENERATION CASE
A regeneration case must be considered if the
heater must be used to help regenerate a
catalyst. The regeneration case may set the
minimum operation of a heater. It may require
unique considerations if the heater is ducted to
another heater
7.70
E. EFFECTS OF RECEIVING FLUE GAS FROM

OTHER HEATERS
Heaters are periodically ducted to other heaters to improve
efficiency. Process concerns (i.e., extremely low pressure
drop) often force a process coil to totally reside in the radiant
section – no portion of the process coil would be in the
convection section.
An all-radiant process heater would have a very poor
efficiency (typically 50–60%). This often is unacceptable
except for extremely small (< 3 M Btu/hr or 1 MW) heaters.
The flue gases from all radiant heaters are sometimes ducted to
the convection section of another to improve the efficiency:
7.72
The flue gases from all-radiant heaters are
sometimes ducted to the convection
section of another heat to improve the
overall efficiency of the two.
7.73
Specifications must consider what affect
one heater may have on the other for all
operating cases.
Failure to consider this may prevent one
heater from meeting its process
requirements.
SOR =
60
SOR =
MBtu/h;
20 MBtu/h;
EOR =
EOR = 60
MBtu/h
40 MBtu/h
7.74
Process Requirements for each case are required:
Start of Cycle End of Cycle
Throughput, lb/hr
Inlet Temperature, °F
Outlet Temperature, °F
Outlet Pressure, psig
Max. Pressure Diff., psi
Wt.% Vapor at Inlet and Outlet
MW of Vapor at Inlet and Outlet
Vaporization Curves
Physical Properties of Liquid
Physical Properties of Vapor
7.75
Design Standards–
DESIGN PRACTICES- Section VIII, Fired Heaters, for example:

Sub-section A, Selection of Fired Process Heaters;
Sub-section B, Design of Process Heaters;
Sub-section C, Design of Convection Sections and Stacks.
GLOBAL PRACTICES (GPs), for example:
GP 07-01-01, Fired Heaters;
GP 07-04-01, Burners for Fired Heaters;
GP 07-05-01, Coils for Fired Heaters and Boilers.
AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE, for example:
API STD 530, Calculation of Heater Tube Thickness in
Petroleum Refineries;
API STD 560, Fired Heaters for General Refinery Services.
7.76
FURNACE EFFICIENCY
DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Excess Air: The percentage of air in the heater in excess of the

stoichiometric quantity required for combustion, in percent.
• Heat Absorbed (QA) : The total heat absorbed by the process fluid
in MBtu/lb (kJ/kg) fuel.
• Heat Available (H.A.): Total heat provided from flue gas as it

cools to stack temperature in Btu/lb (kJ/kg) fuel.
• Heat Fired (Heat Release): The total heat released in the heater,
equal to LHV of fuel, in MBtu/lb (MJ/kg) fuel.
• Gross Fuel: Total fuel fired in heater, in lb/hr (kg/hr).

7.81
FURNACE EFFICIENCY
CALCULATIONS
• Efficiency = Heat Absorbed x 100

Heat Fired
where
Heat Absorbed = Σ All Absorptions
= Process + Waste Heat + . . .
• Two Methods of Calculating Efficiency

– Input/Output
– Stack Loss Method
7.82
FURNACE EFFICIENCY
INPUT/OUTPUT METHOD
• Determine Heat Absorbed by All Process and Waste
Heat Streams
• Determine Heat Fired (LHV or HHV)
Where
– LHV = the lower heating value of the fuel; also known as
the net heating value (NHV)
• The LHV is used whenever we discuss the heater efficiency.
– HHV = the higher heating value of the fuel; also known as
the gross heating value (GHV).
• The HHV is discussed when we are addressing emissions.
7.83
FURNACE EFFICIENCY
INPUT/OUTPUT METHOD
The lower heating value of the fuel (LHV) assumes all the
heat released by combustion is recovered when
bringing the flue gas to standard conditions. The water
vapor in the flue gas remains in the vapor phase.
The higher heating value of the fuel (HHV) assumes all the
heat released by combustion is recovered when
bringing the flue gas to standard conditions but the
water vapor in the flue gas condenses to liquid water---
the latent heat of water is recoverable.
7.84
FURNACE EFFICIENCY
INPUT/OUTPUT METHOD
• Determine Heat Absorbed by All Process and Waste
Heat Streams
• Determine Heat Fired (LHV or HHV*)
• Calculate Efficiency
• Requires Data on:
– Fuel Flow Rate and Composition
– Process Flow Rates, Temperatures and Pressures
– Process Enthalpy Information
• Difficult to Achieve Good Accuracy
– Flow meters are often suspect!
• Good for design, but not recommended for
checking furnace operation!
7.85
FURNACE EFFICIENCY
STACK LOSS METHOD
• Requires Knowledge of Fuel
Properties, Excess Air, Stack
Temperature, and Estimated Heat
Leakage.
Recommended for Checking
Furnace Operation!
7.86
FURNACE EFFICIENCY
1. DETERMINE FUEL LOWER HEATING VALUE (LHV), BTU/LB
(MJ/KG)
Usually have analyzer/density meter to determine MW, infer LHV
2. DETERMINE % EXCESS AIR

Usually have a stack analyzer FOR % O2
Convert from %O2 to % excess air (see next slide)
3. DETERMINE STACK TEMPERATURE
4. READ HEAT AVAILABLE FROM CHARTS

Based on LHV, % excess air, and stack temperature
Charts in DP VIII-M
5. ESTIMATE FURNACE LOSSES

Based on heater size (see slide)
6. CALCULATE FURNACE EFFICIENCY
Heat Absorbed ( HeatAvailable − LHV * Heat Loss Fraction)

Efficiency = 100 = 100
(Heat Fired ) (LHV )
7.87
APPROXIMATE EXCESS AIR CALCULATION
• Wet Basis RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EXCESS AIR
AND FLUE GAS OXYGEN
12
% Excess air REPRESENTATIVE CURVES
Flue Gas Oxygen Content, %

111.2 (%O2 )
10
= 8
20.95 − %O2 6
% Excess air
• Dry Basis 4
=
111.4 (%O2 )
Wet O2
– Water in flue gas is condensed 20.95 − %O2 Dry O2

and removed before gas is 2
analyzed. 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Excess Air, %
% Excess air
91.2 (%O2 ) Applicable to typical
= hydrocarbon fuel; exact
20.95 − %O2
relationship is function
of fuel H/C ratio and
Where %O2 = Percent O2 in flue gas inert components.
7.88
FURNACE EFFICIENCY
The Heat Available figures in Section VIII-M

of the Design Practices tell how much of the
heat/enthalpy has been extracted from the
flue gas at a given flue gas temperature. This
is used to determine the amount of heat
absorbed by the process fluid.
It can be used to determine the heater
efficiency.
7.89
FURNACE LOSSES
Determine Heat Losses through Refractory
setting of Heater (usually estimated)
MW Heater Absorption, Heat Losses, % of Total Heat Release
MBtu/hr Without an With an
Air Preheat Air Preheat
System System
4
<15 3 3.5
4-29 15 – 100 2 2.5
29 >100 1 1.5
Assume 2% losses for our heater.
7.90
FURNACE EFFICIENCY
Assume we have a stack temperature of 1100°F

when firing at 30% excess air.
Assume we have a refinery fuel gas made up of H2,

HC gases and inerts. The refinery fuel gas has a
lower heating value of 19500 Btu/lb.
Figure 7a in DP VIII-M applies
7.91
FURNACE EFFICIENCY
Note:
This chart
applies to
mixtures of
hydrogen,
hydrocarbon
gases and inerts,
where the lower
heating value
(LHV) of the
mixture is 19,500
Btu/lb.
It should not be
used for
mixtures that are
essentially pure
hydrocarbons
7.92
FURNACE EFFICIENCY
From Figure 7A at
• flue gas temperature of 1100°F;
• 30% excess air .
14080 Btu/lb of fuel is the “Heat Available”, the heat extracted from the flue
gas to bring it to 1100°F
19500 Btu/lb fuel is the total heat released (LHV) from the fuel
Our 2% heat losses would be 19500 Btu/lb (0.02)
Our heater efficiency would be:
Efficiency = 100 x Heat Absorbed = 100 x [Heat Available – LHV (Losses)]
Heat Fired LHV
= 100 [14080 - 19500 (0.02)]/19500
= 100 [14080 - 390]/19500 = 70.2%
And the factor 14080-390 = 13690 Btu/lb fuel

Is the amount of heat/enthalpy absorbed by the process. 7.93
SIMPLE HEATER EFFICIENCY CALCULATION
Eff = {100-[0.0237+0.000189(E.A.)] [TST-TA] } [100/(100+QL)]
• Where Eff= LHV Efficiency, %

EA= Excess Air, %
TST= Stack Temperature, °F
TA= Ambient Air Temperature, °F
QL= Casing Loss, %
• Suitable for typical hydrocarbon fuels; not applicable for low
Btu gas
7.100
AIR PREHEATERS
• Increases heater efficiency by extracting
additional heat from the flue gas. The stack
temperature is reduced (see example).
7.101
AIR PREHEATERS
Stack
DAMPER
ASSUME WE HAVE A TYPICAL,

NATURAL DRAFT, RADIANT- Convection
CONVECTION, FIRED HEATER. Section
ASSUME OUR STACK

TEMPERATURE IS VERY HIGH.
HEATER
Radiant
Section
7.102
AIR PREHEATERS
FROM AIR PREHEATER Stack
BYPASS
TO AIR PREHEATER DAMPER
I.D. FAN
WE CAN RECOUP SOME OF THE Convection
LOST HEAT LEAVING THE Section
CONVECTION SECTION BYUSING
AN AIR PREHEATER, A HEAT
EXCHANGER, TO EXTRACT HEAT
FROM THE FLUE GAS.
HEATER
Radiant
Section
AIR
PREHEATER
7.103
AIR PREHEATERS
BYPASS
I.D. FAN
F.D. FAN Convection

Section
THE HEAT
TRANSFERRED
THROUGH THE AIR
PREHEATER IS
ABSORBED BY THE HEATER
COOL COMBUSTION
AIR Radiant
Section
AIR
PREHEATER
7.104
COMBUSTION AIR TO BURNERS
AIR PREHEATERS
BYPASS
I.D. FAN
F.D. FAN Convection

Section
COMBUSTION
AIR BYPASS HEATER
Radiant
Section
AIR
PREHEATER
A combustion air bypass
is used to control the flue
gas temperature leaving
the air preheater. 7.105
COMBUSTION AIR TO BURNERS
EFFICIENCY===> AIR PREHEATER===> COLD END CORROSION
7.106
AIR PREHEATERS
Amount of heat recovery limited by flue gas acid
dew point -- Minimum stack temperature ranges
from ~ 266°F (130ºC) with clean fuel gas to >446°F
(230ºC) with high-sulfur fuel oil.
• Requires significant investment in equipment,

instrumentation and controls.
• Can significantly increase NOx emissions.

– An air preheater increases the combustion air temperature.
This increases the flame temperature as combustion occurs.
The production of NOx is favored by greater flame
temperatures.
7.110
AIR PREHEATERS
Consider (Evaluate Economically) When:

– Stack Temperature > 600°F (315ºC)
– Fuel Value is High
(primary factor governing the economics)
– Heat Absorbed is Large (>60 MBtu/hr or 18 MW)
– Can Combine Flue Gases of More than One Furnace!
Principal Types
– Rotary (Regenerative)
– Tubular
– Plate
– Circulating Fluid
7.111
LJUNGSTROM TYPE REGENERATIVE AIR PREHEATER
7.112
ASSEMBLY DRAWING OF CAST TUBULAR AIR PREHEATER
Flue Gas In Flue Gas In The bottom section of this air preheater
displays borosilicate glass tubes.
These tubes will not corrode when acid
AIR OUT
condensation of the flue gas occurs.
Efficiency can be increased with their
use.
There can be significant breakage of
these glass tubes year by year.
Start-ups are a great concern. Should
the heat-up rate be too great, any water
remaining in the tubes can greatly
expand into steam, breaking the tubes.
These are the

cast iron tubes
employed in the
Air cast, tubular air
preheater.
In
Flue Gas Out Flue Gas Out

7.113
AIR PREHEATERS
Envirochem
OCAP Air
Preheater
7.114
SCHEMATIC DRAWING OF TYPICAL CIRCULATING FLUID AND
PROCESS FLUID AIR PREHEAT SYSTEMS
7.115
AIR PREHEAT EFFECT ON FURNACE EFFICIENCY
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
Process Requirements:
Heat Absorption = 170 x 106 Btu/hr

Inlet Temperature = 625°F
Outlet Temperature = 715°F
Design for 15% excess air
7.116
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Natural Draft Heater, No Air Preheat
Inlet Temperature = 625°F

Approach = 75°F with finned tubes
Stack Temperature = 625 + 75
= 700°F
From efficiency curve at 700°F stack and 15% E.A:
Efficiency = 81.2%
7.117
AIR
95
PREHEAT EFFECT ON
With a natural FURNACE
draft heater, we can maximize EFFICIENCY
our efficiency by striving
for a 75°F or less approach. The approach is defined as the process inlet
SAMPLE PROBLEM
90
temperature subtracted from the stack temperature . . . And the stack
temperature is the process inlet temperature added to the approach.
Determine efficiency without air preheat For our problem, the stack temperature
85 = 625°F + 75°F = 700°F
Heater Efficiency, %
80
Refinery Gas Excess Air, %
1000 BTU/ SCF
75 0
10
Heater Efficiency vs.
Stack Temperature and 20
70
Excess Air At 700°F stack and 30
15% E.A: 40
2% Radiant Loss 50
65 Efficiency = 81.2%
60
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
Stack Temperature, °F
6.33
7.118
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Air Preheat Option:

300°F stack
10% E.A.(using forced draft burners)
Efficiency = 92.1 - 0.5 = 91.6%

(an extra 0.5% removed for the air
preheat system)
7.119
AIR
95
PREHEAT EFFECT ON FURNACE EFFICIENCY
SAMPLE PROBLEM
90
Determine efficiency without air preheat

85
Heater Efficiency, %
80
Refinery Gas Excess Air, %
1000 BTU/ SCF
75 0
10
At 700°F stack
70
and 15% E.A: Heater Efficiency vs. 20
Stack Temperature and 30
Efficiency = Excess Air 40
65
81.2% 50
2% Radiant Loss
60
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
Stack Temperature, °F
6.33
7.120
• Heat Absorbed = 170 MBTU/hr
• Fuel Fired (no APH) = 170/0.812 = 209.4 MBTU/hr
• Fuel Fired (with APH) = 170/0.916 = 185.68 MBTU/hr
• Savings = 209.4 - 185.6 = 23.8 MBTU/hr
• Assuming 8760 hrs / yr operation and fuel value of $8.50

US/MBTU:
Annual Savings = 23.8 x $8.50 x 8760 hrs/yr
= $1,770,000
• Would provide, perhaps a 2 year payback, on a required
investment of ~$3M!!!!
7.125
BASIC STEPS IN FURNACE DESIGN - 1
1. Determine Economic Stack Temperature

(often 50 - 75°F or 28 – 42ºC) above
process coil inlet temperature and any
waste heat coil (i.e., steam) inlet
temperatures).
2. Calculate Fuel Requirement and
Furnace Efficiency
7.126
Process Efficiency =
Pr ocess Heat Absorption (100)

Heat Re lease
Overall Efficiency =
ΣHeat Absorption s (100 )

Heat Re lease
7.127
Waste Heat Coils

A waste heat coil is a coil normally
placed above the outlet
temperature/fuel controlling process
Waste Heat Coils
coil.
The waste heat coil will absorb heat
that would normally escape out the
Convection Tubes stack.
Shield Bank
Radiant Coils
7.128
3. Set Average Radiant Heat Density Based on Experience With
Similar Services (usually 10,000 - 12000 BTU/hft2) Design
Practices, Section VIII-B.(see slide 46a)
SERVICE AVE. HEAT DENSITY (FLUX), Btu/hft2
Crude 12000
Distillates 12000
Gas Oil 12000
Reboilers 12000
Vacuum 10000
Asphalt 6000
7.129
4. Estimate Average Radiant Tube Metal

Temperature.
5. Determine Maximum Tube Metal Temperatures

Determine corrosives and corrosion rates
=====> Determine Tube Material
=====> Determine Tube Thickness
7.130
CORROSION CONSIDERATIONS:
The tube corrosion rate should not be the only item to be
considered. What could happen to downstream
equipment?
For example, could a catalyst bed plug in the event of
upstream corrosion products depositing on the bed?
REACTOR
CHARGE 7.133
HEATER
AVERAGE TUBE METAL TEMPERATURES
TMTR ave = Tb + ∆Tf + ∆Tc+ ∆Tm
TMTR ave = Average Tube Metal Temperature

Tb = Average Radiant Bulk Fluid Temperature
∆Tf = Temperature Rise Across Inside Oil Film
∆Tc = Temperature Rise Across Coke or Scale
∆Tm = Temperature Rise Across Tube Wall
∆T’s are based on average radiant heat flux (Φ ave)

7.134
TUBE METAL TEMPERATURES
TMT = Tb + ∆Tf + ∆Tc+ ∆Tm

Use фave when
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ Do ⎞
∆T f = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ Φ calculating the
⎝ hi ⎠ ⎝ Di ⎠ average tube metal
⎛ tc ⎞ ⎛ 2 Do ⎞ temperature.
∆Tc = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ Φ
Use фmax when
⎝ kc ⎠ ⎝ Di + Dc ⎠
calculating the
⎛ t a ⎞ ⎛ 2 Do ⎞ maximum tube metal
∆Tm = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ Φ
⎝ k m ⎠ ⎝ Do + Di ⎠ temperature.
7.135
6. From Appropriate Chart, Calculate Bridgewall

Temperature from heat density and tube metal
temperature
T
T M
BWT
Design Practices,
Section VIII-B, Figures 1-6
ΙR
These chart has been developed from experience with the styles of
heaters in question.
7.139
To determine the bridgewall
temperature at a 12000
Btu/secft2 heat density and an
average tube metal temperature
of 1000°F.
From the 12000 heat density line, move up to the

1000°F tube metal temperature line. From there,
move horizontally to read the bridgewall
temperature (1835°F).
7.140
6.81
To determine the bridgewall
temperature at a 12000
Btu/secft2 heat density and an
average tube metal temperature
of 1000°F. Correct as necessary
for radiant section height.
From the 12000 heat density line, move up to the

1000°F tube metal temperature line. From there,
move horizontally to read the bridgewall
temperature (1835°F).
7.141
6.81
Radiant Calculations (DPM VIII-B)
7. Calculate Heat Available at BWT

(Design Practices, Section VIII-M, Fig A4A-
A10B)
8. Calculate Total Radiant Heat Duty

(usually 60-65% of total duty)
7.142
BASIC STEPS IN FURNACE DESIGN – 3
9. Estimate Shield Section Radiant Duty–

bottom 2 bare rows only
FINNED (OR
STUDDED)
The bottom TUBES
two shield
rows only
are
SHOCK (SHIELD) BANK
considered
(all bare tubes, three bare
to be part of
rows shown here)
the radiant
section.
The shock bank is subject to direct radiant but not rebound

radiation as is single-fired radiant section tubes.
The shock bank is subject to a considerable quantity of
convective heat transfer.
7.143
Radiant Calculations
(Design Practices, Section VIII-B)
9. Estimate Shield Section Radiant Duty

(for only the bottom two shield rows)
= Front Face radiant absorption is often equal
to the front face absorption of the radiant
tubes.
10. Calculate Radiant Section Duty
11. Calculate Required Radiant Surface
7.145
Radiant Calculations
(Design Practices, Section VIII-B)
12. Finalize Radiant Section Geometry
Tube Diameter
No. of Passes (Pressure Drop,
Mass Velocity)
Tube and Burner Layout
7.146
Shield Section Calculations

(Design Practices, Section VIII-B&C)
13. Calculate Crossover Temperature

(based on enthalpy and pressure at crossover)
14. Determine the Shield Section Inlet

Temperature
(estimating enthalpy and
pressure at shield inlet)
7.147
Shield Section Calculations

(Design Practices, Section VIII-B&C)
15. Calculate Shield Convective Duty
16. Calculate Temp. of Flue Gas Leaving Shield

Section
17. Check that Heat Transfer Rate Equation is

Satisfied
QSC = US AS (LMTD)S
7.148
Convection Section Calculations
(Design Practices, Section VIII-C)
– Similar to Shield Section Calculations
Except that there is No Direct Radiant
Heat Transfer from the Radiant Section
But there is radiant heat transfer from the
radiating constituents (CO2 and H2O) in the flue
gas when evaluating any bare rows of tubes
– Must Consider Effect of Extended
Surface Tubes if Applicable
– For Top Section, Calculate Number of
Rows of Tubes Required to Meet or
Exceed Specified Furnace Efficiency
7.149
EXTENDED SURFACE TUBES
SOLID
FINS
• Most Common Types:

– Helical Fins: STUDS
• Used for Clean Fuels
– Studs:
• Used for High Fouling Fuels
CUT OR
SEGMENTED FINS
7.150
EXTENDED SURFACE TUBES
• Used in Cooler Rows (above shield
bank) of Convection Section to
Enhance Heat Recovery
• Must Consider Limitations on:
– Max. Fin or Stud Tip Temperature
– Max. Allowable Tube Metal
Temperature
– Max. Allowable Film Temperature
(coking or fluid degradation)
7.151
MAXIMUM TUBE METAL
TEMPERATURE
1. The maximum tube metal temperature (TMT) does not always occur at the
outlet of a heater.
2. The maximum TMT can occur where the heat flux is the greatest in the
radiant section. In bottom-fired heaters, this often occurs at about 2/3 the
visible flame length in standard burners. The maximum flux may occur at a
different height if low NOx burners are employed.
3. The maximum TMT can occur where the fluid temperature is the greatest. In
vaporizing services, this may not occurs at the heater outlet.
4. The maximum TMT in a heater may occur in the convection section. This
can occur in heaters with a low, outlet to inlet, process temperature
difference and where considerable extended surface is present.
5. The designer must check his tube metal and

tube film temperatures throughout the heater.
7.156
FURNACE STACK DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
DPM VIII-C
Stack Height Based on Draft Requirements

or Local Pollution Standards
– Max Height for Furnace Supported Stack is
150 - 200 ft Above Grade.
– Above 200 ft, Ground Supported Stack
Should Be Used.
7.157
DPM VIII-C
Stack Height Based on Safety

Considerations:
– Minimum height is 10 ft (3 m) above any platform
within a 100 ft (30 m) radius.
– Maximum height determined by airline flight
patterns.
7.158
DPM VIII-C
Stack Diameter Based On Minimum

Velocity Requirements To Avoid
Inversions and Minimize Pollution
(Usually about 25 ft/s Minimum)
7.159
FIRED HEATER PRESSURE BALANCE
Exit Loss
Damper Loss
Damper
Absolute Pressure
Inside Furnace & Stack
Convection
Section
Draft at
Bridgewall Atmospheric
Radiant The draft in a heater is the Gradient
difference in pressure between
Section that at an individual point
(inches H2O)
within the heater and the
outside atmospheric pressure
Absolute Pressure 7.160
Draft at Floor
STACK HEIGHT DETERMINATION
∆P = Stack Exit Loss + Stack Damper Loss + Stack
Entrance Loss + Convection Section Pressure Drop
+ Draft Required at Top of Radiant Section (0.1 inch
H2O) - Convection Section Stack Effect
Hm = ∆ P/ SE
Hm = Minimum Stack Height Required for Draft
SE = “Stack Effect” @ Average Stack Temperature
See Sec. VIII-C, Figure 16, of the Design Practices
or Other References
7.161
Stack effect at 820°F average flue
gas temperature and 90°F ambient
air
= 0.008 inches of water/ft of stack
7.162
INSTRUMENTATION AND PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS
• Instrumentation Enables Furnace To Be Operated

Safely And Efficiently, With Alarms To Warn Of
Potential Problems.
• Protective System Cuts Out Fuel(s) From The
Furnace To Prevent A Potentially Hazardous
Situation.
– All Components Are Separate From Control System.
• Requirements Are Covered In GP 15-1-1,
Instrumentation For Fired Heaters.
7.163
MINIMUM INSTRUMENTATION REQUIREMENTS
(Existing Rather than New Heaters)
• Flue Gas Side
– Pressure At Bridgewall (With PHA), Floor, And
Up/Downstream Of Dampers
– 02/Combustibles Analyzer
– Bridgewall/Stack Temperature
– Dampers And Positioners
• Process Side
– Total And Individual Pass (Usually) Feed Flow Meters
(FLA)
– Coil Inlet/Crossover/Coil Outlet Thermocouples (THA).
7.164
MINIMUM INSTRUMENTATION REQUIREMENTS
(Existing Rather than New Heaters)
• Fuel System
– Pressure Indication On All Fuels (With PLA/PHA)
– Flow Control/Indication On All Fuels
– Pilot Flame Detection
• Typical of Natural Draft System, Forced
Draft/Air Preheat Systems More Extensive
7.165
PROTECTIVE SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
• Furnace Shutdown Initiated By:

– Low Total Process Flow
– Manually From Local Panel Or Control Room
– Low Atomizing Steam Pressure (Oil Firing)
– Low Pilot Gas Pressure (unreliable source only)
– Loss Of >70% Pilot Flames (startup only)
– Low fuel pressure (heaters without pilots)
Cuts Out Main Fuels And (Sometimes)
Pilot Fuel
• More Complex In Forced Draft System
7.166
• Today, ExxonMobil is requiring new

controls and procedures to warn of,
and shutdown heaters in the event
of an approach to flooding.
• These are required for most new
heaters and are expected to be
required for most existing heaters.
7.167
Flooding is a condition where

significant, unignited fuel
leaves the burner areas,
leaving the heater open to a
potential explosion.
7.168
Section 7
Move to Problem
7.169

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Section 7

By the end of the session you should:

Be familiar with the basic types of furnaces and their

• Know the meaning of common furnace terms.

• Rating/Troubleshooting Existing Furnaces

• Checking/Monitoring Furnace Operation

TUBE CIRCLE DIAMETER

Most common type of refinery

TUBE CIRCLE DIAMETER

TUBE CIRCLE DIAMETER

SOOTBLOWING, STEAM LANCING

The use of a firebrick

The use of a firebrick Sometimes an air-cooled

A multi-cell heater can be

RADIANT RADIANT The convection section can

This is an old design although several remain

Wall tubes are fired from one

RADIANT PLAN VIEW

Wall tubes fired

Center tubes fired

The arbor-type heater utilizes

This rarely makes the heater

Note the majority of heat is A double-fired tube better utilizes

1 ROW OF TUBES, SINGLE-FIRED

1 1 ROW OF TUBES, DOUBLE-FIRED

See following slide for metric table

Heat Flux Density

A. Normal operating conditions

B. Turndown operation for

0% of Max. Max. Turndown Max. Operation

Future capacity Undersurfacing? Future Feed?

Future capacity Undersurfacing? Potential heat

Sometimes the design case can reflect a

E. EFFECTS OF RECEIVING FLUE GAS FROM

DESIGN PRACTICES- Section VIII, Fired Heaters, for example:

• Excess Air: The percentage of air in the heater in excess of the

• Heat Available (H.A.): Total heat provided from flue gas as it

• Gross Fuel: Total fuel fired in heater, in lb/hr (kg/hr).

• Efficiency = Heat Absorbed x 100

• Two Methods of Calculating Efficiency

2. DETERMINE % EXCESS AIR

3. DETERMINE STACK TEMPERATURE

4. READ HEAT AVAILABLE FROM CHARTS

5. ESTIMATE FURNACE LOSSES

6. CALCULATE FURNACE EFFICIENCY

Heat Absorbed ( HeatAvailable − LHV * Heat Loss Fraction)

Flue Gas Oxygen Content, %

– Water in flue gas is condensed 20.95 − %O2 Dry O2

The Heat Available figures in Section VIII-M

Assume 2% losses for our heater.

Assume we have a stack temperature of 1100°F

Assume we have a refinery fuel gas made up of H2,

Figure 7a in DP VIII-M applies

And the factor 14080-390 = 13690 Btu/lb fuel

Eff = {100-[0.0237+0.000189(E.A.)] [TST-TA] } [100/(100+QL)]

• Where Eff= LHV Efficiency, %

ASSUME WE HAVE A TYPICAL,

ASSUME OUR STACK

F.D. FAN Convection

F.D. FAN Convection

• Requires significant investment in equipment,

• Can significantly increase NOx emissions.