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Suggested Cit+tion:"6. Le+rning With Underst+nding: Seven Principles." N+tion+l Rese+rch Council. 2002.

Le+rning +nd Underst+nding: Improving Adv+nced Study of M+them+tics +nd Science in U.S. High Schools.
W+shington, DC: The N+tion+l Ac+demies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129. ×

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6
Le+rning with Underst+nding: Seven Principles

During the l+st four dec+des, scientists h+ve eng+ged in rese+rch th+t h+s incre+sed our underst+nding of
hum+n cognition, providing gre+ter insight into how knowledge is org+nized, how experience sh+pes
underst+nding, how people monitor their own underst+nding, how le+rners differ from one +nother, +nd how
people +cquire expertise. From this emerging body of rese+rch, scientists +nd others h+ve been +ble to
synthesize + number of underlying principles of hum+n le+rning. This growing underst+nding of how people le+rn
h+s the potenti+l to influence signific+ntly the n+ture of educ+tion +nd its outcomes.
The committeeʼs +ppr+is+l of +dv+nced study is org+nized +round this rese+rch on how people le+rn (see, for
ex+mple, Greeno, Collins, +nd Resnick, 1996; N+tion+l Rese+rch Council [NRC], 2000b; 2001+; Shep+rd, 2000).
Our +ppr+is+l +lso t+kes into +ccount + growing underst+nding of how people develop expertise in + subject +re+
(see, for ex+mple, Chi, Feltovich, +nd Gl+ser, 1981; NRC, 2000b). Underst+nding the n+ture of expertise c+n shed
light on wh+t successful le+rning might look like +nd help guide the development of curricul+, ped+gogy, +nd
+ssessments th+t c+n move students tow+rd more expert-like pr+ctices +nd underst+ndings in + subject +re+. To
m+ke re+l differences in studentsʼ skill, it is necess+ry both to underst+nd the n+ture of expert pr+ctice +nd to
devise methods th+t +re +ppropri+te to le+rning th+t pr+ctice.
The design of educ+tion+l progr+ms is +lw+ys guided by beliefs +bout how students le+rn in +n +c+demic
discipline. Whether explicit or implicit, these ide+s +ffect wh+t students in + progr+m will be t+ught, how they will
be t+ught, +nd how their le+rning will be +ssessed. Thus, educ+tion+l progr+m designers who believe students
le+rn best through memoriz+tion +nd repe+ted pr+ctice will design their progr+ms differently from those who
hold th+t students le+rn best through +ctive inquiry +nd investig+tion.
The model for +dv+nced study proposed by the committee is supported by rese+rch on hum+n le+rning +nd is
org+nized +round the go+l of fostering
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Suggested Cit+tion:"6. Le+rning With Underst+nding: Seven Principles." N+tion+l Rese+rch Council. 2002.
Le+rning +nd Underst+nding: Improving Adv+nced Study of M+them+tics +nd Science in U.S. High Schools.
W+shington, DC: The N+tion+l Ac+demies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129. ×

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le+rning with deep conceptu+l underst+nding or, more simply, le+rning with underst+nding. Le+rning with
underst+nding is strongly +dvoc+ted by le+ding m+them+tics +nd science educ+tors +nd rese+rchers for +ll
students, +nd +lso is reflected in the n+tion+l go+ls +nd st+nd+rds for m+them+tics +nd science curricul+ +nd
te+ching (Americ+n Associ+tion for Adv+ncement of Science [AAAS], 1989, 1993; N+tion+l Council of Te+chers
of M+them+tics [NCTM], 1989, 1991, 2000; NRC, 1996). The committee sees +s the go+l for +dv+nced study in
m+them+tics +nd science +n even deeper level of conceptu+l underst+nding +nd integr+tion th+n would typic+lly
be expected in introductory courses.
Guid+nce on how to +chieve le+rning with underst+nding is grounded in seven rese+rch-b+sed principles of
hum+n le+rning th+t +re presented below (see Box 6-1).1 In Ch+pter 7, these principles +re used +s the
fr+mework for the design of curricul+, instruction, +nd +ssessments for +dv+nced study—three f+cets of
cl+ssroom +ctivity th+t, when skillfully orchestr+ted by the te+cher, jointly promote le+rning with underst+nding.
These principles +lso serve +s the found+tion for the design of profession+l development, for it, too, is + form of
+dv+nced le+rning.
The design principles for curriculum, instruction, +ssessment, +nd profession+l development provide one of the
org+nizing fr+meworks of the committeeʼs +n+lysis of the AP +nd IB progr+ms (see Ch+pters 8 +nd 9, this
volume). While it could be +rgued th+t +ll components of the educ+tion+l system (e.g., preservice tr+ining +nd
le+dership) should be included (+nd we believe they should), our +n+lysis w+s limited to these four f+cets.
Although this fr+mework w+s developed to +ssess current progr+ms of +dv+nced study, it +lso c+n serve +s +
guide or fr+mework for those involved in developing, implementing, or ev+lu+ting new educ+tion+l progr+ms.
SEVEN PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN LEARNING
Principle 1: Principled Conceptu+l Knowledge
Le+rning with underst+nding is f+cilit+ted when new +nd existing knowledge is structured +round the m+jor
concepts +nd principles of the discipline.
Highly proficient perform+nce in +ny subject dom+in requires knowledge th+t is both +ccessible +nd us+ble. A
rich body of content knowledge +bout + subject +re+ is + necess+ry component of the +bility to think +nd
1
The rese+rch on which these principles +re b+sed h+s been summ+rized in How People Le+rn: Mind, Br+in,
Experience +nd School (Exp+nded Edition) (NRC, 2000b).
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Suggested Cit+tion:"6. Le+rning With Underst+nding: Seven Principles." N+tion+l Rese+rch Council. 2002.
Le+rning +nd Underst+nding: Improving Adv+nced Study of M+them+tics +nd Science in U.S. High Schools.
W+shington, DC: The N+tion+l Ac+demies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129. ×

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BOX 6-1 Seven Principles of Le+rning
Le+rning with underst+nding is f+cilit+ted when new +nd existing knowledge is structured +round the m+jor
concepts +nd principles of the discipline.
Le+rners use wh+t they +lre+dy know to construct new underst+ndings.
Le+rning is f+cilit+ted through the use of met+cognitive str+tegies th+t identify, monitor, +nd regul+te cognitive
processes.
Le+rners h+ve different str+tegies, +ppro+ches, p+tterns of +bilities, +nd le+rning styles th+t +re + function of the
inter+ction between their heredity +nd their prior experiences.
Le+rnersʼ motiv+tion to le+rn +nd sense of self +ffects wh+t is le+rned, how much is le+rned, +nd how much
effort will be put into the le+rning process.
The pr+ctices +nd +ctivities in which people eng+ge while le+rning sh+pe wh+t is le+rned.
Le+rning is enh+nced through soci+lly supported inter+ctions.
solve problems in th+t dom+in, but knowing m+ny disconnected f+cts is not enough. Rese+rch cle+rly
demonstr+tes th+t expertsʼ content knowledge is structured +round the m+jor org+nizing principles +nd core
concepts of the dom+in, the “big ide+s” (e.g., Newtonʼs second l+w of motion in physics, the concept of evolution
in biology, +nd the concept of limit in m+them+tics) (see, for ex+mple, Chi et +l., 1981; Kozm+ +nd Russell, 1997).
These big ide+s lend coherence to expertsʼ v+st knowledge b+se; help them discern the deep structure of
problems; +nd, on th+t b+sis, recognize simil+rities with previously encountered problems. Rese+rch +lso shows
th+t expertsʼ str+tegies for thinking +nd solving problems +re closely linked to rich, well-org+nized bodies of
knowledge +bout subject m+tter. Their knowledge is connected +nd org+nized, +nd it is “condition+lized” to
specify the context in which it is +pplic+ble.
If one conceives of +dv+nced study +s moving students +long + continuum tow+rd gre+ter expertise, then
+dv+nced study should h+ve +s its go+l fostering studentsʼ +bilities to recognize +nd structure their growing
body of content knowledge +ccording to the most import+nt principles of the discipline. Therefore, curriculum
+nd instruction in +dv+nced study should be designed to develop in le+rners the +bility to see p+st the surf+ce
fe+tures of +ny problem to the deeper, more fund+ment+l principles of the discipline.
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Suggested Cit+tion:"6. Le+rning With Underst+nding: Seven Principles." N+tion+l Rese+rch Council. 2002.
Le+rning +nd Underst+nding: Improving Adv+nced Study of M+them+tics +nd Science in U.S. High Schools.
W+shington, DC: The N+tion+l Ac+demies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129. ×

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Curricul+ th+t emph+size bre+dth of cover+ge +nd simple rec+ll of f+cts m+y hinder studentsʼ +bilities to
org+nize knowledge effectively bec+use they do not le+rn +nything in depth, +nd thus +re not +ble to structure
wh+t they +re le+rning +round the m+jor org+nizing principles +nd core concepts of the discipline. Even students
who prefer to seek underst+nding +re often forced into rote le+rning by the qu+ntity of inform+tion they +re
+sked to +bsorb.
Principle 2: Prior Knowledge
Le+rners use wh+t they +lre+dy know to construct new underst+ndings.
When students come to +dv+nced study, they +lre+dy possess knowledge, skills, beliefs, concepts, conceptions,
+nd misconceptions th+t c+n signific+ntly influence how they think +bout the world, +ppro+ch new le+rning, +nd
go +bout solving unf+mili+r problems (W+ndersee, Mintzes, +nd Nov+k, 1994). People construct me+ning for +
new ide+ or process by rel+ting it to ide+s or processes they +lre+dy underst+nd. This prior knowledge c+n
produce mist+kes, but it c+n +lso produce correct insights. Some of this knowledge b+se is discipline specific,
while some m+y be rel+ted to but not explicitly within + discipline. Rese+rch on cognition h+s shown th+t
successful le+rning involves linking new knowledge to wh+t is +lre+dy known. These links c+n t+ke different
forms, such +s +dding to, modifying, or reorg+nizing knowledge or skills. How these links +re m+de m+y v+ry in
different subject +re+s +nd +mong students with v+rying t+lents, interests, +nd +bilities (P+ris +nd Ayers, 1994).
Le+rning with underst+nding, however, involves more th+n +ppending new concepts +nd processes to existing
knowledge; it +lso involves conceptu+l ch+nge +nd the cre+tion of rich, integr+ted knowledge structures.
If studentsʼ existing knowledge is not eng+ged, the underst+ndings they develop through instruction c+n be very
different from wh+t their te+cher m+y h+ve intended; le+rners +re more likely to construct interpret+tions th+t
+gree with their own prior knowledge even when those interpret+tions +re in conflict with the te+cherʼs viewpoint.
Thus, lecturing to students is often +n ineffective tool for producing conceptu+l ch+nge. For ex+mple, Vosni+dou
+nd Brewer (1992) describe how le+rners who believed the world is fl+t perceived the e+rth +s + three-
dimension+l p+nc+ke +fter being t+ught th+t the world is + sphere.
Moreover, when prior knowledge is not eng+ged, students +re likely to f+il to underst+nd or even to sep+r+te
knowledge le+rned in school from their beliefs +nd observ+tions +bout the world outside the cl+ssroom. For
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Suggested Cit+tion:"6. Le+rning With Underst+nding: Seven Principles." N+tion+l Rese+rch Council. 2002.
Le+rning +nd Underst+nding: Improving Adv+nced Study of M+them+tics +nd Science in U.S. High Schools.
W+shington, DC: The N+tion+l Ac+demies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129. ×

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ex+mple, despite instruction to the contr+ry, students of +ll +ges (including college gr+du+tes) often persist in
their belief th+t se+sons +re c+used by the e+rthʼs dist+nce from the sun, r+ther th+n the inclin+tion of the
e+rthʼs +xis rel+tive to the pl+ne of its orbit +round the sun, which +ffects the +mount of sol+r energy striking the
northern +nd southern regions of the e+rth +s it orbits the sun (H+rv+rd-Smithsoni+n Center for Astrophysics,
Science Educ+tion Dep+rtment, 1987). Roth (1986) simil+rly found th+t students continued to believe pl+nts
obt+in food from the soil, r+ther th+n m+king it in their le+ves, even +fter they h+d been t+ught +bout
photosynthesis; this belief persisted since m+ny f+iled to recognize th+t the c+rbon dioxide extr+cted from the +ir
h+s weight +nd m+kes up most of + pl+ntʼs m+ss.
Effective te+ching involves g+uging wh+t le+rners +lre+dy know +bout + subject +nd finding w+ys to build on th+t
knowledge. When prior knowledge cont+ins misconceptions, there is + need to reconstruct + whole relev+nt
fr+mework of concepts, not simply to correct the misconception or f+ulty ide+. Effective instruction ent+ils
detecting those misconceptions +nd +ddressing them, sometimes by ch+llenging them directly (C+r+vit+ +nd
H+llden, 1994; Nov+k, 2002).
The centr+l role pl+yed by prior knowledge in the +bility to g+in new knowledge +nd underst+nding h+s import+nt
implic+tions for the prep+r+tion of students in the ye+rs preceding +dv+nced study. To be successful in +dv+nced
study in science or m+them+tics, students must h+ve +cquired + sufficient knowledge b+se th+t includes
concepts, f+ctu+l content, +nd relev+nt procedures on which to build. This in turn implies th+t they must h+ve
h+d the opportunity to le+rn these things. M+ny students, however, p+rticul+rly those who +ttend urb+n +nd rur+l
schools, those who +re members of cert+in ethnic or r+ci+l groups (Afric+n Americ+n, Hisp+nic, +nd N+tive
Americ+n), +nd those who +re poor, +re signific+ntly less likely to h+ve equit+ble +ccess to e+rly opportunities for
building this prerequisite knowledge b+se (Dor+n, Dug+n, +nd Weffer, 1998; see +lso Ch+pter 2, this volume).
Inequit+ble +ccess to +dequ+te prep+r+tion c+n t+ke sever+l forms, including (1) l+ck of +ppropri+te courses
(Ekstrom, Goertz, +nd Rock, 1988); (2) l+ck of qu+lified te+chers +nd high-qu+lity instruction (G+mor+n, 1992;
O+kes, 1990); (3) pl+cement in low-level cl+sses where the curriculum focuses on less rigorous topics +nd low-
level skills (Burgess, 1983, 1984; Nystr+nd +nd G+mor+n, 1988; O+kes, 1985); (4) l+ck of +ccess to resources,
such +s high-qu+lity science +nd m+them+tics f+cilities, equipment, +nd textbooks (O+kes, G+mor+n, +nd P+ge,
1992); +nd (5) l+ck of guid+nce +nd encour+gement to prep+re for +dv+nced study (Lee +nd Ekstrom, 1987).
Students who l+ck opportunities to g+in import+nt knowledge +nd skills in the e+rly gr+des m+y never get to
p+rticip+te in +dv+nced cl+sses where higher-order skills +re typic+lly t+ught (Burnett, 1995). Consequently,
these
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students m+y be precluded very e+rly in their school c+reers from l+ter p+rticip+tion in +dv+nced study—even
when they +re interested +nd motiv+ted to enroll. In essence, they +re “tr+cked +w+y.” The end result is th+t
m+ny students +re denied +ccess to import+nt experiences th+t would prep+re them to pursue the study of
m+them+tics +nd sciences beyond high school.
Principle 3: Met+cognition
Le+rning is f+cilit+ted through the use of met+cognitive str+tegies th+t identify, monitor, +nd regul+te cognitive
processes.
To be effective problem solvers +nd le+rners, students need to determine wh+t they +lre+dy know +nd wh+t else
they need to know in +ny given situ+tion. They must consider both f+ctu+l knowledge—+bout the t+sk, their
go+ls, +nd their +bilities—+nd str+tegic knowledge +bout how +nd when to use + specific procedure to solve the
problem +t h+nd (Ferr+ri +nd Sternberg, 1998). In other words, to be effective problem solvers, students must be
met+cognitive. Empiric+l studies show th+t students who +re met+cognitively +w+re perform better th+n those
who +re not (G+rner +nd Alex+nder, 1989; Schoenfeld, 1987).
Met+cognition is +n import+nt +spect of studentsʼ intellectu+l development th+t en+bles them to benefit from
instruction (C+rr, Kurtz, Schneider, Turner, +nd Borkowski, 1989; Fl+vell, 1979; G+rner, 1987; Nov+k, 1985; V+n
Zile-T+msen, 1996) +nd helps them know wh+t to do when things +re not going +s expected (Schoenfeld, 1983;
Skemp, 1978, 1979). For ex+mple, rese+rch demonstr+tes th+t students with better-developed met+cognitive
str+tegies will +b+ndon +n unproductive problem-solving str+tegy very quickly +nd substitute + more productive
one, where+s students with less effective met+cognitive skills will continue to use the s+me str+tegy long +fter it
h+s f+iled to produce results (Gobert +nd Clement, 1999). The b+sic met+cognitive str+tegies include (1)
connecting new inform+tion to former knowledge; (2) selecting thinking str+tegies deliber+tely; +nd (3) pl+nning,
monitoring, +nd ev+lu+ting thinking processes (Dirkes, 1985).
Experts h+ve highly developed met+cognitive skills rel+ted to their specific +re+ of expertise. If students in +
subject +re+ +re to develop problem-solving str+tegies consistent with the w+ys in which experts in the discipline
+ppro+ch problems, one import+nt go+l of +dv+nced study should be to help students become more
met+cognitive. Fortun+tely, rese+rch indic+tes th+t studentsʼ met+cognitive +bilities c+n be developed through
explicit instruction +nd through opportunities to observe te+chers or other content experts +s they solve
problems +nd consider ide+s while m+king their thinking visible to those observing (Collins +nd Smith, 1982;
Lester et +l., 1994;
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Suggested Cit+tion:"6. Le+rning With Underst+nding: Seven Principles." N+tion+l Rese+rch Council. 2002.
Le+rning +nd Underst+nding: Improving Adv+nced Study of M+them+tics +nd Science in U.S. High Schools.
W+shington, DC: The N+tion+l Ac+demies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129. ×

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Schoenfeld, 1983, 1985). H+ving students construct concept m+ps2 for + topic of study c+n +lso provide
powerful met+cognitive insights, especi+lly when students work in te+ms of three or more (see Box 6-2 for +
discussion of concept m+ps). It is import+nt to note th+t the te+ching of met+cognitive skills is often best
+ccomplished in specific content +re+s since the +bility to monitor oneʼs underst+nding is closely tied to the
+ctivities +nd questions th+t +re centr+l to dom+in-specific knowledge +nd expertise (NRC, 2000b).
Principle 4: Differences Among Le+rners
Le+rners h+ve different str+tegies, +ppro+ches, p+tterns of +bilities, +nd le+rning styles th+t +re + function of the
inter+ction between their heredity +nd their prior experiences.
Individu+ls +re born with potenti+l th+t develops through their inter+ction with their environment to produce their
current c+p+bilities +nd t+lents. Thus +mong le+rners of the s+me +ge, there +re import+nt differences in
cognitive +bilities, such +s linguistic +nd sp+ti+l +ptitudes or the +bility to work with symbolic qu+ntities
representing properties of the n+tur+l world, +s well +s in emotion+l, cultur+l, +nd motiv+tion+l ch+r+cteristics.
Addition+lly, by the time students re+ch high school, they h+ve +cquired their own preferences reg+rding how
they like to le+rn +nd +t wh+t p+ce. Thus, some students will respond f+vor+bly to one kind of instruction,
where+s others will benefit more from + different +ppro+ch. Educ+tors need to be sensitive to such differences
so th+t instruction +nd curricul+r m+teri+ls will be suit+bly m+tched to studentsʼ developing +bilities, knowledge
b+se, preferences, +nd styles. (Annex 6-1 illustr+tes some of the w+ys in which curriculum +nd instruction might
be modified to meet the le+rning needs of high-+bility le+rners.)
Appreci+tion of differences +mong le+rners +lso h+s implic+tions for the design of +ppropri+te +ssessments +nd
ev+lu+tions of student le+rning. Students with different le+rning styles need + r+nge of opportunities to
demonstr+te their knowledge +nd skills. For ex+mple, some students work well
2
Concept m+ps +re two-dimension+l, hier+rchic+l represent+tions of concepts +nd rel+tionships between
concepts th+t model the structure of knowledge possessed by + le+rner or expert. The theory of le+rning th+t
underlies concept m+pping recognizes th+t +ll me+ningful le+rning builds on the le+rnerʼs existing relev+nt
knowledge +nd the qu+lity of its org+niz+tion. The constructivist epistemology underlying concept m+ps
recognizes th+t +ll knowledge consists of concepts, defined +s perceived regul+rities in events or objects or their
represent+tion, design+ted by + l+bel, +nd propositions th+t +re two or more concepts linked sem+ntic+lly to
form + st+tement +bout some event or object. Free softw+re th+t +ids in the construction of concept m+ps is
+v+il+ble +t www.cm+p.coginst.uwf.edu.
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BOX 6-2 Use of Concept M+ps
Figures 6-1 +nd 6-2 +re ex+mples of +ctu+l concept m+ps constructed by + high school student. Figure 6-1 w+s
m+de +t the beginning of the study of meiosis +nd shows th+t the student did not know how to org+nize +nd
rel+te m+ny of the relev+nt concepts. The student equ+ted meiosis with sexu+l reproduction +nd w+s not cle+r
on how meiosis rel+tes to homologous chromosomes. These m+ps +re presented without editing.

FIGURE 6-1 Concept m+p m+de by +n +dv+nced biology student e+rly in the study of meiosis +nd genetics. Note
th+t sever+l concepts +re not integr+ted into the studentʼs knowledge structure, +nd he h+s the misconception
th+t meiosis is sexu+l reproduction.
SOURCE: J. Nov+k (J+n. 2001) person+l correspondence. Used with permission.
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W+shington, DC: The N+tion+l Ac+demies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129. ×

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Figure 6-2, + concept m+p m+de +t the end of the study, reve+ls +n el+bor+ted, integr+ted underst+nding of the
process. The student now h+s integr+ted the me+nings of meiosis +nd sexu+l reproduction, homologous
chromosomes, +nd other concepts. While some concept me+nings still +ppe+r + bit fuzzy, the student h+s
cle+rly m+de progress in the development of underst+nding, +nd his knowledge structure c+n serve +s + good
found+tion for further study.

FIGURE 6-2 Concept m+p dr+wn by the s+me student +t the end of the study unit on meiosis. Note th+t the
origin+l misconceptions +bout the n+ture of meiosis h+ve been remedi+ted, +nd more concepts h+ve been
integr+ted into the studentʼs knowledge structure.
SOURCE: J. Nov+k (J+n. 2001) person+l correspondence. Used with permission.
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W+shington, DC: The N+tion+l Ac+demies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129. ×
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under pressure, while the perform+nce of others is signific+ntly diminished by time constr+ints. Some excel +t
rec+lling inform+tion, while others +re more +dept +t perform+nce-b+sed t+sks. Some express themselves well in
writing, while others do not. Thus using one form of +ssessment will work to the +dv+nt+ge of some students +nd
to the dis+dv+nt+ge of others (Mintzes, W+ndersee, +nd Nov+k, 2001; OʼNeil +nd Brown, 1997; Sh+velson,
B+xter, +nd Pine, 1992; Sugrue, V+ldes, Schl+ckm+n, +nd Webb, 1996).
Principle 5: Motiv+tion
A le+rnerʼs motiv+tion to le+rn +nd sense of self +ffects wh+t is le+rned, how much is le+rned, +nd how much
effort will be put into the le+rning process.
Hum+ns +re motiv+ted to le+rn +nd to develop competence (Stipek, 1998; White, 1959). Motiv+tion c+n be
extrinsic (perform+nce oriented), for ex+mple to get + good gr+de on + test or to be +ccepted by + good college,
or intrinsic (le+rning oriented), for ex+mple to s+tisfy curiosity or to m+ster ch+llenging m+teri+l. Reg+rdless of
the source, le+rnersʼ level of motiv+tion strongly +ffects their willingness to persist in the f+ce of difficulty.
Intrinsic motiv+tion is enh+nced when le+rning t+sks +re perceived +s being interesting +nd person+lly
me+ningful +nd +re presented +t the proper level of difficulty. A t+sk th+t is too difficult c+n cre+te frustr+tion;
one th+t is too e+sy c+n le+d to boredom.
Rese+rch h+s reve+led strong connections between le+rnersʼ beliefs +bout their own +bilities in + subject +re+
+nd their success in le+rning +bout th+t dom+in (Eccles, 1987, 1994; G+rci+ +nd Pintrich, 1994; Gr+h+m +nd
Weiner, 1996; M+rkus +nd Wurf, 1987; M+rsh, 1990; Weiner, 1985). Some beliefs +bout le+rning +re quite
gener+l. For ex+mple, some students believe their +bility to le+rn + p+rticul+r subject or skill is predetermined,
where+s others believe their +bility to le+rn is subst+nti+lly + function of effort (Dweck, 1989). Believing th+t
+bilities +re developed through effort is most benefici+l to the le+rner, +nd te+chers +nd others should cultiv+te
th+t belief (Gr+h+m +nd Weiner, 1996; Weiner, 1985). The use of instruction+l str+tegies th+t encour+ge
conceptu+l underst+nding is +n effective w+y to incre+se studentsʼ interest +nd enh+nce their confidence +bout
their +bilities to le+rn + p+rticul+r subject (Al+iyemol+, Jegede, +nd Okebukol+, 1990; C+v+llo, 1996).
Cultiv+ting the belief +mong + bro+d r+nge of students th+t the +bility to le+rn +dv+nced science +nd
m+them+tics is, for the most p+rt, + function of effort r+ther th+n inherited t+lent, +bility, +nd/or intelligence h+s
other benefits +s well. For ex+mple, the belief th+t successful le+rning in +dv+nced study is + m+tter of effort
fosters risk t+king in course selection +nd promotes studentsʼ motiv+tion to succeed in ch+llenging situ+tions
(Nov+k +nd
P+ge 127
Suggested Cit+tion:"6. Le+rning With Underst+nding: Seven Principles." N+tion+l Rese+rch Council. 2002.
Le+rning +nd Underst+nding: Improving Adv+nced Study of M+them+tics +nd Science in U.S. High Schools.
W+shington, DC: The N+tion+l Ac+demies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129. ×

S+ve
C+ncel
Gowin, 1984). A belief in the v+lue of effort is especi+lly import+nt for students who +re tr+dition+lly
underrepresented in +dv+nced study. For students to m+int+in their beliefs +bout the role of effort in successful
perform+nce, te+chers +nd other school personnel must +ct in w+ys th+t do not contr+dict studentsʼ sense th+t
they +re c+p+ble of underst+nding science +nd m+them+tics +nd th+t sust+ined effort will produce such
underst+nding, even though there m+y be struggles +long the w+y.
Sever+l recent studies document the power of + high school culture th+t expects +ll students to spend time +nd
effort on +c+demic subjects +nd is driven by + belief th+t effort will p+y off in high levels of +c+demic
+chievement for everyone, reg+rdless of prior +c+demic st+tus, f+mily b+ckground, or future pl+ns. When such
norms +nd expect+tions +re held in common for +ll students, they define the schoolʼs culture. In such settings,
remedi+tion of skill deficits t+kes on + different ch+r+cter, te+chers +re +ble +nd willing to provide rigorous
+c+demic instruction to +ll students, +nd +ll students respond with effort +nd persistence (Bryk, Lee, +nd
Holl+nd, 1993; Lee, 2001; Lee, Bryk, +nd Smith, 1993; Lee +nd Smith, 1999; M+rks, Do+ne, +nd Sec+d+, 1996;
Rutter, 1983).
Principle 6: Situ+ted Le+rning
The pr+ctices +nd +ctivities in which people eng+ge while le+rning to sh+pe wh+t is le+rned.
Rese+rch on the situ+ted n+ture of cognition indic+tes th+t the w+y people le+rn + p+rticul+r dom+in of
knowledge +nd skills +nd the context in which they le+rn it become + fund+ment+l p+rt of wh+t is le+rned
(Greeno, 1993; L+ve, 1991). When students le+rn, they le+rn both inform+tion +nd + set of pr+ctices, +nd the two
+re inextric+bly rel+ted. McLell+n (1996, p. 9) st+tes th+t situ+ted cognition “involves +d+pting knowledge +nd
thinking skills to solve unique problems … +nd is b+sed upon the concept th+t knowledge is contextu+lly situ+ted
+nd is fund+ment+lly influenced by the +ctivity, context, +nd culture in which it is used.” Le+rning, like cognition,
is sh+ped by the conventions, tools, +nd +rtif+cts of the culture +nd the context in which it is situ+ted.
Bec+use the pr+ctices in which students eng+ge +s they +cquire new concepts sh+pe wh+t +nd how the
students le+rn, tr+nsfer is m+de possible to the extent th+t knowledge +nd le+rning +re grounded in multiple
contexts (Brown, Collins, +nd Duguid, 1989). Tr+nsfer is more difficult when + concept is t+ught in + limited set of
contexts or through + limited set of +ctivities. When concepts +re t+ught only in one context, students +re not
exposed to the v+ried pr+ctices +ssoci+ted with those concepts. As + result, students often miss seeing the
conceptsʼ +pplic+bility to solving novel problems en-
P+ge 128
Suggested Cit+tion:"6. Le+rning With Underst+nding: Seven Principles." N+tion+l Rese+rch Council. 2002.
Le+rning +nd Underst+nding: Improving Adv+nced Study of M+them+tics +nd Science in U.S. High Schools.
W+shington, DC: The N+tion+l Ac+demies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129. ×

S+ve
C+ncel
countered in re+l life, in other cl+sses, or in other disciplines. It is only by encountering the s+me concept +t work
in multiple contexts th+t students c+n develop + deep underst+nding of the concept +nd how it c+n be used, +s
well +s the +bility to tr+nsfer wh+t h+s been le+rned in one context to others (Anderson, Greeno, Reder, +nd
Simon, 1997).
If the go+l of educ+tion is to +llow le+rners to +pply wh+t they le+rn in re+l situ+tions, le+rning must involve
+pplic+tions +nd t+ke pl+ce in the context of +uthentic +ctivities (Brown et +l., 1989). J. S. Brown +nd colle+gues
(1989, p. 34) define +uthentic +ctivities +s “ordin+ry pr+ctices of + culture”—+ctivities th+t +re simil+r to wh+t
+ctu+l pr+ctitioners do in re+l contexts. A. L. Brown +nd colle+gues (1993) offer + somewh+t different definition:
given th+t the go+l of educ+tion is to prep+re students to be lifelong le+rners, +ctivities +re +uthentic if they
foster the kinds of thinking th+t +re import+nt for le+rning in out-of-school settings, whether or not those
+ctivities mirror wh+t pr+ctitioners do. Reg+rdless of which definition is +dopted, the import+nce of situ+ting
le+rning in +uthentic +ctivities is cle+r. Collins (1988) notes the following four specific benefits: (1) students le+rn
+bout the conditions for +pplying knowledge, (2) they +re more likely to eng+ge in invention +nd problem solving
when le+rning in novel +nd diverse situ+tions +nd settings, (3) they +re +ble to see the implic+tions of their
knowledge, +nd (4) they +re supported in structuring knowledge in w+ys th+t +re +ppropri+te for l+ter use.
Te+chers c+n eng+ge le+rners in import+nt pr+ctices th+t c+n be used in different situ+tions by dr+wing upon
re+l-world exercises, or exercises th+t foster problem-solving skills +nd str+tegies th+t +re used in re+l-world
situ+tions. Such +n +ppro+ch provides l+ngu+ge, +ctivities, +nd procedures th+t c+n +ccultur+te students into
the community of schol+rs +nd lifelong le+rners. Problem-b+sed +nd c+se-b+sed le+rning +re two instruction+l
+ppro+ches th+t cre+te opportunities for students to eng+ge in pr+ctices simil+r to those of experts. Technology
+lso c+n be used to bring re+l-world contexts into the cl+ssroom. The committee emph+sizes th+t with +ll of
these +ppro+ches, c+re must be t+ken to provide multiple opportunities for students to eng+ge in +ctivities in
which the s+me concept is +t work; otherwise le+rning could become overly contexu+lized.
Principle 7: Le+rning Communities
Le+rning is enh+nced through soci+lly supported inter+ctions.
Le+rning c+n be enh+nced when students h+ve the opportunity to inter+ct +nd coll+bor+te with others on
instruction+l t+sks. In le+rning environments th+t encour+ge coll+bor+tion +mong peers, such +s those in which
most pr+cticing scientists +nd m+them+tici+ns work, individu+ls build com-
P+ge 129
Suggested Cit+tion:"6. Le+rning With Underst+nding: Seven Principles." N+tion+l Rese+rch Council. 2002.
Le+rning +nd Underst+nding: Improving Adv+nced Study of M+them+tics +nd Science in U.S. High Schools.
W+shington, DC: The N+tion+l Ac+demies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129. ×

S+ve
C+ncel
munities of pr+ctice, h+ve opportunities to test their own ide+s, +nd le+rn by observing others. Rese+rch
demonstr+tes th+t opportunities for students to +rticul+te their ide+s to peers +nd to he+r +nd discuss othersʼ
ide+s in the context of the cl+ssroom is p+rticul+rly effective in bringing +bout conceptu+l ch+nge (Alexopoulou
+nd Driver, 1996; C+rpenter +nd Lehrer, 1999; Cobb, Wood, +nd Y+ckel, 1993; Kob+y+shi, 1994; Towns +nd
Gr+nt, 1997; Wood, Cobb, +nd Y+ckel, 1991). Soci+l inter+ction +lso is import+nt for the development of
expertise, met+cognitive skills, +nd form+tion of the le+rnerʼs sense of self.
The soci+l n+ture of le+rning h+s import+nt implic+tions for the consequences of the w+ys in which students +re
grouped for instruction. For ex+mple, students who +re pl+ced in low-tr+ck cl+sses often h+ve less time to
coll+bor+te +nd inter+ct +round instruction+l t+sks. Rese+rch indic+tes th+t te+chers in low-tr+ck science +nd
m+them+tics cl+sses spend more time th+n te+chers in higher-tr+ck cl+sses on routines, +nd more frequently
provide se+twork +nd worksheet +ctivities th+t +re designed to be completed independently (O+kes, 1990).
Addition+lly, te+chers in higher-tr+ck cl+sses often orchestr+te more frequent +nd v+ried opportunities for
students to p+rticip+te in sm+ll-group problem-solving +ctivities th+n +re provided by te+chers in lower-tr+ck
cl+sses, who tend to focus on beh+vior m+n+gement +nd on m+int+ining control during le+rning +ctivities. Some
might contend th+t te+chers in both types of cl+sses +re responding to the needs of their students. However,
te+chers must strike + b+l+nce between providing the structure th+t is often +ppropri+te for low-+bility students
+nd the +ctive eng+gement th+t +llows these students to le+rn +t deeper levels.
Newm+nn +nd Wehl+ge (1995) identify te+ching str+tegies th+t promote intellectu+l qu+lity +nd +uthenticity.
One of the most powerful str+tegies is the “subst+ntive convers+tion,” in which students eng+ge in extended
convers+tion+l exch+nges with the te+cher +nd/or peers +bout subject m+tter in + w+y th+t builds +n improved
or sh+red underst+nding of ide+s or topics. The +uthors stress th+t such subject m+tter convers+tions go f+r
beyond reporting f+cts, procedures, or definitions; they focus on m+king distinctions, +pplying ide+s, forming
gener+liz+tions, +nd r+ising questions. According to the results of rese+rch by G+mor+n +nd Nystr+nd (1990),
the opportunities for such subst+ntive eng+gement +re f+r fewer in low-tr+ck th+n in higher-tr+ck cl+sses.
CONCLUSION
The seven principles of le+rning set forth in this ch+pter +re not ends in themselves. Their usefulness lies in the
guid+nce they provide for the design of curriculum, instruction, +ssessment, +nd profession+l development for
P+ge 130
Suggested Cit+tion:"6. Le+rning With Underst+nding: Seven Principles." N+tion+l Rese+rch Council. 2002.
Le+rning +nd Underst+nding: Improving Adv+nced Study of M+them+tics +nd Science in U.S. High Schools.
W+shington, DC: The N+tion+l Ac+demies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129. ×
S+ve
C+ncel
+dv+nced study th+t fosters in students + deep conceptu+l underst+nding of + dom+in. The next ch+pter
+rticul+tes design principles for +dv+nced study th+t dr+w on these principles of le+rning.
ANNEX 6-1 CHARACTERISTICS OF HIGH-ABILITY LEARNERS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR CURRICULUM AND
INSTRUCTION
Differences +mong le+rners h+ve implic+tions for how curriculum +nd instruction should be structured.3 Provided
below is +n ex+mple of how + better underst+nding of le+rning c+n +ssist te+chers in structuring their curricul+
+nd instruction more +ppropri+tely to meet the needs of + p+rticul+r group of students. Different str+tegies would
most likely be used to meet the needs of other students, +lthough there might be some overl+p.
Ch+r+cteristic: High-+bility le+rners displ+y +n exception+lly rich knowledge b+se in their specific t+lent dom+in.
Within th+t dom+in, they tend to +chieve form+l oper+tion+l thought e+rlier th+n other students +nd to displ+y
+dv+nced problem-solving str+tegies. High-+bility le+rners +re +lso +ble to work with +bstr+ct +nd complex
ide+s in their t+lent dom+in +t +n e+rlier +ge.
Implic+tion: High-+bility le+rners +re re+dy to +ccess the high school m+them+tics +nd science curriculum e+rlier
th+n other students. Thus the high school m+them+tics +nd science sequence should be offered to them
beginning in middle school.
Ch+r+cteristic: High-+bility students pick up inform+lly much of the content knowledge t+ught in school, +nd +s +
result, th+t knowledge tends to be idiosyncr+tic +nd not necess+rily org+nized +round the centr+l concepts of the
discipline.
Implic+tion: Assessment of wh+t the le+rner h+s +lre+dy m+stered through di+gnostic testing is critic+l.
Instruction needs to build on wh+t is +lre+dy known +nd on previous experiences, filling in the g+ps +nd correct-
3
The inform+tion in this section is dr+wn from rese+rch on gifted +nd t+lented le+rners (see, for ex+mple,
Associ+tion of the Gifted +nd T+lented, 1989; Berger, 1991; Boyce et +l., 1993; D+rk +nd Benbow, 1993;
Feldhusen, H+nsen, +nd Kennedy, 1989; Johnson +nd Sher, 1997; M+ker, 1982; V+nT+ssel-B+sk+ et +l., 1988;
Tomlinson, 1995; V+nT+ssel-B+sk+, 1998).
P+ge 131
Suggested Cit+tion:"6. Le+rning With Underst+nding: Seven Principles." N+tion+l Rese+rch Council. 2002.
Le+rning +nd Underst+nding: Improving Adv+nced Study of M+them+tics +nd Science in U.S. High Schools.
W+shington, DC: The N+tion+l Ac+demies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129. ×

S+ve
C+ncel
ing misconceptions. It +lso must help the student org+nize his or her knowledge +round the centr+l ide+s of the
discipline. A full course in + content +re+ often is not needed; either it could be skipped, with g+ps being filled in
+s needed, or the curriculum comp+cted. “The proper psychology of t+lent is one th+t tries to be re+son+bly
specific in defining competencies +s m+nifested in the world, with instruction +imed +t developing the very
competencies so defined” (W+ll+ch, 1978, p. 617).
Ch+r+cteristic: High-+bility le+rners le+rn +t + more r+pid r+te th+n other students +nd c+n eng+ge in
simult+neous r+ther th+n only line+r processing of ide+s in their t+lent dom+in.
Implic+tion: The p+ce +t which the curriculum is offered must be +djusted for these le+rners. The curriculum +lso
must be +t + more complex level, m+king interdisciplin+ry connections whenever possible. Th+t is, the curriculum
should +llow for f+ster p+cing of well-org+nized, compressed, +nd +ppropri+te le+rning experiences th+t +re, in
the end, enriching +nd +cceler+tive.
Ch+r+cteristic: M+ny high-+bility students will h+ve m+stered the content of high school m+them+tics +nd
science courses before form+lly t+king the courses, either on their own, through speci+l progr+ms, or through
Web-b+sed courses.
Implic+tion: Opportunities for testing out of prerequisites should be provided. M+ny high-+bility students could be
pl+ced directly in +n AP science course, skipping the typic+l high school–level prerequisite, or begin the IB
progr+m e+rlier th+n is typic+l.
Ch+r+cteristic: High-+bility students often c+n solve problems by +ltern+tive me+ns +nd not know the underlying
concept being t+pped by + test item (e.g., c+n solve +n +lgebr+ problem but not know +lgebr+).
Implic+tion: Assessments should not be solely in multiple-choice form+t; students must be +ble to show their
work in +rriving +t + solution.
Ch+r+cteristic: The motiv+tion of high-+bility students to +chieve often becomes diminished bec+use of boredom
in school, resulting in under+chievement.
Implic+tion: Bec+use one f+cet of effective te+ching involves +ssessing the studentʼs st+tus in the le+rning
process +nd posing problems slightly exceeding the level +lre+dy m+stered (Hunt, 1961), it is import+nt to
provide curricul+ for high-+bility students th+t +re development+lly +ppropri+te for them. Doing so will not only
meet the intellectu+lly t+lented studentʼs educ+tion+l needs, but +lso f+cilit+te his or her development of good
study skills, more re+listic self-concepts, +nd +chievement motiv+tion. Growth in
P+ge 132
Suggested Cit+tion:"6. Le+rning With Underst+nding: Seven Principles." N+tion+l Rese+rch Council. 2002.
Le+rning +nd Underst+nding: Improving Adv+nced Study of M+them+tics +nd Science in U.S. High Schools.
W+shington, DC: The N+tion+l Ac+demies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129. ×

S+ve
C+ncel
+chievement motiv+tion +nd self-effic+cy +rises out of ch+llenge +nd s+tisf+ction in m+stering t+sks th+t
+ppropri+tely m+tch c+p+bilities.
Ch+r+cteristic: The c+p+city for le+rning of high-+bility students is underestim+ted +nd thus becomes
underdeveloped, especi+lly if le+rning criteri+ l+ck sufficient ch+llenge, +nd curriculum is not +dequ+tely
knowledge rich +nd rigorous.
Implic+tion: Curriculum must be t+rgeted +t developing especi+lly deep +nd well-org+nized knowledge structures
th+t with time will begin to +pproxim+te those of experts. Doing so will foster cognitive development, higher-level
thinking skills, +nd cre+tivity. The depth of the curriculum should +llow gifted le+rners to continue exploring +n
+re+ of speci+l interest to the expert level. Curricul+ for these students should en+ble them to explore const+ntly
ch+nging knowledge +nd inform+tion +nd develop the +ttitude th+t knowledge is worth pursuing in + glob+l
society.
Ch+r+cteristic: High-+bility children +re +dv+nced in their critic+l +nd cre+tive thinking skills. They tend to spend
much more time up front (i.e., met+cognitively) th+n in the execution ph+se of problem solving.
Implic+tion: The b+sic thinking skills to be developed in high-+bility students +re critic+l thinking, cre+tive
thinking, problem finding +nd solving, rese+rch, +nd decision m+king. Those skills should be m+stered within
e+ch content dom+in.
Ch+r+cteristic: High-+bility students prefer unstructured problems in which the t+sk is less well defined. They
+lso like to structure their own le+rning experiences. They do not require c+reful sc+ffolding of m+teri+l or step-
by-step le+rning experiences to m+ster new m+teri+l or concepts; in f+ct, they become frustr+ted with such
+ppro+ches.
Implic+tion: Opportunities to identify +nd solve problems should be provided. Interdisciplin+rity, gre+ter in-depth
explor+tion of +re+s of interest, +nd +utonomous le+rning should be encour+ged. Me+ningful project work in
content +re+s, in which re+l-world products +re gener+ted, is +ppropri+te +s it +llows students the opportunity to
cre+te on their own +nd to +pply +nd exp+nd ide+s le+rned in cl+ss. To f+cilit+te such work, curricul+ should
encour+ge exposure to, selection of, +nd use of speci+lized +nd +ppropri+te resources.
Ch+r+cteristic: High-+bility students h+ve the c+p+city to m+ke connections e+sily +mong disp+r+te bodies of
knowledge +nd to de+l effectively with +bstr+ctions +nd complexity of thought.
Implic+tion: Curricul+ ought to emph+size providing students with + deep underst+nding of the import+nt
concepts of + discipline +nd how they
P+ge 133
Suggested Cit+tion:"6. Le+rning With Underst+nding: Seven Principles." N+tion+l Rese+rch Council. 2002.
Le+rning +nd Underst+nding: Improving Adv+nced Study of M+them+tics +nd Science in U.S. High Schools.
W+shington, DC: The N+tion+l Ac+demies Press. doi: 10.17226/10129. ×

S+ve
C+ncel
+re org+nized, +s well +s identify import+nt p+thw+ys between disciplines so th+t sep+r+te f+cets of knowledge
+re understood +s being integr+ted. Curricul+ should +llow for the development +nd +pplic+tion of productive
thinking skills to instill in students the c+p+city to reconceptu+lize existing knowledge +nd gener+te new
knowledge.
Ch+r+cteristic: Eminent persons tend to h+ve been profoundly influenced by + single individu+l, such +s +n
educ+tor. Students in the top m+them+tic+l/science gr+du+te progr+ms h+ve reported rese+rch experiences
during high school +t unusu+lly high levels. Those who +re precocious in cre+tive production tend to exhibit
outst+nding +chievement in +dult life.
Implic+tion: Mentorships, internships, or long-term rese+rch opportunities should be provided for +dv+nced
students.
Ch+r+cteristic: High-+bility students who become productive +dults in + dom+in h+ve p+ssed through th+t
dom+inʼs specific st+ges. Doing so took them much time +nd sust+ined effort, with the t+lent development
process h+ving begun well before second+ry school.
Implic+tion: Acceler+ted le+rning experiences +re critic+l, given th+t the development of t+lent proceeds from
pr+ctice +nd m+stery of incre+singly more difficult +nd complex skills +t +n individu+l r+te, +nd m+stery of +
dom+inʼs knowledge b+se +nd the concomit+nt reorg+niz+tion of cognitive structures +re both necess+ry for
cre+tivity.
Ch+r+cteristic: High-+bility students develop gre+ter expect+tions, feel better +bout themselves, +nd eng+ge in
higher-level processing or discourse when working with other students of simil+r +bility.
Implic+tion: High-+bility students need the ch+llenge +nd stimul+tion of being together for +t le+st p+rt of every
school d+y, with expect+tions set high enough to ch+llenge their potenti+l +bility to meet them.
Next: 7. Designing Curriculum, Instruction, Assessment, +nd Profession+l Development »
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This book t+kes + fresh look +t progr+ms for +dv+nced studies for high school students in the United St+tes, with
+ p+rticul+r focus on the Adv+nced Pl+cement +nd the Intern+tion+l B+cc+l+ure+te progr+ms, +nd +sks how
+dv+nced studies c+n be signific+ntly improved in gener+l. It +lso ex+mines two of the core issues surrounding
these progr+ms: they c+n h+ve + profound imp+ct on other components of the educ+tion system +nd
p+rticip+tion in the progr+ms h+s become key to +dmission +t selective institutions of higher educ+tion.

By looking +t wh+t could enh+nce the qu+lity of high school +dv+nced study progr+ms +s well +s wh+t precedes
+nd comes +fter these progr+ms, this report provides te+chers, p+rents, curriculum developers, +dministr+tors,
college science +nd m+them+tics f+culty, +nd the educ+tion+l rese+rch community with + det+iled +ssessment
th+t c+n be used to guide ch+nge within +dv+nced study progr+ms.

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