AERO 3200: Aerodynamics I Course notes, 2004

5 Flat plate as aerofoil and vortex sheet

5.1 Thin aerofoil theory
For aerofoils typically in use, the camber and thickness are an order of magnitude smaller than
the chord. This separation of length scales is exploited in thin aerofoil theory. It is also assumed
in thin aerofoil theory that the incidence is small; i.e. the flight is more or less parallel to the
chord.
The basic idea of thin aerofoil theory is to model the flow over the aerofoil by adding a
uniform stream and a continuous distribution of vortices along the chord or camber line (these
two becoming equivalent in the thin aerofoil approximation).
The strength of the vortices are determined by:
• the requirement that there is no flow through the aerofoil; and
• the Kutta–Joukowsky condition, which stipulates that the flow leave the trailing edge
smoothly.
The lift on the aerofoil is then obtained from the Kutta–Joukowsky theorem (` = −ρV ∞ Γ ).
The circulation around the aerofoil is the integral of the strengths of the vortices distributed
along it.
Thin aerofoil theory is a fundamental component of aerodynamics, and is treated extensively
in most books on the subject; e.g.
• Abbott and von Doenhoff [1959, ch. 4];
• Anderson [2001, ch. 4];
• Bertin [2002, ch. 6];
• Glauert [1947, ch. 7];
• Milne-Thomson [1973, ch. 8];
• Houghton and Carpenter [2003, ch. 4];
• McCormick [1995, pp. 73–79].
In § 5, thin aerofoil theory is introduced by its application to the flow over a tilted thin flat
plate.

5.2 Application of thin aerofoil theory to flat plate

5.2.1 Vortex sheets
Recall that the complex velocity for a vortex at the origin with strength (circulation) Γ is
−iΓ
. (1)
2πz
If the vortex is located elsewhere in the plane, say at z0 , the complex velocity is
−iΓ
. (2)
2π(z − z0 )

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If there are several vortices of various strengths at different points, the combined complex velocity
is
 
−i Γ1 Γ2 Γ3
+ + +··· . (3)
2π z − z1 z − z2 z − z3
If there are an infinite number of vortices distributed continuously along a curve C, with strength
per unit length of curve

δΓ = γδz , (4)
the complex velocity at z is
−i γ
Z
dζ . (5)
2π C z−ζ
This is called a vortex sheet, since the curve C in two-dimensions represents a sheet in three
dimensions.
Add to this a uniform stream of speed V∞ and incidence α, and the complex velocity is
i γ
Z
w(z) = V∞ e−iα − dζ . (6)
2π C z − ζ

5.2.2 Vortex sheet along the chord

If the vortices are distributed along the chord of the aerofoil, 0 6 x 6 c, the complex velocity
along the chord is (noting that z = x + iy = x on the chord)
i γ
Z
u(x) − iv(x) = V∞ e −iα
− dξ (7)
2π C x − ξ
i γ
Z
= V∞ cos α − iV∞ sin α − dξ . (8)
2π C x − ξ
Thus the normal component of velocity to the surface of the aerofoil (y = 0) is
Z c
1 γ
v(x) = V∞ sin α + dξ , (9)
2π 0 x − ξ
and the condition that there be no flow through the aerofoil is v(x) = 0:
Z c
1 γ
dξ = −V∞ sin α . (10)
2π 0 x − ξ
Since the incidence α is assumed to be small in thin aerofoil theory, we can use the small
angle approximation

sin α ∼ α . (11)

5.2.3 Changing the variable of integration

The integral in (10) is fairly nasty and is more easily treated after the transformation
c
x = (1 − cos θ) (12)
2  
2x
θ = arccos 1 − , (13)
c

2
with a similar transformation for ξ to ϕ. The differential in the integral becomes
c
dξ = sin ϕ dϕ , (14)
2
and (10) becomes
π
1 γ sin ϕ
Z
dϕ = −V∞ α . (15)
2π 0 cos ϕ − cos θ

This is the basic integral equation of thin aerofoil theory, as applied to a flat plate.

5.2.4 Glauert’s integral

The integral in (15) is still nasty, but can be solved by reference to Glauert’s integral [Abbott
and von Doenhoff, 1959, p. 67]
Z π
cos nϕ sin nθ
dϕ = π , (16)
0 cos ϕ − cos θ sin θ

which holds for n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .

Setting n = 0 and n = 1 in (16) gives
Z π
1
dϕ = 0 , (17)
cos ϕ − cos θ
Z0 π
cos ϕ
dϕ = π . (18)
0 cos ϕ − cos θ

Thus, for any constant C,

π
C + cos ϕ
Z
dϕ = π. (19)
0 cos ϕ − cos θ

Comparing this with (15), we see that the solution for the distribution of vortex strength is

C + cos θ
γ = −2V∞ α . (20)
sin θ

5.2.5 The Kutta–Joukowsky condition

At the trailing edge x = c, θ = π, and the vortex strength in (21) is infinite unless C = 1.
Therefore this special value of the constant is chosen. This is a special case of the general
requirement, called the Kutta–Joukowsky condition, Kutta condition, or Joukowsky’s hypothesis,
that the flow leave the trailing edge smoothly.
The Kutta–Joukowsky condition is discussed by Abbott and von Doenhoff [1959, p. 52],
Anderson [2001, pp. 290–295], Bertin [2002, p. 202], and Houghton and Carpenter [2003, pp. 160–
162].
With the condition, the vortex strength distribution is
1 + cos θ
γ = −2V∞ α . (21)
sin θ

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5.2.6 Circulation and lift
The total circulation around the aerofoil is just the integral of the vortex strengths along the
vortex sheet:
Z c
Γ = γ dx (22)
0
Z π
c
= γ sin θ dθ (23)
2 0
Z π  
c 1 + cos θ
= −2V∞ α sin θ dθ (24)
2 0 sin θ
Z π
= −cV∞ α {1 + cos θ} dθ (25)
0
π
= −cV∞ α [θ + sin θ]0 (26)
= −cV∞ απ . (27)

From the Kutta–Joukowsky Theorem, the lift (per unit length in the third dimension) is
related to the circulation by

` = −ρV∞ Γ , (28)

so
2
` = ρV∞ πcα , (29)

and the lift coefficient is

`
C` ≡ 1 2
= 2πα . (30)
2 ρV∞ c

This simple result agrees quite well with the experimentally measured lift for flat plates
for angles of incidence up to about 3◦ [Anderson, 2001, p. 333]. At higher incidence, the flow
separates from the upper surface of the plate and the vortex sheet model is no longer accurate.

5.3 Aerodynamic moment

Up till now, we have mostly been concerned with the aerodynamic force on the aerofoil, but the
moment associated with the distribution of this force is important too.
Since the lift (per unit length) is given by

` = −ρV∞ Γ (31)
Z c
= −ρV∞ γ dx , (32)
0

we can think of

δ` = −ρV∞ γ δx (33)

as the distribution of the lift along the aerofoil. Each element of lift contributes to the moment
about the leading edge in proportion to its distance from that edge:

δml.e. = −xδ` = ρV∞ xγδx , (34)

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where the moment is reckoned positive when it tends to increase the pitch of the aerofoil; i.e. to
raise the leading edge and depress the trailing edge. Thus the pitching moment (per unit length)
is given by
Z c
ml.e. = ρV∞ xγ dx . (35)
0

For the flat plate, using (21),

c
1 + cos θ
Z
2
ml.e. = −2ρV∞ α x dx (36)
sin θ
Z0 c
2 c (1 − cos θ)(1 + cos θ) c
= −2ρV∞ α sin θ dθ (37)
0 2 sin θ 2
π
1 2 2
Z
= − ρV∞ c α sin2 θ dθ (38)
2 0
1 2 2 π
= − ρV∞ c α . (39)
2 2
Defining the leading-edge pitching moment coefficient as
m
Cm,l.e. ≡ 1 2 2
, (40)
2 ρV∞ c

we have the result

πα 1
Cm,l.e. = − = C` . (41)
2 4

5.3.1 Centre of pressure and aerodynamic centre

The centre of pressure is the point through which the action of the resultant aerodynamic force
is equivalent to the total distribution of the aerodynamic force. If the lift is placed at a point x,
it produces a pitching moment about the leading edge

−x` , (42)

and this balances the actual leading edge pitching moment if −x` = ml.e. ,or
x −Cm,l.e.
= . (43)
c C`
For the flat plate this gives x = c/4; i.e. the centre of pressure is at the quarter-chord point.
Note that this result is independent of the incidence.

References
I. H. Abbott and A. E. von Doenhoff. Theory of Wing Sections. Dover, 1959.
J. D. Anderson, Jr. Fundamentals of Aerodynamics. McGraw-Hill, 3rd edition, 2001.
J. J. Bertin. Aerodynamics for Engineers. Prentice Hall, 4th edition, 2002.
H. Glauert. The Elements of Aerofoil and Airscrew Theory. Cambridge University Press, 2nd
edition, 1947.

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E. L. Houghton and P. W. Carpenter. Aerodynamics for Engineering Students. Butterworth
Heinemann, 5th edition, 2003.
B. W. McCormick. Aerodynamics, Aeronautics, and Flight Mechanics. Wiley, 2nd edition, 1995.
L. M. Milne-Thomson. Theoretical Aerodynamics. Dover, 4th edition, 1973.