98 Understanding Second Language Acquisition the vernacular style). Second, there is a constant reshuffling of form-function relationships in order to maximize the communicative effectiveness of the interlanguage system; non-systematic varia slowly becomes systematic. Itshould be clear from this account of variability in interlanguage that conce it is acknowledged that the learner's competence is heterogeneous, it becomes very difficult to deal with SLA in terms of the acquisition of forms only. In order to study SLA it is necessary to examine the relationships between form and function that exist at each stage of development. However, with the exception of a few studies such as those referred to earlier in this chapter, this has not occurred in SLA. research, where, as noted in Chapter 1, the focus has been confined largely to morphosyntax. Further reading A good starting point for understanding the nature of v language use is Labov’s chapter ‘The study of language in its social context’ in his Sociolinguistic Patterns (Basil Blackwell, 1972). erson’s article ‘The learner’ interlanguage as a system of variable rules’ (TESOL Quarterly 9/4:401-7) reports on an important study of, phonological variability and illustrates the sensitivity of the learner's interlanguage system to both situational and linguistic contexts. with interlanguage variability. Her article ‘On the variability of interlanguage systems’ (Applied Linguistics fifferent accounts of interlanguage varia- bility (including those labelled the homogeneous and heterogeneous models in this chapter). She offers compelling reasons for adopting a sociolinguistic account. For those interested in the methods that can be used to describe variability, a good account of the techniques available can be found in Chapter 5 of Sociolinguistics, by N. Dittmar (Edward Arnold, 1976). Dittmar, however, does not deal with 12 data. E. Hatch and H. Farhady, in Research Design and Statistics for Applied Linguistics (Newbury House, 1982), provide an excellent account of implicational scaling using L2 data. 5 Individual learner differences and Second Language Acquisition Introduction Second language (L2) learners vary on a number of dimensions to do with personality, motivation, learning style, aptitude, and age. The aim of this chapter is to examine the relationship between these factors and second language acquisition (SLA). First, however, important to consider two points about the nature of this relationship. ‘Aspects of SLA influenced by individual learner factors possibilitics regarding which aspect of SLA is individual learner factors. One is that differences in age, learning style, aptitude, motivation, and personality result in differences, in the route along which learners pass in SLA. The other is that these factors influence only the rate and ultimate success of SLA. These are separate issues. To claim that individuals vary in the rate at which they learn or the level of competence they eventually attain is not controversial. Indeed, i is part of most language learners’ and teachers’ experience. However, to claim that individual differences influence the sequence or order in which linguistic knowledge is acquired is far more controversial. It runs counter to the arguments and evidence in favour of the ‘navu route of development (see Chapter 3). ‘As will be secn in the discussion of each individual learner factor, th effect on the route of SLA has not been seriously investigated. Nearly a the research into learner variables has involved either investigating their effect on the proficiency levels achieved by different learners, or describing how they affected an individual learner's response to the task of learning a L2. Neither proficiency nor learning response provides any insights about the route of acquisition. There are stark disagreements about the role of individual differences in SLA. As Fillmore (1979) points out, on the one hand individual differences are seen as an portant factor, while on the other they are treated as relatively insignificant, Research which has concentrated ‘on accounting for differences in the proficiency levels of learners has tended to emphasize the importance of individual learner factors. Research which has tried to examine the process of SLA has tended to play down their importance.100 Understanding Second Language Acquisition Identification and classification of learner factors ‘The identification and classification of the different individual factors has proved to be problematic. The main difficulty is thar it is not possible to observe directly qualities such as aptitude, ion, or anxiety. These are merely labels for clusters of behaviours and, not surprisingly, different researchers have used these labels to describe As a result, it is not easy to compare and evaluate the results of their investigations. Each factor is not a unitary construct but a complex of features which are manifest in a range of overlapping behaviours. It is, therefore, not surprising to find that a host of terms have been employed to describe the phenomena. ‘affective and ability factors’ (Chastain ional characteristics’ (Gardner et al. In an attempt to impose some order on this plethora of terms and concepts, | propose to make an initial distinction between personal and general factors. Personal factors are highly idiosyncratic features of each individual’s approach to learning a L2. Some examples are provided by Schumann and Schumann (1977) in a report of their own language learning experiences. They include ‘nesting patterns’ (the need for a secure and orderly home base before learning can effectively begin * (the stress generated by moving to a foreign place in a personal language learning agenda. Th Schumanns found that such factors strongly influenced their SLA. The general factors are variables that are characteristic of all learners. They differ not in whether they are present in a particular individual's learning, but in the extent to which they are present, or the manner in which they are realized. General factors can be further divided into those that are modifiable (ie. are likely to change during the course of SLA), such as motivation, and those that are unmodifiable (ie. do not change in strength or nature as SLA takes place), such as aptitude. Personal and general factors have social, cognitive, and affective aspects. Social aspects are external to the learner and concern the relationship between the learner and native speakers of the L2 and also between the learner and other speakers of his own language. Cognitive and affective aspects are internal to the learner. Cognitive factors concern the nature of the problem-solving strategies used by the learner, while affective factors concern the emotional responses aroused by the attempts to learn a L2. Different personal and general factors involve al three aspects in different degrees. Aptitude, for instance, is thought of as, primarily cognitive in nature, but also involves affective and social aspects. Person: cognitive sides. Age Individual learner differences 101 individual's language learning style are composed of social, cognitive, and affective features that they are so complex, and, as a result, often rather vaguely defined. Nevertheless, as the subsequent discussion will show, they play an important role in SLA. Personal factors Personal factors such as those identified by Schumann and Schumann are difficult to observe by a third person. This methodological problem has been two ways. First, through the use of diary studies. In these, individual learners keep daily records of their experiences in learning a L2. When the learning period is over, the author of the diary can prepare a report, trying to highlight the ‘significant trends’. Examples of published reports of diary studies are Schumann and Schumann (1977), F. Schumann (1980), and Bailey (1980 and 1983). (The last of these is a comprehensive review of a number of published and unpublished diary studies.) The second solution to the m ological pri . Pickett 1978; Naiman e¢ al. 1978), There are difficulties in collecting information about individual responses to SLA in this way. ‘One is that subjects tend to say what they think the researcher wants to hear, or indulge in self-flattery. Another is that such techniques can reveal only those factors of which the learner is conscious. Nevertheless both the diary studies and the questionnaires/interviews have provided insights into the personal nature of language learning, particularly classroom language learning. Personal factors are by definition heterogeneous. However, they can be grouped together under three headings: (1) group dynamics, (2) attitudes to the teacher and course materials, and (3) individual learning techniques. | shall consider each of these in turn. Group dynamics Group dynamics seem to be important in classroom SLA. Bailey (1983) records in some detail the anxiety and compé number of diarists. Some classroom learners make overt comparisons of themselves with other learners. In another kind of comparison, learners ‘match how they think they are progressing against their expectations. Often these comparisons result in emotive responses to the language- learning experience. Competitiveness may be manifested in a desire to out-do other language learners by shouting out answers in class, or by racing through examinations to be the first to finish. McDonough (1978) in a review of reports on their own intensive language learning experiences by students on the M.A. in Applied Linguistics course at the Universiry of Fecey alen ninnninte eran dunamice ac an imnnrctant cot at.102 Understanding Second Language Acquisition promote confusion, they can also serve as a stimulus for learning. McDonough also advances the interesting idea that group cohesiveness based on learners’ collective rejection of pressure and acceptance of failure may depress performance. ‘As a result of her analysis of competitiveness in different language learners, Bailey (1983) proposes a model of how the learner’s self-image comparisons with other L2 learners can either impair or enhance SLA. Where the comparison results in an unsuccessful self-image, there may be debilitating or facilitating anxiety. In the case of may reduce or abandon learning effort. In the case of the latter, learners icrease their efforts in order to compare more favourably with other learners, and, as a result, learning is enhanced. Where the comparison results in a’ successful ‘self-image, the learner experiences positive rewards and thus continues t0 display effort, so learning is also enhanced. Bailey’s model provides an how persor is summarized in Figure 5.1. Competitive Second {Canguage Learner eu continaum of success (exwith expectations) Sucoessta Sellimage Debitaing Ansty ¥ UL terparaiver DLLcomtinvesto | emanenty) Partcfpateinmiley ‘voids Sontact Stevenees ‘Source of perceived ‘allure a rmorecompettive eases! Liearningis ¥ enhanced impatedor 2iesmingis abandoned ennanced Individual learner differences 103 Attitudes to the teacher and course materials Students will inevitably have very different views about the kind of teacher they think is best for them. Some prefer a teacher who, in Stevick’s (1980) term, creates ‘space’ for them to pursue their own learning paths. Others prefer a teacher who structures the learning tasks much more tightly. In general the diarists seem to prefer the former. Bailey (1980), for instance, states a definite preference for a democratic teaching style. She notes that student-student interaction in class rose sharply after a scene where the students had protested to the teacher about an unfair test. John Schumann also expresses a desire for a personal learning agenda in language learning. He observes: ‘I discovered that I like to have my own agenda in second language learning... . I like my way. However, | found my agenda is often in conilict with r's’ (1978: 246). Many of McDonough’s (1978) students also comment adversely on the problems of having to abide by someone else’s teaching plan. However, Pickett’s (1978) study of successful language learning reveals greater diversity in attitudes towards the rol of the teacher. Some learners wanted the teacher to act as ‘informa but others praised teachers who were logical, clear, and systematic (i.e. who imposed a structure on the learner). The main generalization to emerge from Pickett’s study is that learners need to feel sympathy for their teacher, and also want him or her to be predictable, Learners also vary in their attitudes to teaching materials. In general, adult learners dislike having a coursebook imposed upon them in a tigid way. They prefer a variety of materials and the opportunity to use them in ways they choose for themselves. McDonough’s students, for instance, often object to the pace and intensity of the short five-week courses they took part in. They report being unable to cope external pressure, although some students, after closer reflecti express an appreciation of this pressure. However, all these studies dealt with the responses of teachers placed in a learning situation, Other learners may prove less critical than teacher-learners. Individual learning techniques ‘There is tremendous variety in the techniques employed by different learners. They will be dealt with in two groups: those involved in studying the L2, and those involved in obtaining L2 input. Naiman et al. (1978) and Pickett (1978) identify numerous study techniques. Here is a sample of those that learners reported they used to develop their vocabulary in the L2: 1 Preparing and memorizing vocabulai Ieidivedieal leathers appears bays hughly eae nae