1

"The course of history is like the sea? men

come and go; tides rise and fall# and that is all of

histo ry ", said M iller very rightly* But there was a

time when the historians concentrated their attention

on individuals and ignored the role of social and

economic forces, in the determination of course of

history. Their works were generally p o lit ic a l in

character# because they did not look outside the

framework of p o lit ic s . Consequently, what they composed

by way of history, was exclusively, in d iv id u a listic

in content. The nature of th eir writing history could

be very well crowned in the words of Carlyle who

observed that "history is the essence of innumerable

biographies"•

But, it is now a recognized fact that history

has ceased to function as a mere explanation of the

lives and achievements of the greatmen. Consequently,

history is no longer, confined to the court and camp of

kings. Its scope, has become and is fa st becoming

co-extensive with the lives of masses. In fa c t , no work

can be regarded as genuine history, unless it deals with

the problems of society, affecting the lives of the

 2

co m m o n p e o p l e . O b v io u s ly , t h e m odern h i s t o r i a n s

seem t o have r e e liz e d th e im p o rta n c e of fo rces o th er

th an p o litic s . As such, th e s o c ia l and e co n o m ic

fa cto rs, to a great e x te n t, d e te rm in e , not o n ly th e

course of human life but th a t of h is to r y to o .

The 19t h c e n t u r y t h i n k e r s , K arl M arx in p a r tic u la r ,

p ro fo u n d ly in flu e n c e d th is tra n s fo rm a tio n in th e approach

and m eth o d o f h is to ry . He p r o v id e d th e th eo ry of c la s s

stru g g le and t h e need fo r m a n 's re je c tio n of God end

r e lig io n . W h a tever, m ig h t h a v e b e e n th e im p lic a tio n

of M a rx is t approech to h is to ry , he c e rta in ly m ade

h is to r y a s u b je c t of s o c ia l s ig n ific a n c e , p ro v id in g

to it a s o lid base in m a tter and e n v iro n m e n t® It is

a p p a re n tly fo r th is reason th at M a rx is t th eo ry of

h is to r y is o fte n re fe rre d to as th e "E c o n o m ic In ter­

p re ta tio n of H is to ry ” . H ow ever, we c a n n o t lo o s e sig h t

of th e ro le of in d iv id u a l in th e p rocess of h is to r ic a l

tra n s fo rm a tio n . The a ctu a l p o sitio n can, th e re fo re ,

be su m m e d u p i n th e w ord s th a t h is to r y is th e record

of changes and t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s brought about in hum an

so c ie ty by th e o p e ra tio n of several fo rce s and t h e

^ how ever. in te r -a c tio n b etw een in d iv id u a l and s o c ie ty . It m u st^

be a d m itte d th a t am ong a ll th e fo rce s th a t a ffe ct th e

course of h is to ry , th e e c o n o m ic fa cto r p la y s an

im p o rta n t* r o l e *
 3

V ie w e d in th is co n text, we h a v e every reason

to b e lie v e th a t D. D, K o sa m b i, was one of th e p io n e e r

h is to r ia n s to h ig h -lig h t th e ro le of e c o n o m ic fa cto r

in th e stu d y of In d ia n h is to r y . Am ong o th ers who

co n ce n tra te d g rea ter a tte n tio n on e c o n o m ic aspect and

gave due c o n sid e ra tio n to la n d p ro b le m and a g ra ria n

sy stem , are th e sc h o la rs lik e M o re la n d and Irfa n H a b ib ,

T he m ore im p o rta n t# how ever# is th e w ork o f Irfa n

H a b ib , who m ade u s e of th e la te s t approach and m eth o d

in th e stu d y of a treasu r of source m a te ria l, m uch of

w h ic h had not been m ade u s e of by any o th er sc h o la r

e a rlie r . Thus, m ost of th e c re d it fo r h a v in g draw n

h is to r y out of th e n arrow groove of p o litic s , goes

to Irfa n H e b ib . He i s th e fir s t h is to r ia n of m e d ie v a l

In d ia , who h a s p a v e d th e way f o r th e u n d e rsta n d in g of

th e p ro b le m s co n n ected w ith la n d , its o w n e rs h ip ,

assessm ent of revenue, its c o lle c tio n and v a r i o u s

grades of la n d m anagem ent in m e d ie v a l In d ia , The stu d en ts

of m e d ie v a l h is t o r y of K a s h m ir, sh o u ld fe e l in d e b te d

to h im , fo r he is th e fir s t h is to r ia n to have d isc u s se d

th e a g ra ria n p ro b le m of K a s h m ir i n som e o f its a sp ects,

th o u g h , we m ay n o t agree w ith som e o f h is c o n c lu sio n s.

 4

The e c o n o m ic p r o b le m of K a s h m ir in its

a g ra ria n aspect has been e q u a lly im p o rta n t in th e

h is to ry of K a sh m ir# But no attem p t h a s h ith e r to #

been m ade t o stu d y# u n d erstan d and e x p la in # t h i s

p ro b lem # Of course# th ere are c e rta in w orks of research

stan d ard d on e b y m odern sc h o la rs. One am ong t h e s e &s a

"H is to ry of M u s lim R u le in K a s h m ir * * b y R. K. P arm u.

T h is w ork is e s s e n tia lly a gen eral h is to ry c o v e rin g

th e w h o le p e r io d fro m 1320-1819 A . D . Its m a in a tte n tio n

has been on p o l i t i c a l h is to ry . S in c e # th e p e rio d of

tim e covered by th e w ork, stretch es w e ll over fiv e

h undred years# th e w ork a tte m p tin g to p resen t an o v e r ­

a ll p ic tu re of K a sh m ir h is t o r y # c o u ld h a rd ly do ju s tic e

to e c o n o m ic a sp ect p a r tic u la rly # th e a g ra ria n p ro b le m

of th e p e rio d th a t c o n s titu te s , th e s u b je c t of th e

p resen t stu d y. D r. P arm u h a s d e a lt w ith p o litic a l#

s o c ia l# r e lig io u s # c u ltu ra l and e c o n o m ic asp ects# and

has d ev o ted a ch a p ter of h is th e sis to e c o n o m ic life

of th e p e o p le , and a g ra ria n aspect has re c e iv e d very

lit t le a tte n tio n . T h e re fo re # it does not fu lfil even

e part of t h e purpose# fo r th e a c c o m p lis h m e n t of w h ic h

th e p resen t p ro je c t is u n d ertak en . M oreover R. K. P arm u

has n o t# perhaps# fo r lim ita tio n of space and t i m e

used th e sources w h ic h are ve ry r e le v a n t to our s u b je c t

of stu d y.
 5

A n o th e r w ork o f som e im p o rta n c e , in th is

co n n e c tio n , is " K a s h m ir U nder t h e S u 3b t a n s Mb y M o h i b u ' l

H asan. B e in g lim ite d in scope as t h e t it le su g g e sts,

it has dcm e g r e a t e r ju s tic e to th e e c o n o m ic a sp e ct,

but even so, re fe re n c e s to a g ra ria n p ro b le m in th e

w ork, are fe w . H ow ever, it is r e le v a n t to p o in t out

here th a t th e w ork c o n s titu te s o n ly a background stu d y

fo r purpose o f our p ro je c t.

The th ird w ork of research stan d ard is "S u lta n

Z a ln u * 1- A b i d i n **by N . K . Z u t s h i . T h e w o r k i s c o n fin e d

to th e re ig n o f Z a in u ? 1 - A b id in a lo n e ; o b v io u s ly , its

im p o rta n c e to our p e rio d of stu d ie s is r e le v a n t to its

backgrou nd.

Yet a n o th er w ork c o v e rin g th e e n tire course of

K a s h m ir h i s t o r y fro m a n cie n t to m odern tim e s is *K a s h i r '

in tw o v o lu m e s b y G. M. D. S u fi. The re q u ire m e n t of

w ritin g a fu ll le n g th h is to ry , seem s to have p u t on

th e au th o r c e rta in lim ita tio n s w h ic h gave h im v e r y

lit t le lib e r ty to m ake e x te n s iv e use of th e source

m a te ria l w h ic h is of d ire c t im p o rta n c e to th e p resen t

stu d y. O b v io u s ly , S u f i's w ork ca n n o t and d o es not m eet

th e re q u ire m e n ts of an a g ra ria n h is to r y of K a s h m ir fo r
 6

any p e r io d * S till a n o th e r w ork o f th e sam e c a t e g o r y

is "H i s t o r y of K a sh m ir" b y P„ N. K. B a m z a i. B a m z a i* s

w ork, is of a general typ e and d o e s not m ake an y

co n trib u tio n to th e a g ra ria n h is to ry of K a sh m ir* Its

im p o rta n c e t o th e p ro je c t is a s m uch as th a t of S u f*s

B a s h ir !

H ow ever, *T h e V a l l e y of K a sh m ir* by W. R.

L aw rence, o c c u p ie s an im p o rta n t p o s i t i o n , o th e r th an

th e m odem w orks d isc u s se d above. It is c o n sid e re d to

be an e n c y c lo p a e d ia of K a s h m ir, fo r it is an a u th e n tic

and illu m in a tin g record of th e geograph y of th e v a lle y ;

its flo ra and f a u n a ; s o c ia l cu sto m s; a g ric u ltu r e and

o c c u p a tio n . Its ch ap ter V II is m a in ly d evo ted to a

d is c u s s io n on t h e a d m in is tra tiv e set up of K a s h m ir.

Though th e w ork i s q u ite u se fu l, yet it does not

su p p la n t ou r need in its e n td jjity .

| The proposed p r o je c t has been u n d ertaken to

! m eet th e urgent need fo r a w o rk on a g ra ria n system

' o f K a sh m ir. It was not p ra c tic a b le or even d e s ira b le ,

!,
fo r purpose of a d o cto ra l th e s is , to cover a p e rio d ,

I m ore e x te n s iv e th a n th a t fin a lly chosen ( 1586-1819 A . D ) .

ii
I
Even h e r e , a g ra ria n aspect a lo n e was s e le c te d because

I th is c h o ic e appeared to b e m ore in k e e p in g w ith th e

 7

demands of time, which lays main stress on economic

or social aspects of history, ignoring the p o litic a l

aspects* This selection of t i t l e and period, have made

i t possible, to an appreciable extent, to make an

lndepth study of its own kind, into a very Important

and basic aspect of history of Kashmir*

The ju stific a tio n i a undertaking th is topic

between 1586-1819 A .D ., lie s in the need to expose

the nature of the Mughal and Afghan rule in Kashmir,

with particular reference to th eir agrarian system*

It has been repeatedly asserted by the modem historians

that the establishment of the Mughal rule, brought

in a period of peace, order, development and security

to the people in general and peasants in particular,

who had become fed up with the intrigues that had

occured during the pre-Mughal period in Kashmir* These

writers accordingly, believe that the sudden trans­

formation of power from the Chaks to the Mughals, was

a blessing in so far as it established p o lit ic a l

stability which in tern, helped to promote trade and

fin a lly of bringing about a period of general prosperity

through working out, irrigation projects, carving out

of gardens, etc. which resulted in increase in produce

 8

1
and in c re a s e in tra d e a n d co im n e rce . It is fu rth er

h e ld th a t a ll th e s e c ta ria n d iffe re n c e s w ere b ro u g h t

to an end. To crow n it a ll, th ey c o m p le m e n t t h e M u g h a ls

fo r th e ir w ork o f a rc h ite c tu re *

There is som e t r u t h in w hat t h e s e m odern

h is to r ia n s speak about th e M ughal conquest of K a s h m ir,

But in th e ir e n th u sia sm , m any o f them , fo rg e t th e

fa ct th a t K a sh m ir lo s t its in d e p e n d e n c e fo r years to

com e. M oreover, th e o p e n in g up o f tra d e ro u tes, was

a part of th e p la n of M ughal r u l e r 's to stren gth en

th e ir h o ld over K a sh m ir and t o m a in ta in re g u la r flo w

of s u p p lie s fro m K a s h m ir. The ^ a r r in g i o u t of p le a s u re

garden s and t h e i r b e a u tific a tio n , by p a ssin g th e

irrig a tio n c h a n n e ls th ro u gh th em , w ere th e w orks, w h ic h

th e M ughal r u le r s had done e ls e w h e re , to fu lfil th e ir

sense of a e sth e tic s and t o e n te rta in th e m se lv e s in

p a r tic u la r and p e o p l e in g e n e ra l. It is in te r e s tin g to

n o te th a t ce rta in k u l *s ( c a n a ls ) co n stru cted by th e

M u g h a ls le d w a ters o n ly to p le a s u r e -g a r d e n s . No s u c h

ir rig a tio n p ro je c t as c o u ld be com pared w ith Z a in u 'l-

A b id in ’ s p r o je c ts , w ere u n d ertak en by th e M u g h a ls .

1, P. N. K . B a m z a l , H i s t o r y o f K a s h m i r ? p p 486- 493 ;
R. K. P arm u, H i s t o r y o f M u s lim R u l e i n K a s h m ir ;
P P * 1 0 0 -2 0 0 .
 9

M oreover, som e o f th e sc h o la rs have r e a d ily

h e ld th e v ie w th at th e M u g h a ls r e lie v e d th e p e o p le

and t h e p easan try of c e rta in o b n o x io u s p h y s ic a l and

e c o n o m ic o b l i g a t i o n s , th e m ost im p o rta n t am ong w h ic h

i
was " b e q a r *l « The r e a l i t y is th at th e M u g h a ls d id not

e n tir e ly a b o lis h th e sy stem of " b e g a r wi n K a sh m ir*

N od o u b t, th e p ra c tic e of s e p a ra tin g sa ffro n fro m

flo w e rs , w as m ade a p a id -jo b and c o m p u ls o ry u n -p a id

la b o u r was a b o lis h e d . In th is co n n e c tio n , it re m a in s

fo r us to say th a t th e average of w ages p a id , c o u ld

h a rd ly have been fa ir and ju s t, p a r tic u la r ly , when

th e e le m e n t of fo rce was n o t g iv e n up.

T he M ughal p e n e t r a t i o n in to K a sh m ir, was n o t

m o tiv a te d by any h u m a n ita r ia n c o n sid e ra tio n . They w ere

not in te re s te d in th e d e v e lo p m e n t and p r o g r e s s of th e ir

s u b je c ts ; p a r tic u la r ly , th e p e o p le of th e ru ral areas

who c o n s t i t u t e d th e b u lk of p o p u la tio n in K a sh m ir. Had

it been so, th en A kbar, w o u ld n o t p o s s ib ly , have

1, R. K. P arm u, H isto ry of M u s lim R u le in K a s h m ir.

p p . (0 0-10 0
 10

in c re a s e d th e la n d revenue fro m 1/3 t o . The

p ity is th a t A fo u l F a z l , th e p ro fe s s io n a l court

c h ro n ic le r of Akbar t r i e d to d e fe n d th is d e c is io n

of h is p atro n w ith sa y in g th a t “it w as H is M a je s t y 's

2
act of ju s tic e " .

It is o fte n argued in d e fe n ce of M ughal a d m in is ­

tra tio n th at th e tax stru ctu re was r e la x e d by A kbar,

and J a h a n g ir , th ro u g h , re m itta n c e of tax es lik e 'baj *

1t am qha* and *s i r i d i r i k h t l 1■ But it w o u ld b e a

m ista k e to accept it, as an in d e x of th e ta x a tio n

p o lic y of M u g h a ls . It m ust b e p o in te d out h ere th a t

not o n ly a ll th ese tax es w ere resum ed b y th e ir successors

but som e new t a x e s to o w ere im p o sed upon th e p ea sa n try.

It has a ls o been observed th a t th e freq u e n t v i s i t s of

M ughal em perors, to a la rg e ex te n t, served as a check,

on t h e a c tiv itie s of th e subedars. B e fo re , we d e a l w ith

th e a ttitu d e and p o l i c i e s of th en governors in K a s h m ir,

it seem s re a s o n a b le and n e c e s s a r y to state th e fa ct th at

none of th e M ughal r u le r s v isite d K a s h m ir in order to

1. See fo r d e ta ils ch ap ter " L an d -R even u e and O th e r

C esses, S e c tio n 'A '

2. Ib id ? S e c tio n *C*.

3. R. K. P arm u, op. c it? p$> tcn>-lcrD.

 11

e x e rc is e a c h e c k on t h e u n ju s t and o p p r e s s i v e

a d m in is tra tio n of th e subedars. J a h a n g ir, v isite d

K a s h m ir, a s many as seven tim e s , and each tro o p

w as m eant fo r d e riv in g p le a s u r e and re la x a tio n ,

A kbar, e a rlie r had v i s i t e d K a sh m ir fo r purposes

of h u n tin g and p l e a s u r e . Even A u ra n g z e b , as he v is it e d

K a s h m ir, d id so in th e hope of im p ro v in g h e a lt h .

T h e re fo re , th e secret of tru th of sa y in g th a ts-

can be d isc o v e re d in th e s o o th in g c lim a te and

b ea u ty of K a sh m ir w h ic h m a rv e llo u s ly h e lp e d to

m a in ta in and p r e s e r v e h e a lth and g o o d c h a in of th e

M ughal em p erors.

T h e re fo re , th e a sse rtio n th a t th e im p e ria l

v is its served as a check on t h e a c tiv itie s of th e

governors, is c o n tra d ic te d by th e a ttitu d e and

p o lic ie s of subedars lik e Itiq a d Khan, A fra siy a b

Khan, J a fa r Khan and Abu B a r k a t Khan* T h e ir ‘r e p r e s s i v e

p o lic ie s and r u t h l e s s m eth o d s of ta x c o lle c tio n

to ta lly exposed^ # ie m yth t h a t t h e M ughal ru le r s

a im e d at th e w e lfa re of th e p easan try in K a sh m ir,

These subedars, ra p a c io u s and c r u e l as th ey w ere,

c o m m it t e d m any a cts of ex trem e o p p re s s io n , in flic tin g

 12

great m ise ry on t h e c u ltiv a to r s in p a r tic u la r ,

not w ith s ta n d in g th e fa ct th a t th e c u ltiv a tio n was

th e m a in source of th e s u r v iv a l of th e to ta l econom y

of K a sh m ir. H e ,(p e a s a n t) it w as, who p r o v i d e d fo o d

to th e e n tir e p o p u la tio n and f i l l e d th e treasu ry of

th e state b y p a y in g a ll ju s t and u n j u s t tax es. D u rin g

th e ru le of A fra siy a b Khan, m en d i e d lik e dogs o w in g

to hunger; m any d i e d unw ept and u n s u n g . T h e se m ass

d ea th occured s im p ly because th e M ughal g o v e rn o rs

w ere ig n o ra n t of lo c a l c o n d itio n s and th e y la c k e d th e

necessary a d m in is tr a tiv e e x p e rie n c e and a b ility to

\cope w ith th e c ris is , o fte n cre a te d by th e v ic io u s

W ta ck s of m ost r i o t i o u s and p l u n d e r i n g trib e s of

Poonch and M u z a fa ra b a d * in th e v a lle y . M ost o f th e

governors ru le d on t h e s e c ta ria n b a s is and t h u s ,

exposed th e m yth t h a t th e M ughal state was s e c u la r,

f j.n c h a r a c t e r .

T h e M u g h a ls , w ere succeeded to pow er in K a sh m ir,

by th e A fg h an s who e x c e e d e d th e lim its of o p p re ssio n ,

set by th e M u g h a ls. The A fg h an s observed no s c r u p le s ,

w h ile M u g h a ls d id fo llo w som e, in resp ect of tax es and

e x a c tio n s. T here is no b e t t e r e x a m p le of A fg h an ,

e x p lo ita tio n and o p p r e s s i o n , p ra c tis e d on K a s h m ir i's ,

 13

Thus, it becom es a b u n d a n tly c le a r t h a t m uch

of w hat m ost o f th e m odern h i s t o r i a n s , have sa id about

£
th e M ughal a d m in is tr a tio n , is not co rro b o rated by

th e e v id e n c e o b ta in e d fro m , a fte r a m ore th o ro u gh

and d e e p stu d y of th e re le v a n t sources. The f a c t s as

th ey e m erg e fro m such a stu d y, c o n s titu te th e s u b je c t

m a tte r of th is presen t p ro je c t0

As a lre a d y p o in te d out th at none of th e m odern

w orks have d e a lt and c r itic a lly a n a ly s e d th e p resen t

w ork, th e re fo re , th ere was n o th in g th a t c o u ld le a d

us, d ire c tly to th e sources, very in d is p e n s ib le to

th e s u b je c t. C o n s e q u e n tly , we h ad t o put in a lo t

of la b o u r to e x p lo re r e le v a n t m a te ria l fro m v a r i o u s

lib r a r ie s of th e co u n try, p a r tic u la r ly , th e P e r s ia n

M a n u s c rip t S e c tio n and R e s e a rc h L ib ra ry D iv is io n ,

S rin a g a r, B e sid e s, we had to v is it, v a rio u s o th er

lib ra rie s , a rc h iv e s, a r c h e o lo g ic a l re m a in s etc? w h ic h

are sp read a ll over th e co u fcry. In d o in g so w h ereas,

we w e re a b le to p rocu re s u ffic ie n t m a te ria l fro m

sources p e rta in in g to th e M ughal r u l e in K a s h m ir, we

had to fa ce lo t of d iffic u ltie s in fin d in g s u ffic ie n t

m a te ria l on t h e A fg h an p e rio d in K a s h m ir. The b u lk of

, th e m a te ria l on t h e A fg h an s, was p o l i t i c a l in n atu re.

T h e re fo re , we h ad t o stu d y th e re v e n u e-d o cu m en ts, tra v el

acco u n ts and t h e w h o le lite r a tu r e , over and a g a in , in

order to d e te rm in e th e fa cts th a t c o u ld be c o n sid e re d

u se fu l and n e c e s s a r y to our p resen t w o rt*

 14

H ow ever, it is n e ith e r p o s s ib le nor d e s ira b le

to stu d y w h o le lite ra tu re , in v ie w of th e lim ite d space

and t i m e . T h e re fo re , we e v a lu a t e o n ly such sources, as

are m ost re le v a n t and a b s o lu te ly in d is p e n s a b le to th e

p u rs u it of our p ro je c t. In fa ct, one of th e fu n d a m en ta l

c o n s titu e n ts of m odern h i s t o r i o g r a p h y , is to ju d g e th e

a u th e n tic ity of th e source m a te ria l, u t i l iz e d in th e

w o rk in g out of th e th em e. M odem h i s t o r i o - g r a p h e r s , have

r a tio n a lly a d m itte d t h a t b e fo re b o rro w in g fa cts fro m

re q u ire d ^sources, one m ust sc ru tin ize th em p ro p e rly ,

because h is to ria n is , a fte r a ll,a hum an b e i n g , who c a n n o t

escape fro m v a rio u s cu rren ts of in flu e n c e , w h ic h m ay

u ltim a te ly , a ffe ct h is w ritin g , and e v e n t u a l l y , m ake h im

s u b je c tiv e , to som e e x t e n t , at le a s t. In v ie w of th is

fa ct, an in c re a s in g a tte n tio n has been and is b e in g p a id

tow ard s e v a lu a tin g th e sources am ong a ll h is to r ic a lly

c o n sc io u s c r ic le s of th e w o rld *

K a s h m ir in In d ia , can a lw a y s boast of b e in g th e

p io n e e r, in th e p ro d u c tio n of h is to r ic a l w orks. The

h is to r ia n s of K a sh m ir, in s p ite of th e ir lim ita tio n s ,

show ed an a cu te aw aren ess of th e sources. Thus, K a lh a n a ,

th e fir s t c h ro n ic le r of K a s h m ir, a d m itte d th e v a lid ity

of r e le v a n c e of sources in th e c o m p ila tio n of h is

Raj a t a r a n g in i. He m ade e x t e n s i v e use of sources, lik e

 15

th e N ila m a t P u ran a. M ankhas* S rik a n th a C a rita .

v a rio u s o rd in a n c e s and in s c rip tio n s . The re q u ire m e n t

of u sin g sources w ith c a u tio n , was not lo s t s ig h t o f,

by subsequent a u t h o r 's , w ritin g e ith e r in s a n s k r it

or p e rsia n . In course of tim e , th e s a n s k rit and p e r s i a n

w orks becam e a part of K a s h m ir i's h is to r ic a l tra d itio n ,

so th a t, we lo o k upon th em as sources of our h is to ry .

The fir s t in th e s e r ie s of th ese w orks, is

K a lh a n a * s R a ja ta ra n q in i in s a n s k r it verse. H is tra d itio n

was c a rrie d fo rw a rd by J o n a ra ja , S riv a ra , Suka and

P ra j a ya b h a ta . H ow ever, K a lh a n a 's Rai a ta r a n q in i, fu rn is h e s

th e m ost v a lu a b le in fo rm a tio n on t h e H in d u p e r i o d and

sta rtin g h is n a rra tiv e fro m th e e a rlie s t tim e s , he

com es down t o 1148-49 A . D . T h e w o r k i s w id e in scope,

fo r it th ro w s lig h t on v a r i o u s a sp ects of th e a g re ria n

sy stem , as w ill be seen in th e ch ap ter 1st of our

p ro je c t. B e sid e s, g iv in g p o litic a l h is to r y , it adds

u se fu l in fo rm a tio n on t h e ro le and a c tiv itie s of th e

D am aras. The w ork a ls o m akes m e n tio n of c e rta in

aqraharas, g ran ted to v a rio u s persons and in s titu tio n s ,

out of c h a rity . The w ork, fu rth e r d e a ls w ith th e

courageous attem p ts of A v a n tiv a rm a n at c h e c k in g th e

flo o d s in K a sh m ir and p r o v i d i n g irrig a tio n fa c ilitie s ,

th ro u gh th e c o n s tru c tio n of c e rta in c a n a ls and d am s.

H ow ever, th e w ork is not w ith o u t its lim ita tio n s . It is,

 16

to be p o in te d out th a t th e w ork was tra n s la te d in to

p e rsia n by M u l l a Ahm ad, under th e orders of Akbar and

it was a g a in re -w r itte n in 1590 A . D . , by A bdul Q a d ir

B a d a o n i. Its e n g lis h tra n s la tio n w ith a n n o ta tio n by

M. A. S te in is a v a ila b le in tw o v o lu m e s . The w ork i s

u se fu l fo r our background stu d y.

From 1150 A . D . o n w a r d s , th e c o m p ila tio n of th e

w ork was c a rrie d bp b y J o n a ra ja , t i l l th e year 1459 A . D . —

th e year of c h r o n ic le r 's d ea th . J o n a r a ja 's R a la ta r a n q in i,

h o ld s v ita l im p o rta n c e , fo r it th ro w s lig h t on t h e

s o c ia l, p o litic a l, a d m in is tr a tiv e and e c o n o m ic even ts,

w h ic h occurred over a span of a p p ro x im a te ly th ree

hundred years in K a s h m ir h i s t o r y . The w ork o ffe rs a

d is c u s s io n on t h e D a m ira s and r e f e r s to th e aqraharas,

g ran ted . It a ls o g iv e s a d e ta ile d account of th e even ts,

le a d in g to th e d o w n fa ll of th e H in d u r u l e and t h e

e s ta b lis h m e n t of th e M u s lim ru le in K a s h m ir. The w ork

th ro w s u se fu l lig h t o n rny b a c k g r o u n d stu d y. Its e n g lis h

tra n s la tio n by J .C „ D u tt, is a v a ila b le under th e t it le

of *K in g s of K a s h m ira j

The next in th e s e rie s of th ese h is to r ie s in

s a n s k r it com es t h e R a 1e t a r a n q i n i b y J o n a r a ja 's p u p il

S riv a ra , ( 1459-1486 A . D . ) w hose R a ja ta ra n q in i# i s o fte n

c e lle d as Z a in a ra ia ta ra n q in i fo r b e in g nam ed a fte r

Z a i n u * 1- A b i d i n . T h is is perhaps, th e m ost v a lu a b le source

 17

fo r th e s t u d y ^o f th e a g ra ria n re fo rm s of S u l t a n __

Z a i n u ' 1- A b i d i n in K a s h m ir. For e x a m p le , S riv a ra in

a b id to p ra is e and a p p r e c ia te th e S u lta n w rite s ,

"th at th ere was not a p ie c e of la n d , not a tow n , not

a re g io n and n o t a fo re st, w h ere t h e k in g d id not

ex ca v a te a c a n a l? He f u r t h e r states th a t 't h e k in g

(S u lta n Z a i n u ' 1- A b i d i n ) grew crops in p la c e w h ere la n d s

c o u ld be o b ta in e d w ith d iffic u lty , or w h ere th e y se ld o m

1
y ie ld e d crops b e fo re , on account of c a la m itie s " *

C o n s e q u e n tly , th e w ork g iv e s a d e ta ile d account of th e

s o c ia l, p o litic a l, re lig io u s and e c o n o m ic h i s t o r y of

K a s h m ir, n o tw ith sta n d in g th e fa ct th a t th e w ork i s

lim ite d b o th in space end t im e , As such, th e w ork

e x c lu s iv e ly and e s p e c i a l l y d e a ls w ith th e re ig n of

S u lta n Z a i n u ' 1- A b i d i n , th e m ost re m a rk a b le ru le r of

K a sh m ir. The w ork i s in d is p e n s a b le fo r ou r background

stu d y. Tt has been tra n s la te d in to e n g lis h by J .C .D u tt,

under th e t it le ' K in g s of K a s h m irs '

The o n ly co n tem p o rary and re lia b le source of our

stu d y in se n sk rit is S u k a 's R a ja ta ra n q in l. E s s e n tia lly ,

th e w ork fo rm s a part of th e tra d itio n of p o litic a l

h is to r ie s on K a s h m ir. N e v e r th e le s s , th e au th o r has not

1* K in g s of K a s h m ira ? p. 140,
 18

fa ile d to d e p ic t th e s o c ia l, a d m in is tra tiv e and

e c o n o m ic c o n d itio n s. It o ffe rs a d is c u s s io n on th e

ro le of v a rio u s Z a m in d a r ca stes of K a sh m ir, end g teate

d e a ls w ith th e even ts le a d in g to th e e s ta b lis h m e n t of

M ughal r u le in K a sh m ir. Som e y e a r s of A k b a r 's ru le

in K a sh m ir a re h ig h lig h te d to o . For in sta n c e , th e au th o r

of th is h is to ric a l acco u n t, g iv e s a fu llfite d g e d account

of th e even ts le a d in g to t h e 'Y adqar E p is o d e *. The w ork

a c c o rd in g ly , n arrates th e e c o n o m ic causes w h ic h p a v e d

th e way fo r th e in te rn a l d isse n sio n s am ong t h e D a m ira s

end o th er c h ie fs . Its e n g lis h tra n s la tio n by J .C . D u tt,

is a v a ila b le , under th e title K in g 's of K ssh m ira . The

la s t of th e lin k F ra jy a b h a ta b e lo n g s to la te r tim e s .

Am ong t h e p e r s i a n w orks, th e im p o rta n c e of

T a rik h -i-R a s h id i, T a rik h -i-K a s h m lr and T u h fa t u ' 1- A h b e B ,

as sources of background h is t o r y , can, in no case, be

u n d e r-e stim a te d . T a rik h -l-R a sh id i of Mj_r z e H a id e r D u g h la t,

K a s h g a ri, is th e fam o u s h is to r y of th e T urks of C en tral

A s ia . It co n ta in s very u se fu l in fo rm a tio n on M ir z a

H a id e r 's conquest of K a sh m ir in 1540 A . D . , and t h e

c o n d itio n s p re v a le n t d u rin g th e la s t days of K a s h m ir 's

in d e p e n d e n c e . The c la s s ific a tio n of la n d on t h e b a sis of

its fe r tility , is, perhaps th e m ost r e m a rk a b le fe a tu re

of th is w ork. The w ork c o m p le te d in 1551 A . D . f o r m s a

part of ou r background stu d y. Its m a n u scrip t copy is

a v a ila b le in R esearch P u b lic a tio n D iv isio n , S rin a g a r#

The w ork h a s been tra n s la te d in to e n g lis h by N. E lia s and

E. D. R oss.
 19

T u h f a t u * 1- A h b s b (an on ym ou s) c o m p le te d in th e

m id d le of th e fifte e n th cen tu ry, is q u ite u se fu l in

s u p p la n tin g th e in fo rm a tio n on t h e m a d a d -i-m a 1 ash

g ran ts, a v a ila b le on t h e p re-M u gh al p e r io d .

T a rik h -i-K e s h m ir by S a y y id A li, a ls o c o n s titu te s

a part of ou r background h is t o r y . T h is is th e o n ly e x ta n t

p e rsia n c h ro n ic le , w ritte n , d u rin g th e M u s lim r u le in

K a sh m ir. The w ork is p u re ly s o c ia l and p o l i t i c a l in

n atu re. It was c o m p le te d in 1579 A . D .

B a h a ris ta n -i-S h a h i: (an on ym ou s) is a p e rsia n

w ork, th e c o m p ila tio n of w h ic h was started in 1586 A . D . ,

and was fin a lly c o m p le te d in 1614 A . D . T h e w o r k , is

rare. It th ro w s lig h t on Z u l j u 's in v a sio n in 1324 A . D .

The w ork fu rth e r o ffe rs a d e ta ile d account of th e

a g ra ria n re fo rm s of S u lta n Z a i n u ' 1- A b i d i n in K a sh m ir.

It a ls o th row s lig h t on th e even ts le a d in g to th e

d o w n fa ll of th e C haks, and t h e e s ta b lis h m e n t of th e

M ughal r u le in K a s h m ir (1586 A . D . ) From h e r e on w ard s,

we com e across here and t h e r e re fe re n c e s on p o l i t i c a l

even ts th a t to o k p la c e .in th e v a lle y , t i l l th e cose of

th e year 1614 A . D *

T a rlk h -i-K a s h m irs b y H a id e r M a lik , C h a d u ra , is th e m ost

u se fu l p e rsia n a c c o u n t . ■It o f f e r s co m p re h e n siv e in fo rm a tio n

on th e h is to r y of K a sh m ir, fro m e a rlie s t tim e s to

 20

1619-20 A . D . , t h e y e a r o f i t s c o m p le tio n . T h e w ork

is th e c lo se a b rid g e m e n t of B a h a r is ta n -i-S h a h i* I t is

a sort of th e a u th o r’ s fa m ily a n n a ls# but sid e by sid e #

co n ta in s very im p o rta n t m a te ria l on th e e c o n o m ic and

s o c ia l in s titu tio n s of th e p e rio d under stu d y# The

au th o r fu rth e r a p p ris e s us about th e c irc u m sta n c e s#

w h ic h won h im th e fa v o u r at th e court of M ughal em p eror

J a h a n g ir# who la te ro n # b esto w ed upon H a id e r M a lik # th e

t itle of R a is -u l-M u lk ; and a ssig n e d o n h im th e Z a m in d a ri

and t h e J a g ird a ri of th e v illa g e C hadoora, as w i ll be

know n fro m th e tex t of o u r w ork» S im ila rly , th e a u th o r

g iv e s an account of th e m u rd er o f Sher A fgh an # and how

th e au th o r esco rted M e h ru n -N is a t o J a h a n g ir 's court and

won t h e fa v o u r o f th e em p eror. L ik e w is e # at th e c lo s e

o f h is w ork, th e au th o r g iv e s an account of v a rio u s

strea m s, and c a n a l s , as sources of irrig a tio n in v a rio u s

parganas of th e v a lle y . Such typ e of d e s c rip tio n was

la te ro n , borrow ed by th e a u th o rs lik e N a ra in Koul A jiz ,

Ab. H a m id L a h o r i , and o t h e r s . In our R esearch P u b lic a tio n

D iv isio n , S r i n a g a r # we h a v e a m ic ro film copy of th e

m a n u scrip t*

A in -l-A k b a ri: by S h a ik h Abdul F a z l, was com posed

b etw een 1004-1010 A . H / 1596-1602 A . D . T h e w o r k i s b a s e d

on t h e s ta tis tic a l d e s c rip tio n of v a rio u s e c o n o m ic and

a d m in is tra tiv e asp ects of A k b a r 's re ig n . T he w ork i s

 21

q u ite u se fu l, fo r its o ffe rs a d e ta ile d account of

th e sy ste m of la n d -m a n a g e m e n t in K a sh m ir# as e lse tW h e re

in In d ia * The p o in t to n o te is th a t A in -i-A k b a rl is th e

s u p p le m e n t t o v o lu m e III of A kbam aroa, T h is p e rs ia n

w ork p r e s e r v e d in th e T ra n sla tio n S e c tio n of R esearch,

M a n u s c rip t P u b lic a tio n D iv isio n , S rin a g a r is in th ree

v o lu m e s . Its v o lu m e 1s t h a s b e e n t r a n s l a t e d b y H*

® lo ch m a n n , w h ereas, th e e n g lis h tra n s la tio n of o th er

tw o v o lu m e s is by J a rre tt*

A kbarnam a by Abul F a z l, a p e rsia n w ork in th ree

v o lu m e s, is p reserved b o th in th e fo rm of m a n u sc rip t and

p u b lis h e d tex t, in th e R esearch M a n u s c rip t P u b lic a tio n

D iv is io n , S rin a g a r. It was c o m p ile d b e tw e e n 1004-1010 A . 13/

1596-1602 A . D . T h e f i r s t v o l u m e i s in tw o p a r t s ; one

c o n ta in s th e p re fa ce and t h e h is to ry of A k b a r 's an cesto rs

to th e d ea th o f Hum ayun 963 A . H . / 1556 A . D , w h i l e t h e

second p a r t af d e a ls w ith th e h is to r y of A k b a r 's re ig n

fro m h i s a cc e ssio n to th e end o f th e seven teen th year

o f h is re ig n .

V o lu m e s second and t h i r d fu rn ish th e h is to ry of

A k b a r 's re ig n fro m th e e ig h te e n th to th e end of th e

fo rty six th year and b e g in n in g of fo rty -se v e n th year.

^he w o rk , d e a ls w ith th e p o litic a l h is to r y . B u t, th e

re fe re n c e s to so c io -e c o n o m ic and a d m in is tra tiv e even ts.

 22

are not la c k in g . H ow ever* i t s th ird v o lu m e sta rtin g

w ith t he y ear 1572 A . B m J .605 A . D . , is m ost u s e f u l fo r

our p e rio d of stu d y. B ecause, it c o n ta in s a d e ta ile d

account of th e v is its , w h ic h A kber, o c c a s io n a lly , p a id

to th is d e lig h tfu l part of th e M ughal E m p ire , Som e

p o rtio n s of th e w ork ca n be e x c lu s iv e ly draw n upon fo r

th e sy stem of la n d -m a n a g e m e n t in K a sh m ir? m eth od o f

a ssessm en t? state share? r a i's on v a r i o u s crops, and

s im ila r o th er to p ic s . H ow ever, on o c c a s io n s , Wf A b u l

F a z l, th e court c h ro n ic le r of Akbar in d u lg e s in s h a m e le s s

fla tte r y of A kbar. T h is v o lu m e III of th e w ork h a s been

tra n s la te d in to e n g lis h by H enry B e v e rid g e ,

T u z u k -i-J a h a n g iri: as a M e m o ir, has been c o m p ile d

by E m peror J a h a n g ir ( 1605-27 A . D . ) h im s e lf. It c o n ta in s

a h is to r ic a l account fro m h is a c c e ssio n to th e seven teen th

year of h is re ig n . From h e r e on w ard s, it was c o n tin u e d

under th e s u p e r v is io n of th e em peror b y M a ta m id K h an

and b r o u g h t down t o th e b e g in n in g of th e n in e te e n th year

of J a h a n g ir 's re ig n . T he w ork i s q u ite u se fu l, fo r it

su p p lie s us th e in fo rm a tio n on v a r i o u s a sp ects of th e

a g ra ria n system of K a s h m ir. The d e s c r ip t io n o f v a rio u s

a g ric u ltu r a l crops ra is e d in th e v a lle y , is q u ite

re m a rk a b le . Its e n g lis h tra n s la tio n has been m ade b y

A le x a n d e r R ogers and H en ry B e v e rid g e in 2 v o lu m e s .

 23

Iq b a l-N a m a J a h a n a i r i t b v one o f th e o ffic ia ls

of E m peror J a h a n g ir ’ s c o u r t nam ed M i r z a Mohd A l i a s

Mu’ t a m i d Khan B a k s h i is th e m ost v a l u a b l e source of

in fo r m a tio n on t h e p o litic a l, s o c ia l, e c o n o m ic and

a d m in is tra tiv e h is to r y of J a h a n g ir 's r e ig n in K a s h m ir,

as e ls e w h e re in In d ia . A d e ta ile d account of J a h a n g ir 's

r e ig n , rig h t fro m h i s a c c e ssio n down t o th e year of

h is d ea th and e v e n a lit t le a fte r th a t, is s u p p lie d by

th is r e s o u rc e fu l p e rsia n w ork. Som e p a g e s of th is

h is to r ic a l acco u n t, are e x c lu s iv e ly , d ev o ted to th e r u le

of J a h a n g ir in K a s h m ir, w ith s p e c ia l re fe re n ce to h is

v is its . The w ork f u r t h e r p r o v id e s th e m ost u s e fu l

in fo r m a tio n on t h e a g ra ria n c o n d itio n s of K a sh m ir; its

geography; a d m in is tra tiv e u n its ; m eans of c o m m u n ic a tio n ;

garden s, stream s and c a n a ls ; b u ild in g s ; a g ric u ltu r a l

p rod u ce; dress, m u sic and c u lt u r e ; b ird s and h o r s e s ;

d e sc rip tio n of sa ffro n c u ltiv a tio n , its tra d e and state-

sh are in its prod u ce. S im ila r ly , th e a u th o rs w ork speaks

about th e ja m a dam i o f K a s h m ir i n th e fo llo w in g w ord ss-

(JL$ LAJ 0>)L

The w ork, co n ta in s stray re fe re n c e s on th e c h ie fs of

P a k h li, D am tur and K is h t w a r . . B e s i d e s , it speaks about th e

v is its of P rin c e S h a h ja h a n to K a sh m ir. Its urdu t r a n s la ­

tio n of M ohd Z a k a r i a M a y il is p u b lis h e d , Lucknow , e d * 1974«

 24

M a' a s i r - i - J a h a n g i r i : T h is is a very b e a u tifu l

and rare source of th e h is to ry of J a la lu 'd - D in Mohd

Akbar and h i s so n N u r u 'd - D ln J a h a n g ir, by Kam gar H a s a i n i —

a servan t of th e M ughal co u rt. A c c o rd in g to its au th o r,

th e b o o k was c o m p ile d in th e re ig n of S h a h ja h a n , to whom

th e w ork is d e d ic a te d . It Ijig in s w ith * -

and its c o n c lu d in g p a g e s states- r>

T he w ork g iv e s gen eral c o n d itio n s of In d ia . The w ork

is in th e fo rm of a m a n u scrip t, b e a rin g A/N 329, and is

of fo rty -fo u r fo lio s , in R esearch P u b lic a tio n D iv isio n ,

S rin a g a r.

B adsh ah -n am at by Ab. H am id L a h o r i , c o n ta in s very

u se fu l in fo rm a tio n on t h e a d m in is tra tiv e and e c o n o m ic

h is to ry of In d ia , in th e r e ig n of S h a h ja h a n . B o th its

v o lu m e s in p e rsia n , co n ta in stray re fe re n c e s on v a r i o u s

fe a tu re s of th e a g ra ria n system of K a s h m ir; its geography;

trib u ta ry c h ie fs of T ib e t and t h e i r re la tio n s w ith th e

subedar of K a s h m ir; revenue of K a s h m ir, ja g irs a ssig n e d

to p rin c e s and o t h e r n o b le s ; and a g ric u ltu r a l p ro d u cts0

The im p o rta n c e of th e w ork, perhaps, lie s in th e courageous

a ttem p t, to p ro je c t th e co n d itio n s of th e m ost h i l l y and

 25

fa r-flu n g p rin c ip a litie s of L ittle T ib e t and G r e a t e r

T ib e t, The w ork f u r t h e r o ffe rs us th e in fo rm a tio n on

th e v is its of S h a h ja h a n to K a s h m ir in 1049 A . H . a n d

1055 A . H , T h e a u t h o r h a s p r o t r a y e d t h e s i t u a t i o n o f

th e v is its as un ders- yy

4
■» » •*

H ow ever, th e B adshahnam a o f b o th A m in Q a z w i n i

a n d M uham m ad W a r i s , c o n ta in very lit t le in fo r m a tio n

on t h e re ig n of S h a h ja h a n in K a sh m ir,

Am a l - i - S a l i h O r S h a h l ahan-n araa b y S a lih Kam bu

is yet a n o th er h i s t o r i c a l account in p e rsia n

w h ic h p ro v id e d m a te r ia l r e le v a n t to my p r o j e c t . The

w ork i s in f o u r v o lu m e s, and i s d ev o ted to S h a h ja h a n * s

re ig n as is m ade c l e a r by th e t it le of th e w ork. H ow ever,

its fir s t tw o v o lu m e s e d ite d by G. Y a rd a n i and p r e s e r v e d

in R esearch P u b lic a tio n D iv isio n , S rin a g a r, h ig h lig h t

th e g e o g ra p h ic a l c o n d itio n of K a sh m ir? its revenue—

retu rn s (to ta l ja m a )? a g r ic u ltu r a l p ro d u cts and m i l i t a r y

e x p e d itio n s c a r r ie d out a g a in st th e trib u ta ry c h ie fs

of T ib e t,

Ta rik h -i-S h a h la h a n : T h is is a co n tem p o rary w ork

of h is to r ic a l im p o rta n c e , fo r th e re ig n of S h a h ja h a n , The

tra n s la tio n of th is p e rsia n w ork, was m ade b y G h u la b R a i

d u rin g th e re ig n of R a n b ir S in g h . The copy o f th e

 26

tra n s la te d w ork in P u n ja b i, U rdu, b e a rin g A c c e ssio n

NOs 432 , is a v a ila b le in th e R esearch P u b lic a tio n

D iv isio n , S rin a g a r. The w ork, o ffe rs im p o rta n t

in fo rm a tio n on t h e general co n d itio n s of In d ia . S tra y

re fe re n c e s on t h e e c o n o m ic and a d m in is tr a tiv e even ts

of K a sh m ir, are not w a n tin g . Its c o n c lu d in g pages

(234 a b -244 a b ) are e x c lu s iv e ly , earm arked fo r a d e ta ile d

account of th e ranks co n fe rre d upon v a r io u s n o b le s and

o th er o ffic ia ls of th e state. The w ork a ls o d e a ls w ith

th e ja g irs , b estow ed upon th e o ffic ia ls and t h e U m ara

of S h a h ja h a n 's r e ig n . It fu rn ish e s in fo rm a tio n w ith

regard to th e p o s tin g of th ese o ffic ia ls to v a rio u s

p ro v in c e s of M ughal I n d i a . The w ork f u r t h e r , th row s

lig h t on t h e reven u e-retu rn s o f v a rio u s p arts of th e

M ughal e m p ire , of w h ic h o u r K a s h m ir w a s a p art. The page

N os (79 a b , 88 ab, I 20 a b , 153 a b , 173 a b , 231 a b , and

234 a b ) speak about th e a d m in is tra tiv e and e c o n o m ic

c o n d itio n s of K a s h m ir.

A 1a m q i r - n a m a ; by M uham m ad K a z i m Ib n -i-M u h a m m a d A m in

M u n sh i, is th e co n tem p o rary h i s t o r i c a l account of th e

re ig n of A uran gzeb in K a sh m ir as e ls e w h e re in In d ia *

It o ffe rs d e sc rip tio n about th e geography of K a sh m ir?

ja g irs co n fe rre d ; and t n i b u t a r y z a m in d a rs of T ib e t. The

w ork is e d ite d *
 27

M u n ta k a b -u t-T a w a rik h , o fte n known as M u k h ta sa r-

T a r i k h - 1- K a s h m i r * by a K a s h m iri Brahm an N a ra in Koul

A |iz , is a sh ort h is tp ry of K a s h m ir i n p e rsia n ,

fro m th e e a rlie s t tim e s to 1710 A . D . — th e year of

its c o m p le tio n . Its c o m p ila tio n was u n d e rta k e n at th e

in s ta n c e of A rif K h an -- th e G overnor o f K a sh m ir ( 1710-

11 A . D . ) . F o r o u r p e r i o d , of stu d y, t h e w ork is im p o rta n t,

because it g iv e s m any r e f e r e n c e s on t h e reven ue

assessm ent w h ic h A k b a r , sought to carry o u t th ro u gh

R azi A li in K a s h m ir. The w ork p o r t r a y s th is situ a tio n

T h is h is to r ic a l account a p p ris e s us th a t Akbar cam e t o

K a sh m ir fo u r tim e s . A ccount of h is to r ic a l even ts in th is

w ork e s p e c ia lly , a fte r A k b a r 's r e ig n , are q u ite b rie f*

At th e co n c lu sio n , th e w ork c o n ta in s a d e ta ile d account

of th e p a rg a n a -w is e num ber o f v illa g e r s (q iry a ). As a

source of in fo rm a tio n on p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m ic , and

a d m in is tra tiv e a ffa irs , th e w ork a p p e a r s to be th e

a b rid g e m e n t of th e p e rsia n w orks, v iz ; B a h a r is ta n -i-

Shahi and T a r i k h - i - H a i d e r M a lik . Its m a n u sc rip t copy is

p reserved in R esearch P u b lic a tio n D iv isio n , S rin a g a r.

N a w a d iru * ! A khbar? of Aba R a fiu 'd - D in Ahm ad, c o m p ile d

in 1724 A . D , is p u re ly an a b rid g e m e n t of th e e a rly

h is to r ic a l w ork, v iz , Ba h a r is ta n -l-S h a h i a n d T a r i k h - 1-

H a id e r M a lik . T here are c e rta in re fe re n c e s in it, w h ic h

p ro v id e in fo rm a tio n on c e rta in s o c io -e c o n o m ic , c o n d itio n s

of th e v a lle y ©
 28

W ag a t - 1- K a s h m i r : o f t e n k n o w n a s T a r i k h - i - A z m i .

by M o h d Azam# is th e m ost im p o rta n t h i s t o r i c a l a cco u n t,

co m p ile d in 1159-60 A . H / 1746-47 A . D . T .h e w o r k o f f e r s a

d e ta ile d account of th e s o c ia l, p o litic a l, e co n o m ic

and a d m in is tra tiv e c o n d itio n s of K a sh m ir, fro m e a rlie s t

tim e s , to th e year of its c o m p o s itio n . T h e re fo re , fo r

th e m ost p a r t of our p e rio d of stu d y, th e w ork

c o n s titu te s a b e a u tifu l co n tem p o rary h is to ric a l source.

B e sid e s, p o litic a l even ts, th e w ork p r e s e n t s a v a lu a b le

d e s c rip tio n of th e r e p e rc u s s io n s th a t fo llo w e d , th e

re p re ssiv e p o lic y of th e subedars of J a h a n g ir. The w ork

fu rth e r, h ig h lig h ts th e ro le of v a rio u s Z e m in d a r c a t e s

of K a s h m ir and a p p ris e s us about th e ir u ltim a te fa te .

The w ork is very d e s c rip tiv e so fa r as th e taxes and

o th er in p o sts w ere con ceraed. F o r e x a m p le , th e au th o r

w rite s about th e r e ig n of J a h a n g ir in th e fo llo w in g

The w ork, on th e o th e r hand, a p p re c ia te s th e courageous

a ttem p ts of Z a fa r K han— th e subedar of S h a h ja h a n , to

b e a u tify th e v a lle y of K a sh m ir i n th e fo llo w in g w ord ss-

 29

The w ork fu rth e r d e a ls w ith th e ja g irs and m ansabs

g iv e n to v a rio u s persoas. A c co rd in g to th is h is to ric a l

acco u n t, th e p e o p le of K a sh m ir, once re a cte d to th e

situ a tio n of fo o d -s c a rc ity , by way of b u rn in g th e house

of one of th e o ffic ia ls of subedar A li M ardan K h an . The

w ork, lik e w is e , c o n ta in s b rie f re fe re n c e s on t h e

re p e rc u s s io n s of th e G u ja r r a id e rs of Poonch and

M u za ffa ra b a d . The w ork, o ffe rs th e p a r g a n a -w is e num ber

of th e v illa g e s , w h ic h th e^ seem s to have borrow ed w ith

lit t le v a ria tio n s fro m N a ra in Koul A j i z . In sh o rt, th e

w ork c o n t a in s very im p o rta n t s o c ia l, p o litic a l, e c o n o m ic

and a d m in is tra tiv e in fo r m a tio n , fo r our p e rio d of stu d y .

One o f th e m a n u scrip t copy of th e w ork is a v a ila b le in

our R esearch P u b lic a tio n D iv isio n , S rin a g a r.

G u ls h a n -i-D a s tu rs is th e p e rsia n source of

K a sh m ir, w ritte n by N ath P a n d ith , S /0 T a n i P a n d ith of

A h a lm a r K a sh m ir. Its d a te of co m p o sitio n is 1168 A . H . /

1755 A . D . I t w a s c o m p i l e d i n t h e r e i g n of Ahm ad S h a h

D u rra n i, under th e g o v e rn o rsh ip of Sukh J iw a n M a i. The

m a n u scrip t c o n ta in s e ig h ty ch a p ters. The w o r k dbs c o m p l e t e

but th e lo s s of one ch ap ter on r e v e n u e sta tis tic s is

irre p a ra b le . The w ork c o n ta in s m a te ria l on b o th th e

h is to ry and g e o g ra p h y of K a sh m ir. H ow ever, th e in p o rta n c e

of th is h is to ric a l w ork, fro m th e e c o n o m ic p o i n t of

v ie w cannot be o v e rs ig h te d . The au th o r r e la te s at fo lio

(8 b ) th a t he w rite th is w ork i h is son D iy a Ram

 30

G a u h a r-i-A la m ; by Muhammad A s l a m M u n am i, g iv e s

a h is to r ic a l w o rk fro m th e e a rlie s t tim e s to 1200 A „ H /

1785-86 A . D . T h e w o r k i s d e d ic a te d to Shah A la m II

( 1759-1806 A . D . ) It is a co n tem p o rary h is to ric a l account

fo r th e p e rio d of th e la te r M u g h a ls in K a sh m ir. Though

th e w ork, in its e a rlie r p a ri:, is th e a b rid g e m e n t of

T a rik h -i- N a ra in Koul A jiz a n d Mohd A z a m , it c o n ta in s

u se fu l m a te ria l on t h e so c io -e c o n o m ic co n d itio n s,

p re v a le n t in K a s h m ir, d u rin g th e M ughal r u le . The w ork

th ro w s lig h t on t h e a g ra ria n re fo rm s of Z a i n u * 1- A b i d i n ;

sp eaks about th e reven u e-assessm en t co n d u cted in K a s h m ir,

fo r th e fir s t tim e , un d er A kbar, and p l a c e s b e fo re us

th e fa cto rs w h ic h p erp e tra te d th e situ a tio n fo r 'Y a d g a r

e p iso d e ' in K a s h m ir, as is e v id e n t fro m :-

The w o rk fu rth e r b rin g s to our n o tic e th e d e s tru c tio n

w h ic h was brought upon one of th e le a d in g fa m ilie s of

Chaks in K a s h m ir as is c le a r fro m :-

(V - j\ ^ c s 1 jV

It th ro w s lig h ts on t h e s ta te -p o lic y of S h a h ja h a n 's

re ig n in th e fo llo w in g w ord ss-

£ > ]//

li/T,dli/Cj U-sill >

S . Z - iS U S y *
 31

S im ila r ly , th e w ork w r i t e s about th e r e ig n of

M u za ffa r K han— th e subedar o f A u ran gzeb in th e

fo llo w in a w ord s*-

T he w ork a ls o o ffe rs an account of th e r a id s of

G u 1a r trib e s and t h e d e s tru c tio n th a t fo llo w e d th ese

r a id s . The w ork c o n c lu d e s w ith th e re ig n of Abu B a r k a t

K han as is e v id e n t fro m th e d a tes-

1
B a q h - 1- S u l s m a n s b y M ir S a 'a d u - u lle h Shahabadi ,

is a h is to r ic a l account in p e rsia n verse, fro m th e

e a rlie s t tim e s to th e re ig n of A fg h an s, Its d a te of

co m p o sitio n is w ro n g ly w rittd n as 1194 A . H ./1780 A . D . ,

It becom es c le a r w hen we com e across th e even ts of th e

re ig n of Jum a Khan A l a k z a i ( 1787-93 A . D . ) in th e w ork.

B e sid e s, b e in g a co m m en ta ry on t h e S u f i's and S a in ts,

th e w ork is th e m ost im p o rta n t source of in fo rm a tio n

1. M ir S a 'a d u l l a h 's f a t h e r , w as a c t u a l l y t h e r e s i d e n t
o f K a b u l and h a d s e t t l e d in o n e o f t h e p a r g a n a s
(S h a h a b a d ) o f K a sh m ir, lo n g b e f o r e t h e b i r t h o f h i s
s o n ( M ir S a ' a d u l l a h ) , who w as a g r e s t i n t e l l e c t , and
a s s u c h , c e r t a i n b o o k s i n p r o s e a r e a s c r i b e d t o h im
( S a b e e r A f a q l , J a l w a i - K a s h m i r , L a h o r e ; p . 45 , n . d . )
 32

on t h e even ts th at to o k p la c e in K a sh m ir, d u rin g th e

re ig n of th e A fg h an s. It o ffe rs a d is c u s s io n on t h e

re p re ssiv e ta x a tio n p o lic y of th e A fg h a n s, w h ic h o fte n

ren d ered th e p easan ts in p a r tic u la r , h o p e le ss and f o r c e d

th em fo r m ig ra tio n to o th er p arts of In d ia , fo r e c o n o m ic

c o n sid e ra tio n s. In its fo lio s ( 188 a - 193b ) , th e au th o r

has fa ir ly co m m en ted o n t h e im p lic a tio n s and t h e

consequences of th e taxes, im p o s e d . In its e a rlie r p art,

th e w o rk m a in ly fo llo w s N a ra in Koul A jiz a n d Mohd A z a m .

Its m a n u scrip t copy is a v a ila b le in our R esearch P u b lic a ­

tio n D iv isio n , S rin a g a r#

M u lm u -u t-T a w a rik h : is a ls o known as K h u le s a t-u t

T a w a rik h or T a rlk h -i-K a s h m ir, by B irb a l K ach ru . It is a

h is to ry of K a sh m ir, fro m th e e a rlie s t tim e s to 1251 A . H /

1835-36 A . D . F o r t h e e a r l y p a r t o f h i s w ork, th e au th o r,

s e e rrs m a in ly to have r e lie d upon th e s a n s k rit and p e r s i a n

sources lik e Raj a ta r a n q in i, T a rik h -i-H a id e r M aJk, T a rik h -

i-N a ra in Koul and T a r i k h - i - A z m i . The w ork co n ta in s m uch

m a te ria l on t h e M u g h a ls and t h e A fg h an s. The fa ct is th a t

th e au th o r was a w itn e s s to th e s o c ia l, p o litic a l,

e c o n o m ic and a d m in is tr a tiv e even ts, th a t occurred in

K a sh m ir, d u rin g th e ru le of th e A fg h an s. Thus, h ere lie s

th e im p o rta n c e of th e w ork, w h ic h t h r o w s im p o rta n t lig h t

on v a r i o u s a sp ects of th e a g ra ria n sy stem of K a sh m ir. To

start w ith , th e w ork o f f e r s a d is c u s s io n on t h e consequences

of th e tax es w h ic h K a rim d a d K han im p o se d on t h e p e o p le in

 33

general and t h e p easan ts in p a rtic u la r; The w ork

says th a t K a rim d a d Khan d e m o n o p o l is e d t h e tra d e of

sh a li and sa ffra n , and t o co m p en sa te th e lo s s e s w h ic h

fo llo w e d th is d e c isio n , he (K a rim d a d Khan) fo r th e

fir s t tim e im p o se d t a x e s on t h e shaw l in d u stry . The

d e s c rip tio n of th e e c o n o m ic c o n d itio n s, is g iv e n by

th e au th o r in th e fo llo w in g w ordss-

a , 16jj J/ ^ v1^ ^ '

u-j l j t > ] ^ j (iti

l> O j lj/ cv (J 0 \ j y j J

5- ( z fs b>

A c c o rd in g to th e w ork, th e la n d -re v e n u e sy stem of th e

M u g h a ls, was d is r u p te d by th e A fg h an s. The w ork a ls o

m akes m e n tio n of th e ro le of th e Kant fa m ily , d u rin g

our p e rio d stu d y; It states th a t under th e A fg h a n s,

R a io u ri, Poonch and K ish tW a r, fu n c tio n e d as th e trib u ta ry ^

^ p rin c ip a litie s of th e A fg h an ru le rs of K a sh m ir. T h is h is to ric a l account

a ls o d e a ls w ith th e fa m in e s and f l o o d s th a t b e fe ll th e

p e o p le , o c c a s io n a lly , and t h e m easures w h ic h A b u l H asan

Bandey a d o p ted to rem edy th e d istre sse d p e o p le of th e

c ity and t h e tow n s. In sh o rt, M a im u t-u t-T a w a rik h , is

th e m ost u s e fu l and i n f o r m a t i v e p e rsia n source, fo r th e

stu d y of s o c ia l, p o litic a l, a d m in is tra tiv e and e c o n o m ic

h is to r y of K a s h m ir, d u rin g our p e rio d of stu d y.

 34

K e e fy a t-i-In tiz a m -i-M u lk -i--K a sh m ir: T h is h is to ric a l

n a rra tiv e was c o m p ile d by R a m jo o D h a r - R a is-i-K a sh m ir.

Though, it is q u ite b rie f, it co n ta in s v a lu a b le account

of th e p o litic a l, e c o n o m ic and a d m in is tr a tiv e h is to ry

of K a sh m ir, rig h t fro m th e b e g in n in g of th e A fgh an ru le .

It d e a ls w ith v a rio u s a sp ects of th e a g ra ria n sy stem

of K a sh m ir fro m 1766 t o 1883 A . D . Its fir s t ch ap ter is

e x c lu s iv e ly draw n upon t h e ’d i s c u s s i o n of th e h is to r ic a l

even ts d u rin g th e A fg h a n ru le , and its ch ap ter second

is d evo ted to th e d is c u s s io n of th e a g ra ria n sy stem

of K a sh m ir, g iv in g a co m p re h e n siv e account of th e state-

share; m eth o d o f assessm en t; and m ode o f c o lle c tio n .

T here are re fe re n c e s a ls o to th e la n d -re v e n u e fu n c tio n a rie s

and t h e i r in te rc o u rs e w ith th e p easan try. It a ls o fu rn ish e s

th e s ta tis tic a l fig u re s of th e to ta l reven ue of K a sh m ir,

d u rin g th e re ig n of Mohd A z im Khan. The im p o rta n c e of

th e w ork, perhaps, lie s in th e fa ct th a t th e a u th o r h as

g iv e n a d e ta ile d account of th e la n d -re v e n u e system

and i t s e s s e n tia ls , of th e tim e s when t h e concept of

d is c u s s in g , th e a g ra ria n sy stem , was s t ill in in fa n c y .

The w o rk is in th e fo rm of a m a n u sc rip t in R esearch

P u b lic a tio n D iv isio n , S rin a g a r*

L u b b -u t-T a w a rik h : B h a u 'd - D in K h u sh n a v is com posed

th is h is to ric a l w ork fro m th e e a rlie s t tim e s to 1262 A . D /

1846 A . D . — t h e y e a r o f i t s c o m p le tio n . The w ork i s in

tw o p a r t s . P art fir s t d e a ls w ith th e p o litic a l h is to r y of

 35

K a sh m ir, fro m th e d e s ic c a tio n of th e v a lle y u p to

its tra n sfe r to M a h a ra ja G u la b S in g h of Ja m m u (1846 A . D . ) ,

The second p a r t is a d e ta ile d and c o m p re h e n s iv e account

of th e geography of K a s h m ir; its revenue and a d m in is tra tiv e

sy stem . It a ls o c o n ta in s th e h is to ry of th e a g ric u ltu ra l

prod u ce of th e v a lle y . The sty le of th e c h ro n ic le is

s im p le and r e a d a b le . H ijra as w e ll as B ik ra m i d a te s

h ave been used in it. Its part fir s t is a v a ila b le at

P a tia la A rc h iv e s R e p o sito ry ( M / 785 ) ,

G u lz a r-i-K a s h m ir s A p a rt fro m G u le b -n a m a , D iw a n

K r i p a Ram , th e c h ie f M in iste r of M a h a ra ja R a n b ir S in g h

( 1857-85 A . D . ) com posed, yet an o th er h i s t o r i c a l account

in p e rsia n , n a m e ly Gu l z a r - i - K a s h m l r in 1857 A . D . It was

w ritte n at th e in sta n c e of ju d ic ia l C o m m issio n e r o f th e

P u n ja b ( 1818-68 A . D . ) It is th e h is to ry of K a sh m ir fro m

th e e a rlie s t tim e s u p to 1857 A . D . F o r i t s e a rly p art,

m a in sources of in fo rm a tio n w ere Raj a ta r a n q in i, T a rik h -i-

H a id e r M a lik , Ta r ik h -i-B ir b a l K ach ru and such o th er w orks,

G u lz a r-i-K a s h m ir d e sc rib e s not o n ly th e p o litic a l h is to r y

but a ls o d e a ls w ith th e g e o g ra p h ic a l fe a tu re s of K a s h m ir;

its w onders, fam o u s sp rin g s, stream s, riv e rs and M ughal

gard en s. Its copy is sto ck ed in S. P. S. L ib r a r y , S rin a g a r,

 36

T a rik h -i-K a s h m ir: K h a lil M irja n p u r i, c o m p ile d th is

p e rsia n w ork, at th e in sta n c e of R a ja k a k D har, in th e

tim e of M a h a r a ja G u la b S in g h ( 1846-57 A . D . ) T he w ork

starts w ith th e d isic c a tio n of th e v a lle y and ends w ith

th e S ik h ru le , to th e la s t phase o f w h ic h , th e au th o r

was h im s e lf a w itn e s s. The w ork c o n t a in s in fo rm a tio n on

th e p o litic a l, s o c ia l, e c o n o m ic and a d m in is tra tiv e life

of th e p e o p le . Though th e w ork i s not re le v a n t to our

p e rio d of stu d y, but its ce rta in re fe re n c e s are v e ry

w e ll co rro b o rated by th e e a rlie r w orks lik e T a rik h -i-

N a ra in K o u l . £ 1 1 S ju T a r i k h - i - A z m l and T a r i k h - i - B i r b a l K ach ru ,

w h ic h g iv e it a b it of w e ig h t in d e fe n ce . H ow ever, th e

w ork, la c k s th e sfp rit of h is to r ic a l c o n tin u ity . Its

m a n u scrip t copy is a v a ila b le in R esearch P u b lic a tio n

D iv isio n , S rin a g a r*

Waj i z - u t - T a w a r i k h : The au th o r of th is m a n u scrip t

is G h u l a m Muhamm ad N a b i , and n o t M u lla h A b d -u n -N a b i, as

is stated by th e au th o r of T a rik h -i-H a sa n . It covers th e

p e rio d fro m th e o r ig in of K a sh m ir u p t o 1893 A . 0 * , and it

is a short p o litic a l h is to r y w ith a b rie f account of th e

m u slim sa in ts. It a ls o n a rrates th e g e o g ra p h ic a l fea tu res

of K a s h m ir and t h e c h ro n o lo g y of its r u le rs fro m e a rlie s t

tim e s . The w ork th ro w s lig h t on t h e n a tu ral c a la m itie s

BHat t h a t b e fe ll th e v a lle y , d u rin g our p e rio d of stu d y*

 37

D a s tu r-u l-A m a l: T h is w o n d e rfu l s ta tis tic a l

docum ent in p e rsia n was c o m p ile d in 1835 (1895 B i k r a m i )

under th e s u p e rv is io n of M u n s h i M i r M o h a m m ad , d u rin g th e

g o v e rn o rsh ip of C o l o n e l M ahan S i n g h under th e s o v e rig n ty

of th e S ik h s . The in q p o rta n ce of th is docum ent lie s in

th e fa ct th a t it is a m in e of in fo rm a tio n and th ro w s

sy ste m a tic lig h t on e v e r y aspect of life in K a sh m ir.

Though t h e docum ent d o e s n o t m ake d i r e c t re fe rn c e s to

our p e rio d of stu d y, yet its stu d y is a s s e n tia l in v ie w

of th e fe e t th at it was c o m p ile d o n ly a lit t le a fte r th e

A fg h an ru le and it is not very lik e ly th a t any s u b sta n tia l

change in la n d -re v e n u e a d m in is tra tio n c o u ld have tak en

p la c e under th e S ik h s w ith in th e sh ort tim e span of

o n ly fifte e n years ( 1819-35 A . D . ) *

T a r ik h -i-H a s an : It is th e m ost co m p re h e n siv e and

coherent of a ll th e in d ig e n o u s p e rsia n sources of K a s h m ir.

It w as c o m p ile d b y G h u la m H a s a n K h u ih a m i and c o n t a in s

h is to r ic a l m a te ria l fro m th e e a rlie s t tim e s to 1302 A . H /

1885 A . D . T h e w o r k i s in fo u r v o lu m e s . Its fir t v o lu m e

d e a ls w ith th e g e o g ra p h ic a l fe a tu re s of K a s h m ir, its

flo ra and fa u n a , a g ric u ltu ra l p roduce, n a tu ral c a la m itie s ,

a rc h a e o lo g ic a l re m a in s and v a r io u s tra d es. V o lu m e second

n arrates, p o litic a l h is to r y fro m th e e a rlie s t tim e s . T h is

part has been m o stly u se fu l in my s t u d y fo r it th ro w s

en orm ous lig h t on v a r i o u s asp ects of th e a g ra ria n sy stem

of K a sh m ir. The im p o rta n c e of th is v o lu m e lie s in th e fa ct

 38

th a t th e au th o r, am ong a l l th e in d ig e n o u s c h ro n ic le rs ,

has o fte n used th e term s *K h a s a ' fo r K h a lis a and 1b t o m U *

fo r Z a m in , and i t s h o ld e r as Z a m in d a r. Its th ird and

fo u rth v o lu m e s are d e v o te d to d is c r ip tio n of th e sa in ts,

s c h o la rs and p o e t s , who f l o u r i s h e d in K a sh m ir m o s t ly

d u rin g th e S u lta n a te and th e M ughal p e r io d s in K a sh m ir.

Its 1s t , 2n d a n d 3r d v o l u m e s a r e p u b l i s h e d . Its second

v o lu m e h a s been tr a n s la te d in to U rdu b y M a u lv i Ib ra h im

in 1957 A . D . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h i s w o r k l i e s in th e

fa c t th a t th e even ts d isc u s se d are la rg e ly co rro b o rated

by p e rsia n sources of N a ra in Koul A jiz , M ohd A zam and

B irb a l K a c h ru w h ic h are co n tem p o ran eo u s and re le v a n t

to my p e r i o d end s u b j e c t of stu d y r e s p e c tiv e ly . T h is

w ork is p reserved in R esearch P u b lic a tio n D iv is io n ,

S rin a g a r.

A part fro m th ese sources, th ere are som e T a z k i r a s

p reserved in th e R esearch M a n u s c rip t. P u b l i c a t i o n D iv isio n ,

S rin a g a r. These in c lu d e T u h f a t u * 1- F u q a q a r a of Muhammad

M urad T a n g , R o u z a t u * 1- A r i f i n by Z ia -u d -D in K is h tw a ri,

F u t u h a t - 1- K u b r a v i v a b y A b d u l W ahhab (1749 A . D . ) K h a w a riq u * s

S a llik ln by M u lla b in 'A b d u s Sabur (1100 A . H /1698 A . D . )

T u h f a t u * 1- F u q a r a , g iv e s a fu ll-fle d g e d d e sc rip tio n of

th e s u fis and s a in ts of 18t h c e n t u r y K a s h m i r , ,

R o u z a t u ' 1- A r i f i n , is a b io g ra p h y of Q a d iri

sa in ts of K ish tw a r.
 39

F u tu h a t-i-K u b ra v iv a . is a ta z k ira in p e rsia n

of th e K u b ra v iy a o r d e r of m u s lim m y s t i c s of b o th K a sh m ir

and I r a n . It a ls o sheds lig h t on t h e ' w a q f-n a m a 'o f th e

K h a n c ra h -i-M u lla , S rin a g a r, w h ic h to a great ex ten t,

h e lp s us to u n d erstan d th e n atu re of th e 'w a q f ' g ra n ts,

m ade in K a s h m ir, d u rin g th e p re-M u gh al and p o s t-M u g h a l

p e rio d *

K h a w a riq u * s - S a l l i k l n # th row s a good deal of

lig h t on th e s o c ia l aspect and d ra w s upon b io g r a p h ic a l

account of a lm o st a ll th e K ub ravi and R i s h i sa in ts of

K a sh m ir. Its (MS) copy is reserved in R esearch P u b lic a tio n

D iv isio n , S rin a g a r*

B e sid e s th ese ta z k ira s, th ere are som e e p i s t o l a r y

c o lle c tio n s in R esearch P u b lic a tio n D iv isio n , w h ic h

p ro v id e us w ith in fo r m a tio n on s o c ia l, e c o n o m ic and

a d m in is tra tiv e c o n d itio n s of th e p e rio d . These c o lle c tio n s

have been e d ite d by v a rio u s persons and m ost o f th em are

of A u r a n g z e b 's re ig n . These in c lu d e th e le t t e r 's a ls o *

They b e a r th e A c c e ssio n Nos 2193, 2675, 2776, 3102,

3102, 3103 e t c .

'The h i s t o r i c a l a cco u n ts of th e E uropean t r a v e lle r 's

who w r o t e about th e r e a litie s of life in .K a s h m ir cannot

be set a s id e . Am ong t h e s e w ere S t. J. X s iie r, P ^ ls a C r t,

B e rn ie r, G eorge F o r s te r , M ir Iz z a tu lla h , M o o rcra ft and

G eorge T rebeck, G. T. V ig n e , F ra n c is Younghusband,

 40

F re d e ric D rew , A. H. F ran eke and o t h e r s . T h e ir acco u n ts

th ro w lig h t on t h e s o c io -e c o n o m ic c o n d itio n s of th e v a lle y *

B e sid e s, th ese tra v e lle r s a cco u n ts, we ca n not o v e rlo o k

th e im p o rta n c e of th e a r c h a e o lo g ic a l re m a in s , and

in s c rip tio n s m ost im p o rta n t of w h ic h are th e J a m ia -M a s jid

and K a th i-D a rw a z a In s c r ip tio n s at S rin a g a r*

B e fo re c o n c lu d in g , it is w o rth w h ile to re fe r

to th e im p o rta n c e of som e reven u e-d o cu m en ts p reserved

in th e R esearch P u b lic a tio n D iv isio n , S rin a g a r. These

d o cu m en ts in c lu d e som e s a l e - d e e d s to o . W h ile m ost o f

th ese are of th e re ig n of A urangzeb, som e b e l o n g to la te r

tim e s to o . They p o in t to th e gran t of j a q irs, m a d a d -i-

ma* a s h and a ls o re fe r to th e a lie n a tio n of th e la n d e d

p ro p erty in th e c ity and t h e tow n s of K a s h m ir. M ost of

th ese d o cu m e n ts are e n lis te d in th e c o lle c tio n s b e a rin g

A c ce ssio n NO: 574 . A l m o s t a l l o f t h e m a r e c a r e f u l l y

d a ted . H o w e v e r som e o f th em do n ot bear any A c c e s s io n N o: