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Resuspension of allergen-containing particles

under mechanical and aerodynamic disturbances
from human walking

Article in Atmospheric Environment · August 2007

DOI: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.07.061

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RESUSPENSION OF ALLERGEN-CONTAINING PARTICLES UNDER
MECHANICAL AND AERODYNAMIC DISTURBANCES FROM
HUMAN WALKING - INTRODUCTION TO AN EXPERIMENTAL
CONTROLLED METHODOLOGY

C. Gomes1,*, J. Freihaut1,*, W. Bahnfleth1

1
Indoor Environment Center, Architectural Engineering Department, Pennsylvania State
University
University Park, PA 16802, USA

ABSTRACT
Epidemiological evidence indicates that common environmental allergens found in building
reservoirs are strongly associated with the development of bronchial hyper-reactivity (BHR)
or asthma, affecting up to half the population in North America and Europe. Although they
are rarely life threatening, these diseases cause much distress and lost time from school and
work. These diseases are believed inhalation sensitized and developed, suggesting an
aerobiological pathway of allergen-containing carrier particles from reservoir to occupant
respiration. This study presents and develops a controlled and characterized method to explore
the influence of human walking on the aerosolization of allergen-containing particles. Time
resolved particle size distribution and allergen content are measured for particles resuspended
from representative samples of flooring materials and for different sets of floor disturbances
in an environmentally controlled experimental chamber. Initial results, when placed in the
context of previous investigations, indicate the method can be utilized to develop a database
for particle resuspension rates.

INDEX TERMS
Particle resuspension, Resuspension rates & factors, Allergens, Bio-aerosols, Asthma

INTRODUCTION
Epidemiological studies indicate continuing significant increases in health care and
hospitalization of patients for respiratory system related diseases such as asthma. According
to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (Anon), approximately 6% of all Americans
suffer from asthma and approximately 5,000 people die each year of asthma or related
complications. The economic burden of this illness in the United States is estimated at $12.7
billion dollars per year (Anon A). Symptoms of asthma may be triggered in genetically
predisposed individuals and developed in non-atopic individuals by exposure to allergens.
Common indoor allergens are found in cat and dog fur or saliva, cockroach and dust mite
droplets and body parts. After disintegrating, these materials adhere to inert dust in carpets,
upholstery, and other reservoir surfaces making allergens available for secondary
aerosolization when disturbed by human activity (walking, vacuum cleaning, etc.). Specific
allergens associate with different ranges of carrier particle sizes (NAS 2000) and, after re-
entrainment, can stay airborne for relatively long periods of time as respirable particles.

• Corresponding author email: cag945@psu.edu, jfreihaut@engr.psu.edu

The first studies examining the impact of human activity on particle resuspension were
conducted in the 1960’s with radioactive material from the floor of nuclear facilities. The
resuspension factors from these studies and from more recent ones were summarized by the
US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC 2002) and ranges from 6x10-8 to 7x10-4 m-1.
Sehmel (1980) presented a summary of particle resuspension factors caused by mechanical
disturbance from indoor human activities (walking and sweeping) and outdoor activities
(pedestrian walking and vehicular traffic), ranging from 1x10-10 to 3x10-2 m-1. Until the
1990’s, occupancy-related particle resuspension in residential and offices buildings was
seldom explored. Extrapolated resuspension values from the previously nuclear material
studies had very limited application. More recently, due to the increase of particulate-related
respiratory diseases (in particular asthma) and the emergence of CBW attacks on civilian
populations, several studies on indoor particle resuspension have been performed (Table 1,
Weis et al. 2002, Matsumoto 2003). Table 1 summarizes relevant findings.

Table 1. Summary of Particle Resuspension Studies

Floor Ambient Resusp.
Source Location Type Dust Floor Load Conditions Activity Resuspension Part. Size
Hambraeus Hospital Vinyl Bacteria-carrying 1.5x103 T=NR 4 persons walking,
et al. Operation particles 1.6x103 RH=NR 30 min 2.5x10-3 m-1 3-6 µm
1978 Room dp=3-6 µm 3.4x104 Ventl=off Mopping, 10 min 2.0x10-4 m-1 3-6 µm
V=112 m3, A=35 m2 ρ=NR cfu/m2 No air leakge Hair dry jet, 10 min 1.2x10-3 m-1 3-6 µm
Thatcher Residential Bldg Carpet Inert dust Average T=NR 4 persons 1.65x10-8 min-1 0-0.5 µm
et al. 1st floor Wood ρ=1 g/cm3 (assm) 39 µg/cm2 RH=NR walking and 7.33x10-9 min-1 0.5-1.0 µm
1995 V=360 m3 Vinyl Sitting 3.00x10-7 min-1 1-5 µm
A=150 m2 1.38x10-6 min-1 5-10 µm
6.33x10-6 min-1 10-25 µm
5.67x10-7 min-1 >25 µm
Karlsson Experimental NR Grass Pollen 2.6x107 #/m2 T=NR 1 person walking 8.0x10-2 m-1 6.3 µm
et al. Room 6x4 µm RH=NR at 0.7 m2 table 7.8x10-2 min-1 6.3 µm
1996 A=20 m2 dm=6.3 µm 1 hour
ρ=1 g/cm3 (assm)
Karlsson Experimental PVC Freeze dried spores 1x108 #/m2 T=NR 1 person walking 1.8x10-5 min-1 12 µm
et al. Room Bacillus Subtilus or RH=NR 4 persons walking 2.45x10-5 min-1 12 µm
1999 V=45 m3 1.8x0.9 µm 120 mg/m2 75 steps/min
A=15 m2 davg,aglom=12 µm
ρ=1.3 g/cm3
Buttner Experimental Vinyl Penicillium 1x106 cfu/m2 HVAC, HEPA Walking in Vinyl, Comm Crpt
et al. Room Com. carpet Chrysogenum 1x107 cfu/m2 5 Pa pressz prescribed pattern 10-5-10-4 m-1 2-3 µm
2002 Resemb. residentl Resid carpet Spores T=NR 1 minute Resitl carpet
4.0x4.0x2.2 m 1.8x3.5 µm RH=NR 10-3-10-2 m-1 2-3 µm
Ferro Single family Wood NR NR T≈20°C mg/(min.pr)
el al. home Rug RH=NR PM2.5 PM5
2004 Walking on wood 1.27x10-1 4.93x10-1
Vacuum on wood 3.05x10-1 5.45x10-1
Dance on wood 2.00x10-2 1.00x10-1
NR - Not reported; assm - assumed

Allergen concentrations on home floors as well as allergen concentration in the air for
quiescent and disturbed conditions have also been measured and their ranges are represented
in Table 2 (Blay et al. 1997, Custovic et al. 1997, Custovic et al. 1999, Lidia and Salthammer
2003).

Table 2. Reservoir and air allergen concentration

However, the absence of controlled parameters in the experiments of previous studies limits
their application in the health risk assessment. Environmental conditions, such as humidity,
were rarely considered or controlled to isolate their importance in particle resuspension.
Systematic parametric variation, such as floor type, dust type and load, contaminant
concentration in dust load, have not been performed, leading to difficulties in interpreting
available data. Although it is generally accepted that floor disturbance mechanisms are
mechanical, aerodynamic and electrostatic in nature, there is no consensus, explanatory theory
for particle resuspension that can predict the effects of floor surface disturbances on particle
re-entrainment.

This report describes the development of an experimental and analytical methodology to

examine particle surface-to-air aerosolization when reservoirs are subjected to human-related
disturbances. The purpose is to establish a data bank detailing particle resuspension as a
function of floor vibrations and transient near surface air flows, characteristic of human
walking. This methodology was tested by conducting a set of resuspension experiments using
carpet and linoleum flooring loaded with reference quartz and German roach dusts.

RESUSPENSION CHAMBER METHOD

Experiments are conducted in a constructed experimental chamber (400x200x200 mm) with
temperature and relative humidity control. Dust samples are prepared containing various types
of allergen (Bla g 1, Bla g 2, Der p 1, Der p 2, Can f 1 and Fel d 1) separated into precise
particle size (8 bins from 0.4 to >9.0 µm) and allergen concentration ranges. The prepared
dust is uniformly deposited on typical building floor samples (size: 90x90 mm) using
designed particle disperser equipment. The selected surface samples are subjected to
computer controlled levels of aerodynamic and mechanical disturbances, simulating the
disturbance conditions associated with human walking. Resuspended particles are carried by a
particle-free cross air flow and sampled by both optical particle counters (Sensors Inc.,
Semtech PM-300) and a Cascade Impactor (Andersen Mark II, Series 20-800). This air flow
sample provides time resolved particle size distribution and size resolved samples to be tested
for allergen concentration using ELISA assay techniques (Chapman et al. 2000).

The aerodynamic disturbance was simulated with the impingement of six small air jets over
the flooring sample. To understand the walking-related airflow motion nearby the floor,
experiments were developed in a close environmental chamber using CO2 vapor released over
the floor (Gomes 2004). These experiments provided the range of horizontal air velocity and
the visualization of large scale air turbulence resulting from a human walking. The
mechanical disturbance was simulated with a system that replicates field collected floor
vibration data caused by human walking. Floor vibration acceleration generally falls between
0 and 5% of g (gravitational acceleration) with frequencies ranging from 4 to 20 Hz (Hurst
and Lezotte 1970, Chui and Smith 1988, Hanagan et al. 1996, Hanagan et al. 2003). However,
it is not uncommon to find accelerations higher than 70% of g (Hu et al. 1994). Electrostatic
built-up voltage caused by the shoes/floor interaction can reach values higher than 10,000
volts (Robinson-Hahn 1995) and can potentially interfere with surface-to-air particle
aerosolization, in particular organic or organic-containing material. This phenomenon is not
presently incorporated on this research, but will be include in the near future.

RESULTS
Calibrated quartz particles (Particle Technology Limited, Crushed Quartz #10, United
Kingdom) of known density, size distribution and composition are used to establish a basis of
comparison for resuspension behavior with laboratory-produced, German roach dust particles.
Two types of flooring, plastic carpet (100% olefin) and linoleum, were utilized. The floor
samples were uniformly loaded with ≈50 mg of the two types of dust. The temperature was
kept in between 26°C and 28°C and the relative humidity kept constant at 45%. Three sets of
floor disturbance were implemented: (1) floor vibration, (2) air puff and (3) combination of
both. For comparison, clean flooring samples were tested to the same set of disturbance and
revealed no particle resuspension. Figure 2 shows the vibration and aerodynamic floor
disturbance signal used.

Floor Disturbance Signals

0.2
Person Person Person
0.15 approximating passing w alks aw ay

Floor acceleration x 9.807 [m/s 2] 0.1 Air Puff Floor

Vibration
0.05

0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0
-0.05
Tim e (sec)
-0.1

-0.15

-0.2 Vibration
Vibration Vibration
&
-0.25 Air puffs

Figure 2. Floor vibration and air puff disturbance signals

The dust utilized had the characteristics represented on Table 3.

Table 3. Quartz and German roach dust properties

The disturbance lasted 10 minutes, but significant particle resuspension occurred only for the
first two minutes. After the disturbance had begun, a practically instantaneous burst of
resuspended particles was observed. As the disturbance continues, the resuspended particle
count decreased exponentially for about two minutes, returning to the chamber background
particle concentration values. Beyond the second minute, even with dust over the floor
samples, there was little further particle resuspension. Figure 3 shows the peak and average
resuspension factors (RF) and rates (RR) measured.

1.0E-03 1.0E-02
1.0E-04
Peak RR [min -1]

Quartz-Carpet 1.0E-03
Peak RF [m -1]

Quartz-Carpet
1.0E-05 Quartz-Linoleum 1.0E-04 Quartz-Linoleum
1.0E-06 Roach-Carpet 1.0E-05 Roach-Carpet
1.0E-07 Roach-Linoleum Roach-Linoleum
1.0E-06
1.0E-08 1.0E-07
Vibration Air-puff Vib+Air Vibration Air-puff Vib+Air

1.0E-04 1.0E-03
1.0E-05 1.0E-04
Avg RR [min-1]

Quartz-Carpet Quartz-Carpet
Avg RF [m-1]

1.0E-06 Quartz-Linoleum 1.0E-05 Quartz-Linoleum

1.0E-07 Roach-Carpet 1.0E-06 Roach-Carpet
1.0E-08 Roach-Linoleum Roach-Linoleum
1.0E-07
1.0E-09 1.0E-08
Vibration Air-puff Vib+Air Vibration Air-puff Vib+Air

Figure 3. Peak and average RF and RR Results

The average RF and RR are values integrated over every second of the measuring period for
two minutes after the disturbance started. The peak RF and RR are values determined for the
period of one second when the highest particle concentration was observed by the OPC.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Peak RF and RR measured in these experiments ranged from 10-6 to 10-3 m-1 and 10-5 to 10-2
min-1, while average RF and RR ranged from 10-8 to 10-4 m-1 and 10-7 to 10-3 min-1,
respectively. Despite the four order of magnitude range, these values fall between field
measured values found in the literature review.

The main observations derived from the experiments performed were: (1) for a continuous
disturbance, resuspension was only observed during the first two minutes with an initial burst
of particle reentrainment followed by an exponential decrease to undetectable value; (2) air-
puff disturbances had a much higher impact on dust resuspension than the vibration
disturbances; (3) particles were more easily resuspended from linoleum flooring than from
carpet flooring; (4) German roach dust was more easily resuspended by air streams than
quartz dust.

The methodology presented has been demonstrated and proven to be a valuable tool to gather
reliable information on particle resuspension. The controlled environmental and disturbance
conditions, the flexibility to generate different types of disturbances (including a future
electrostatic disturbance), the broad range and flexibility of air sampling, the flexibility to use
different flooring and different dust such as allergen containing dust and surrogate CBW dusts
make it a potential useful tool for particle resuspension research and thereby contribute to the
development of exposure risk models.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank the Pennsylvania State University Institutes of the Environment and the
Indoor Environment Center for financial support.

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