CHAPTER 4 Foundations

4.1 Soils and their characteristics

Review Task 1, p109
Place these soil types in ascending order of strength: clay, sand, chalk, sandstone, silt
and peat.

It must be recognised that within each classification of soil there is a variable strength
range and as such the categories may overlap and may be subject to exceptions. In
general, however the following cart indicates the typical strength of the various types:

Soil Type Typical Safe Bearing Capacity kNm2

From BS 8004
Rock
Igneous 10 000
Limestone/Strong Sandstone 4 000
Slate 3 000
Shale 2 000

Cohesionless Soils
Gravel/Sand Dense > 600
Medium 200 - 600
Loose < 200
Sand Compact > 300
Medium 100 – 300
Loose < 100

Cohesive Soils
Clay Very Stiff/ Stiff 150 -600
Firm 75 - 150
Soft/Silt < 75

With reference to a site with which you are familiar try to make a list of possible
contaminants that might affect the construction process.

The following table is a useful aside-memoire to the process of identification of

possible contaminants:

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Contaminant Signs Action

Metals Affected Vegetation Extraction of contaminated matter

Surface Materials or Cover technology

Organic Compounds Affected Vegetation Biological remediation, extraction of

Surface Materials affected matter or cover technology

Oil /Tar Surface Materials Extraction of affected matter

Asbestos /Fibres Surface Materials Extraction of affected matter or

Cover technology

Combustible Matls. Surface Materials Cover technology with venting facility

Fumes/odours or extraction of affected matter

Gasses (Metane/CO2) Fumes/odours Barrier or cover technology

Refuse /Waste Surface Materials Extraction of affected matter or

Fumes/odours cover technology

Identify the soil type in the place where you live and list the general characteristics of
such soils.

In order to assist with this consider the particle size of the soil and refer to the text in
the book to consider some of the characteristics of the soil.

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4.2 Functions of foundations and selection criteria

Review task 2, p112

Generate a simple matrix that relates the functional requirements of foundations to

different types of foundation that you are familiar with.

The following comparative study is a useful guide :

Option Advantages Disadvantages When to use

Raft Economic due to Requires specific Lightweight structures on
foundations combination of treatment for point ground of relatively poor
foundation and floor loads. strength.
slab. Potential for edge Used in areas of filled ground
Shallow form erosion of not with mixed/poor bearing
requires little treated properly capacity
excavation.
Can cope with
mixed/poor ground
conditions
Pad Shallow form of Can become very Ideal solution for point loads
foundations foundation needs large if used for from framed buildings if
little excavation. high point loads. bearing capacity close to the
Shape can be Limited to dealing ground is sufficient
designed to with point loads
accommodate tight
sites.
Economic due to
control of size
Bored piles
CFA Piles Speed of installation Not appropriate for Used on sites with known
No need to support areas of filled ground conditions for
excavation during ground etc. buildings of moderate loads.

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 installation If voids are present Often used for smaller
Quiet and relatively can bleed grout into buildings.
vibration free open areas Used in sites where nuisance
Limited maximum is a significant issue
diameter of pile
restricts
loadbearing
Large Can cope with heavy Require relatively Large buildings with heavy
diameter loads. consistent soil loads.
bored piles Large diameter allow conditions. Under-reamed piles used
fewer piles to be Large plant where loads are very high
used in a group required to
No need for excavate
permanent support of
using bentonite
Driven Provide element of Problems where Sites with poor general
piles ground dimensional ground conditions. Often
consolidation. stability of the used in cohesionless soils
Can cope with ground is an issue.
variable ground Difficulties
conditions. encountered where
Made off site and there is demolition
quality maintained debris in the ground
due to factory
production

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4.3 Shallow foundation forms
Review Task 3, p121
Generate a list of criteria against which you might judge the performance of different
shallow foundation options.

It is important to remember that the performance of foundations is based on an

interface between the loadings from the building and the supporting ground or strata.
In all cases the most economical solution will be selected, provided that it satisfies the
performance requirements.

Factors related to ground conditions:

Bearing capacity of the ground: This is one of the key elements in the selection of
appropriate foundations for all types of building.
Depth of good strata: Although the area upon which the building is to be constructed
may provide ground of appropriate bearing strength, this may be at a
considerable depth below the surface. In these circumstances the use
of a shallow foundation form is unlikely to be efficient or cost
effective.
Composition of the ground: Ideally the construction of buildings takes place on sites
with uniform, stable ground conditions. The increasing trend to build
on ‘brownfield sites’, driven by the need to develop in a more
sustainable way has led to greater variability in ground composition.
It is not uncommon to find buildings being constructed on sites that
feature areas made up of filled ground.
• Ground level and gradients: It is quite rare for building sites to be truly flat and
level.

Factors relating to loads from the building:

The nature of framed buildings is such that the loads are likely to be concentrated at
the point of application, i.e. the column bases. Hence the use of pads and piles tends

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to be most common. However, there may be situations where there are also uniformly
distributed loads, such as from masonry cladding for example. These must also be
dealt with and a combination of foundation solutions may be applied in a given
situation.

With reference to buildings that you know attempt to select an appropriate foundation
using your list of criteria.

Consider the list of criteria and attempt to make a judgement based on you
knowledge. Ask your tutor to comment upon your choice.

4.4 Deep foundation forms

Review Task 4, p132
Prepare a list of the criteria that you would apply to select an appropriate pile form for
a framed building.
The selection of piled foundations, or any other form of foundations, must take into
account the various factors that combine in the functional performance of the
foundation. These are the location and context of the building, the nature of the soil,
the nature of the loading and the extent of the loading. Within each of these areas we
need to make judgements based upon the specific circumstances of the individual
building. These can be considered as criteria that may be referred to in selecting
appropriate piled forms:

Some examples of typical questions that should be asked are:

Building location and context:

Are there any buildings/structures close to the new building?
Is ready access available for deliveries etc?
Will noise from vibration be an issue?

Nature of the soil and site:

Is the soil cohesive or non-cohesive?

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What is the depth of the bearing strata?
What level is the water table?
Is the ground uniform in composition?

Nature & extent of the loading:

Is the loading distributed over a regular grid pattern?
Does the position of the pile relative to the column result in rotational load?
Does the loading result in localised, heavily concentrated loads?

The following summary may be useful:

• Location: the proximity to adjacent structures must be taken into account
and the possibility of damage arising from the installation of driven piles
often results in the selection of bored or CFA piles for congested sites.
• Nature of the ground: the ground conditions restrict the type of piles that
can be readily installed in some circumstances. For example the use of
driven piles in soils that contain demolition debris, rocks and boulders is
not advisable. In clay soils where heave can be problematic, driven piles
may cause exacerbation of the problem and are ill advised. Similarly, the
use of bored piles in cohesionless soils which have significant mobility
would be considered unsuitable.
• Cost: the most economical design solution that effectively meets the
performance needs of the foundation will generally be the favoured option.
• Structural performance: naturally the need to adequately support the loads
from the building and the ability to cope with the nature of such loadings is
an essential factor in selecting piles.
• Durability: the ability of the pile to survive the conditions in which it is
placed is another essential factor which particularly limits the choice of
materials used to form the pile.

Apply the criteria in your list to a range of buildings in the area where you live.

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Take each of the factors noted in the question above and apply them to your chosen
buildings. There are no right or wrong answers to this but the process of applying the
criteria will be interesting.

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