1-16 - Hot and Cold Water Supplies

Pllumbing Engineering Services
Design Gwide
The Institute of Ilumbing
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Plumbing Engineering Services
Design Guide
The Institute of Plumbing

Compiled and published by

64 Station Lane, Hornchurch, Essex RM12 6NB.
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ISBN 1 871956 40 4
Published 2002
0 The Institute of Plumbing
The Institute of Plumbing cannot accept responsibility for any errors

and omissions in this publication
th&&,,te The Institute of Plumbing

of Plumbing 64 Station Lane, Hornchurch, Essex RM12 6NB.
Telephone: +44 (0)1708472791
Fax: +44 (0)1708448987
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Plumbing Engineering Services -.
Design Guide
Corrigendum
Page Column 1 Details
No. Table
5. table 5 For 100,000 litres storage read 100 rr? for 2 meter height tank
13. 3. P = 1 = 300 should read P = t = 2 = 0.025

T 1200 T 1200
13. table 14. Basin - 15mm sep taps (33/1200) -

Usage ratio should read 0.028
13. table 14. Type of applicance, slop hopper cistenr only-

should read cistern
15. fig 15. Pipe with section 7 and 8 should be extended to the left
to connect into pipe section 6 (cold water from cistern / tank)
9.
16. table 16. Notes. 1 meter headjof water should read -
18. 2 Equation should redd&g/s=- watts

m
/ r k 4.i 87 (shc of water) x 1000 x A t
82. 2
96. 2, line 5.
103. graph 6.
<
,. ” .’ ,Y.,“
Leehand notkrshould.:read - 1.5m maximum for WC branch
’
108. fig7.
Right\hand noteistitiul;;&ad - 2.5m.maximum for other
ap pIiance con nectI ons..
c:- .
.. . . ,.- ’
“’3 , 1
, . -.’
- i
140. table 26. Category 2 should read 1.5 and Category 3 should read 4.5

HEAD OFFICE
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Issue2 04/03
Sources of water 2
Water supply companies 2
Water demand 3
Water storage 3
Water distribution 4
Hot water production 6
Hot water generators 8
Control of Legionelh 9
Safe water temperatures 10
Water conservation 10
Water regulations 11
Distribution pipe sizing 12
Hard water treatment 24
Water supply installations 24
Disinfection 27
Water quality 28
Corrosion 29
Effects of corrosive environments 32
Prevention of corrosion 36
1
Hot and cold water supplies Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide
Table 1 Drinking water standards From this connection, which generally

Sources of water Temperature I 25°C
incorporates a water company meter, the
consumer is responsible for all aspects of
PH I 5.5-9.5 the supply and distribution of water.
The source of water varies dependant on Colour I 20 Hazen units
which area of the British Isles a supply is
required. The types are:
Turbidity I 4 Formazin units
Qualitative odour All odour invest Consumers‘ rights
1. Upland catchment (reservoir) Qualitative taste All taste investg
Every consumer has the right to be
2. Ground water (borehole/artisan) Dilution odour Dilution No
3 at 25 supplied with water for domestic
Dilution taste purposes from the water supply
3. River extraction.
Conductivity 1500us/cm 20”c company’s distribution network. New or
These sources provide water for supply Total hardness Applies only modified existing connections can incur a
purposes, each with a wide range of Alkalinitv if softened charge by the water company for the
physical, and bacterial quality following services
differences, i.e.
1. New or replacement supply
1. Hardness
Clostridia 1/20 ml 2. Meter installation
2. Bacteria count
3. Supply network reinforcement
3. Minerals.
4. Infrastructure charge.
The quality of water supplied for Colony count, 2 day Comparison
distribution to, and for use by persons Colony count, 3 day against average All these charges relate to the
and properties is controlled by an Act of Oxidisability 5 mgll anticipated daily demand (m3), peak flow
Parliament, the Water Supply (Water Ammonia 0.5 mg/l
rate (k), and number of draw-off fittings
Quality) Regulations 1989, and being served from the supply.
Nitrite 0.1 mg/l
subsequent amendments. The Nitrate 50 mgll
enforcement of the Act is undertaken by
the Drinking Water Inspectorate (DWI),
Chloride 400 mg/l Water regulations
Fluoride 1500 ug/l
who regulate a wide range of key Consumers water supply installations are
elements to attain and maintain the water Phosphorus 2200 ug/l
Sulphate 250 mg/l required to comply to the Water Supply
supply quality. See Table 1. (Water Fitting) Regulations 1999, and
Magnesium 50 mg/l
The standards cover colour, alkalinity, The Water Supply (Water Fitting)
taste, odour, undesirable and toxic
Iron I 200ug/l
(Amendments) Regulations 1999 (2) (the
substances, and micro-organismsto Manganese I 50 ug/l Water Byelaws 2000 (Scotland)).These
specified parameters. The standards are regulations are enforced by the water
called ‘Prescribed Concentrate values’ company that supplies water to the
(PCV’s) to either maximum, minimum, consumer.
average or percentage levels. ’
The regulations govern the whole of the
These standards are imposed on all consumer’s installation from the
water supply companies, with relaxation connection to the water company’s
only considered under emergency communication pipe and meter
situations, i.e. extreme drought or termination, to all the draw-off fittings,
flooding, but under no circumstances if inclusive of any alterations.
there is a risk to public health. The regulations require that no water
fitting shall be installed, connected,
arranged or used in such a manner, or
by reason of being damaged, worn or
Water supply otherwise faulty that it causes, or is likely
to cause:
companies 1. Waste
2. Misuse
The water supply companies operate 3. Undue consumption
under the requirements of the Water
Industry Act 1991, enforced by the Office 4. Contamination
of Water Services (OFWAT). 5. Erroneous measurement.
Water supply companies are responsible The water supply companies are
for the catchment or abstraction of raw required to be notified of certain
water; it’s conditioning, treatment and proposed installations, which may be
distribution to consumers within their subject to inspection and acceptance
region. The characteristics of the water benzol , 12 perylene prior to receiving the water company’s
supplied varies, region to region and supply connection.
within regions dependant upon the actual
source, single or multiple, and the level The regulations are a statutory
of treatment provided in order to attain instrument, which is supported by an
the prescribed quality at the point of interpretation of the regulations. The
connection to the customer’s supply. water supply companies have the
authority to apply to the Regulator for
2
Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide Hot and cold water supplies
relaxation of any part of the regulation Table 2 Daily water demand

considered inappropriate to a particular Water storage Type of Building Litres CriteriaNnit
case.
Dwellings
The storing of water has a number of
purposes, - 1 bedroom I 210 I Bedroom
Water regulations guide - 2 bedroom I 130 I Bedroom
The Water Regulations Advisory Scheme
1. Providing for an interruption of supply - 3+ bedrooms I 100 I Bedroom
(WRAS) publish a guide which provides 2. Accommodation peak demand - Student en-suite 100 Bedroom
formal guidance and recommendations - Student, communal 90 Bed space
3. Providing a pressure (head) for
on how the regulations should be applied gravity supplies. - Nurses Home 120 Bed space
to the actual water installations and - Children’s Home 135 Bed space
include the Water Byelaws 2000 Design Codes recommend that storage - Elderly sheltered 120 Bedroom
(Scotland). is provided to cover the interruption of an - Elderly Care Home 135 Bed space
incoming mains supply, in order to
maintain a water supply to the building.
- Prison 150 Inmate
Water supply companies are empowered

to insist on specific terms, including the
Water demand volume or period of storage, within the
term of their supply agreement with a
The water demand for a building is consumer. However many water supply
dependant on a number of factors. companies only recommend that storage
be provided in accordance with the BS
1. Type of building and it’s function 6700, placing the responsibility and
decision firmly on the consumers.
2. Number of occupants, permanent or
transitional Table 2 provides guidance on typical
3. Requirement for fire protection water usage within buildings over a 24
hour period.
systems.
In designing storage capacities, account
4. Landscape and water features.
needs to be taken of the building and its
In dwellings the resident’s water location.
consumption is divided between the
1. Period and hours of occupation
many appliances. A typical percentage
break down provided by the Environment 2. Pattern of water usage
Agency is:
3. Potential for an interruption of supply
1. WC suite 32%
4. Available mains pressure, and any
2. Washing machine 12% inadequacies during the hours of
3. Kitchen sink 15% building use
4. Bath 15% 5. Health 8, Safety, prevention of

bacteria, including legionella.
5. Basin 9%
If a building is occupied 24 hours a day,
6. Shower ?%a then an interruption of supply will have a
7. Outside supply 3% greater impact than that for say an office,
which may only be occupied for eight to
8. Miscellaneous 9% ten hours. Where a building is occupied
by elderly or infirmed people then
Overall consumption increases by around
10% during warmer months when out
avoiding any disruption of the water
supply is an important consideration as
- Art Gallery I 6 Person
door usage increases to over 25%. In
they would be unable to easily leave the
- Library I 6 Person
general, consumption per person
building should water become
- Museum I 6 I Person
decreases with an increase in dwelling
unavailable.
-Theatre I 3 I Person
size given the shared facilities. - Cinema
Clients, such as the National Health
For guidance on the total water demand
Service, require their buildings to be
for typical types of buildings refer to Table
2 for daily water demand. The figures provided with storage to safeguard
against an interruption of the mains
stated have been assembled from a
supply. Industrial clients may well require SUPPORTING INFORMATION
number of sources, including BS 6700,
storage to ensure their business and/or If the number of building occupants are not
Chartered Institute of Building Services
production is not interrupted. If water accurately known then as a guide the
Engineers (CIBSE) and Environmental following criteria can be used.
Agency studies and can be used as a ceases to be available within a building
then the occupiers will eventually leave Offices, one person per 14m2 of the gross
basis for good practice. building floor area.
as toilet facilities will become unusable. It
is likely that when an interruption of Sports hall, four persons per badminton court
area per hour open, maximum.
supply occurs then the water available Swimming pool, one person per cubical per
would be conserved as much as hour open, with a factor of 0.6 for diversity
possible, thereby extending the time of Field sports changing, persons per teams per
occupancy beyond that anticipated under number of pitches, per day
normal usage rates.
3
Q
All Weather Field, persons per teams per The type of water system will need to be
hours used. Incoming supply
one or a combination of the following: (balanced pipes not critical)
Museums, Art Galleries, Libraries, One
person per 30m2 of the gross building floor a. Direct mains fed
area.
Restaurants, One person per 1.0m2of the
b. High level storage with gravity down
dining area. feed
Cisterns, rectangular,
Bars, One person per 0.8m2 of the public c. Pumped from a break cistern or in parallel
barkeating area.. storage provision.
When the water supply companies, Potentially a one or two storey building in
regulations, or client requirements do not a locality where an interruption of water Outlets, from opposite
corners of inlet, and
specifically dictate the period to cover an supply is very infrequent and causing strictly balanced in length
interruption of a mains supply then Table little inconvenience,there is an option for and configuration
3 provides recommendations for the water supply to be direct from the
reasonable periods of storage, expressed mains without storage being provided. If NOTE
as a percentage of the daily water the provision of storage is possible at Valves to be provided to enable one cisternhank to
demand. high level then the system could be be isolated whilst other remains open.
enhanced to provide storage coupled
Figure 2 Storage cistern/tank layout
with it becoming a gravity down feed
Table 3 Period of storage system. See Figure 1. Sectional tanks commonly have flanges,
being internal or external. External
Type 01 Building
Hospitals
1I d,gte%d
50%
Option of gravity feed
tank at high level
flanges permit tightening without needing
to enter the tank, and on the base permit
the tank to be self draining through a
Nursing Homes I 50%
single drain point, without further draining
Dwellings 0 - 50% of any entrapped water between flanges.
Hotels, Hostels 50% Rising main,
and drop to Such a feature reduces maintenance and
Off ices 0 - 50% draw-off assists the prevention of water stagnation
Shops 0 - 25% points which can lead to harmful bacteria
Library, Museum, Art Galleries 0 - 25% growth, including legionella.
Cinema, Theatre 0 - 25% In calculating the storage capacity a free
Bars, night-club 0 - 25% board allowance is necessary to
Sports Facilities 0 - 25% Ground level
accommodate the float valve, over flow
Schools, Colleges, Universities 50% utility CO. ] installations and any expansion from the
Boarding Schools 50% mains 0 hot water system. Depending on pipe
sizes, commonly a 250 - 300 mm free
board depth is required on ciserndtanks
Figure 7 Supply to a two storey building having a capacity greater than 2500
litres. Raised ball (float) valve housings in
conjunction with a weir overflow can
Storage tanks provide an increased depth of water
The water distribution installation A building requiring a large water storage stored over the main area of the
requires to be able to deliver the correct provision may not be able to cistern/tank(s).
flow and volume of hot and cold water accommodate it at high level, in which The location of the inlet and outlet
when and where it is needed. The mains case a low level location will be needed, connections is important. A cross flow
pressure can provide the initial means of in conjunction with a pumped distribution through the cistern/tank needs to be
delivering water into the building. The system. achieved to assist the complete regular
water supply companies are required to turn over of water throughout the storage
deliver their water to the boundary with a A combination of high and low storage
can be considered if a gravity distribution period.
minimum pressure of 1.O bar. Often their
delivery pressure can be higher, however is preferred for all or part of the building. Sub divided, twin and multiple
at times of high demand, the pressure This has an advantage of providing some cisterns/tanks ideally should be installed
will be closer to the minimum provision. storage in the event of an interruption of in parallel to each other. The inlets
the water supply, or power supply to the require to be positioned at the same level
pumps. A storage ratio of 2 : 1 lowlhigh to ensure they supply the cisterdtanks
Type of system level is a typical arrangement. in unison, and as far as possible the
Storage can comprise of two same flow rate to assist a balanced
The type and style of water distribution throughput.The outlet connections and
needed for a particular building will compartments or cisterns/tanks in order
that maintenance can be carried out manifold pipe work needs to be arranged
depend mainly on the building height and with symmetrical and equal lengths, also
its use. without interrupting distribution.
to provide, as far as is possible a
a. The building height will determine For small storage quantities one piece balanced flow from the tanks.
whether pumping will be required to cisterns can be used, which generally
are of a low height construction. For The use of a delayed action float valve
deliver water to the highest level may also be considered to ensure a
storage of 2500 litres or more, sectional
b. The building use will determine the panel tanks may be considered more greater turn over of water.
amount of storage that will be appropriate with a centre divide.
required.
Above 4000 litres storage twin
cisterns/tanks may be considered
appropriate. See Figure 2.
4
b. No pump running costs e. Cold water and hot water cold feed
Access to storage gravity distribution.
c. Potentially less noise due to lower
cisterns/tanks pipe flow velocities. The low level pump set can be sized to
Access for installation and maintenance provide a low volume, more frequent
The disadvantages are: operation and high head to deliver the
is required.Table 4 is a guide.
a. Greater structural support water to the tanks at roof level.
For large buildings, accommodation for
water storage has an significant impact. b. Larger pipe sizes due to limited If a 'mains' water supply is required to be
Table 5 provides an outline guide to the available head, when compared to provided specifically for drinking water
space that may be required. Pumps points or drink making equipment, then
either of these can be supplied from the
c. Lower delivery pressures. incoming main up to the number of floors
Table 4 Access to storage cisterns/tanks that the available mains pressure will
reach, and from the pumped rising main
Location ~~
I (mm) Pumped supplies above that level; or entirely from the
Around 750 The delivery of water by pumping will pumped rising main. See Figure 6.
Between, tanks 750 provide flexibility in the positioning of the Whilst all water supplied for domestic
Above, allowing beams to intrude 1000 storage cisterndtanks. The delivery flow uses has to be suitable for drinking
Below, between supports 600 rate and pressure demanded by the purposes, supplying drinking water points
For outlet pipe work, incl. access 1500 system are met entirely by selecting the direct from incoming mains or pumped
Tank construction thickness 100 correct duty for the pumps. The pump set mains provides a cooler, more
25
is required to deliver a constantly varying oxygenated supply for taste purposes.
Insulation (may form part of tank)
flow rate as draw-off points are randomly
Raised float valve housing 300
used by the occupants. The use of multi-
Entry to tank 800 dia stage variable duty and/or inverters is an
advantage. See Figure 4. Cisterns/tank(s)
Table 5 Water storage plant room area on roof or roof
Generally a minimum of two pumps are plant room
used, each having 100% system duty
~
Storage Tank Height level

(Litres) 1.5 metre 2 metre 3 metre and controlled to enable them to be a
stand by to each other. To prevent high
5,000 18 m2 18 m2 -
pressure overrun when demand is less
10,000 31m2 23m2 - than the design demand, a pressure
20,000 50m2 40m2 limiting or variable control flow device
40,000 72m2 60m2 50m3 needs to be fitted on the outlet from the
60,000 - 80m2 60m2 pumps.
100.000 - 10m2 80m2
For high buildings a combination of Low level break
or storage tank
pumped and gravity may be appropriate.
. Gravity supplies The advantage of this is to provide a
proportion of the daily water usage in a
For gravity supplies to be effective, the cisterns/tank(s) at roof level, which would
storage requires to be at a sufficient provide a gravity down feed service, and I Pump set
height to deliver the water to the draw-off continue to provide water in the event of 0-mani
point at the required flow rate and a failure of the pump. See Figure 5. Such
pressure.The available head is the a system would comprise of:
dimension between the bottom of the Figure 5 Combined pump and gravity
storage cistern/tank(s) and the highest a. An incoming main
draw-off point, or draw-off point with the Figure 6 'Mains' water for drinking
b. Low level break or storage
greatest headpressure loss. See Figure 3. cisternhank
The advantages of gravity supplies are: c. Pumpset
a. Availability of water in the event of d. High level cistern/tank(s)
water mains or power failure Pumped 'mains'
to drinking
points and
drinks machines
Figure 3 Gravity supplies available head Figure 4 Pumped supply layout
Utility 'mains' to
drinking points
and drinks
Duty of pumps -A------- machines
Head of water = static lift plus ,
pressure available in distribution
metres .-- - -- - loss and Low level
delivery cisternhank
pressure, in
metres
Pump set
0 Incoming miin
Sports hall, Four persons per badminton court

Hot water Type of building Daily Stored Unit
area per hour open, maximum.
production (litres) (litres) Swimming pool, One person per cubical per
hour open, with a factor of 0.6 for diversity
Field sports changing, persons per teams per
Hot water can be generated by a differing number of pitches, per day
number of methods, and the selection All weather field, persons per teams per hours
will depend mainly on the quantities of used.
hot water required and the types of
energy readily available. Museums, art galleries, libraries, One person
per 30m2 of the gross building floor area.
The demand for hot water will vary
Restaurants, One person per 1.0m2of the
considerably between types of buildings, dining ‘area.
governed by their occupants and the
activities taking place. For example: Bars, One person per 0.8m2 of the public
barheating area.
Office buildings will require small
Hotels
quantities frequently and regularly
throughout the ‘normal’ working day, and
availability at other times as and when
occupant’s ‘overtime’ working hours HWS distribution 60°C
demand. Off ices & general work places
A factory with a production line will -with canteen I 15 5 I IPerson
require sufficient hot water to meet the -without canteen I 10 5 I ]Person Store
~65°C HWS secondary
demand at breaks in the shift when the circulation >50C
work force may all wish to wash hands -with canteen I 15 I 5 IPerson
etc. -without canteen I 10 I 5 IPerson
Factorv
A sports pavilion will need to be able to
provide large quantities of hot water for -with canteen I 15 I 5 IPerson Hot water cold feed <20C
team’s showering needs over a short -without canteen I 10 I 5 ]Person
1 ;;1
period of time following games, whenever
Figure 7 Hot water temperature protocol
they occur.
:- WJ;;;;
Secondar 5 Pu P u iill l
Selection of hot water - 6th form colle e 5 1lu;iPu
l il ~ ~
When a conventional bulk hot water
vessel is used it is necessary to ensure
production - Boardin 114 25 Pu il
that the contents of the whole vessel
In the selection of the type of hot water achieves the correct stored water
production, the time available for re- temperature as stratification can occur.
heating is an important consideration. To overcome this situation the storage
vessel should incorporate the following
If a high volume or rapid re-heat rate is features:
required then it would be necessary to
ensure that a sufficient energy capacity a. Base inlet hot water cold feed supply
is available. If the energy capacity - SDorts Hall I 20 I 20 lperson b. Top outlet hot water outlet flow
needed is not available then a greater
-Swimming Pool 20 20 Person c. Convex ends to vessel
volume of water storage would have to
be provided to ensure hot water is - Field Sports 35 35 Person
d. Provide a ‘shunt’ pump to move the
available during the slower re-heat - All weather pitch 35 , 35 Person hot water from the top of the vessel
period. Places of assembly (excl. staff) to the base to avoid stratification.
- Art Gallery 2 1 Person
Hot water production and storage
- Library 2 1 Person
temperatures are required to comply to
the Health & Safety requirements for the - Museum 1 1 Person Hot water demand
minimisation of legionella bacteria. This -Theatre 1 1 Person
When assessing the hot water production
demands a minimum storage - Cinema 1 1 Person
requirements for a building it is
temperature of 60°C to be attained, with - Bars 2 1 Person necessary to determine the peak
a minimum secondary return (if provided) - Night Club 1 1 Person demand. The peak demand is the volume
temperature of 50°C. See Figure 7. - Restaurant 6 6 Cover of hot water required during the building’s
Therefore in calculating the hot water period of greatest usage. This may be
demand for a building it is necessary to SUPPORTING INFORMATION over an hour, or shorter period
ensure that the output water temperature dependant on the occupants and
The storage figures stated are based on a re- activities taking place.
from the hot water production plant is heat period of two hours, an inlet temperature
never less than 60°C,and never less than of 10°C and a stored temperature of 65°C. Having determined the peak demand the
50°C throughout the distribution system. volume of hot water needing to be stored
If the number of building occupants are not
The HSC ‘Control of Legionella’ Code L8 accurately known then as a guide the can be selected, the rate of recovery and
states that 50°C should be achieved following criteria can be used. the associated energy input needed can
within 60 seconds at all outlets. be established.
Offices, One person per 14m2of the gross
building floor area. The buildings total daily hot water usage
is relevant to the assessment of the peak
6
demand. Once the daily usage is Therefore it can be seen that the stored activity that is likely to take place. In
determined then the more critical peak water is there to provide for & peak 1750 determining the pattern of usage, it is
demand can be assessed. litre draw-off occurring over any period important to differentiate between a
from, say ten minutes upwards. maximum daily demand and an average
Traditionally hot water peak usage was daily demand, so that the implications of
based on a two hour storage re-heat For consideration purposes 1750 litres
the system not meeting the buildings hot
period and this has generally proved to equates to 35 baths, each using 50 litres
water requirements can be recognised,
be a satisfactory benchmark for peak of 60°C stored hot water. Dependant on
and the maximum requirements
demands for that period. the bath usage ratio of either 1200, 2400,
designed for where necessary.
or 4800 seconds frequency of use (see
Table 6 schedules a compilation of Measured quantities of hot water
simultaneous demand data) the hot
figures currently recommended by the consumption should not stand alone as a
water stored could be used up after a 63
water industry’s design codes, with sizing guide. The rate at which these
minute period. Alternatively 1750 litres
additional categories added as amounts are drawn off must also be
could provide for 73 persons having a
considered useful. The recommended considered. To project the demand
shower, each lasting 5 minutes using 24
storage volumes are based on a 65°C pattern over the operating period of the
litres of 60°C of stored hot water (mixed
storage temperature and a two hour re- building, an hour by hour analysis of
with cold). Dependant on the shower
heat period, i.e. a bulk storage vessel. likely hot water usage should be made,
usage rate of 900, 1800, or 2700
This data should be considered as taking into account the number of
seconds frequency of use, the hot water
representative of capacities, which have occupants, the type and level of activity
stored could be used up after a 45
not given rise to complaints of and any other factors that may affect hot
minute period. These two examples are
inadequacy. water demand. The projected pattern of
based on a peak statistical usage which
would likely not reoccur during the demand should be recorded in the form
remaining time of the two hour re-heat of a histogram profile.
Two hour re-heat period.
Typical examples of daily demand in
The two hour re-heat storage volume A ‘semi-storage’hot water generator various types of buildings are illustrated
figures can provide a guide to the peak requiring to meet the same demand for in Figures 8 and 9.
water volume used during a peak two baths would need to be capable of
hour usage period. The same hot water By establishing a hot water demand
providing, approximately a 3.3 litre per
output could also be achieved by the use histogram a representative peak demand
second flow rate of 65°C continuous hot
of low volumehapid reheat ‘semi-storage’ volume can be established. Typically the
water output, assuming an initial stored
types of hot water generators, if the peak hour is between 15-20% of the
volume capacity of 500 litres.
energy input capacity is available. day’s total usage.
These potential peak demands could be
The ‘semi-storage’type of hot water When selecting a ‘semi-storage’hot
considered as being extreme examples.
heaters can meet shorter peak demand water production unit(s) it needs to be
However they clearly demonstrate the
periods i.e. 1 hour, or less, although recognised that the small stored volume
demands capable of being put on hot
detailed secure information about peak is there to meet the short period peak
water generation, when taking account of
period demands during periods of less draw-offs that occur in any water supply
the maximum simultaneous usage that is
that 1 hour are not sufficiently available, system. The shortest of these peak draw-
imposed on draw-off fittings by the
and therefore a design risk margin will be offs is the ‘maximum’ simultaneous
building occupants, and accordingly has
required. demand litre per second flow rate figure
to be considered for design purposes.
calculated from the sum of the draw off
The established two hour peak usage Whatever the building, the likely pattern ‘demand’ or ‘loading’ units used for pipe
figures cannot simply be evenly sub- of hot water usage should be assessed sizing. However, periods of time that
divided into shorter periods without the and considered. The hot water usage will these flow rates occur are very short,
risk of seriously under estimating the be directly related to the building and are based on the period of individual
actual hot water volume that will be function, its occupancy and the type of draw- off, i.e. length of time to fill a basin,
required during that shorter period. The
shorter the period, the greater the dis-
proportion of the two hour peak storage Figure 8 Typical demand pattern histogram
figure will be required.
For example, the recommended two hour 3500
re-heat period storage volume for a
budget hotel is 35 litres per bedroom. For 3000
a 50 bedroom hotel the stored volume
would need to be 1750 litres, which when 2500
supplemented by the re-heated water
during the envisaged peak two hour 2000
draw-off period, less the loss (25%) of e
hot water due to the mixing effect of the E

1500
incoming cold water feed, is capable of
providing a notional 2625 litres, should
that demand occur. This is because 1750 1000
litres of 65°C hot water is notionally
available at the start of the notional peak 500
draw-off period, and whilst the stored hot
water is being drawn off it is also being 0
re-heated at a rate of 1750 litres per two 0 6 12 18 24
hours, less the loss through the mixing of Period
incoming cold water and the stored hot
water (25%).
3000
-
2
VI
2
.-
Hotel
r
I
.E 2000 - -
a
5C c
V I e 1000--
z! 1001 ii
c.
4 3 0
0 6 12 18 24
Time (hours)
I
2ot
0
0 6
rj “0 6 12 18 24
Time (hours) Time ( urs)
Figure 9 Examples of daily demand patterns for commercial premises Reproduced from CIBSE Guide G: Public Health Engineering, by
permission of the Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers.
sink, or bath, have a shower, and the additional transfer process and less Vented or unvented
number of times the draw-off is used efficient operation when space heating is
during the peak demand period, i.e. not needed. generators
every 5, 10, or 20 minutes, or more. The
Solar heating, when available and viable A vented hot water generator is supplied
‘maximum simultaneous demand’ must
is an excellent supplementary heat by a gravity hot water down feed and
not be applied to periods greater than
source and effective in reducing annual expansion pipe and having an open vent
the period and frequency of ‘maximum
energy tariffs. pipe over the feed cisternhank to provide
simultaneous demand.
Commonly used forms of hot water for pressure relief, in addition to
heating are:
Dwellings and small buildings:
Hot water Electric, or gas combination (HWS &
Heating) boilers.
Option of
combined +’
generators Offices:
Electric, local or ‘point of use’ water
cold feed
and open
vent
heaters.
The production of hot water can be
achieved by a varied number of energy Larger premises and sports facilities: Hot water
sources. Gas direct fired water heaters. cold feed Hot water
generator
1. Electric, generally with direct
immersed elements Local or central plant
2. Gas, either direct, or indirect by a
The adoption of local or central plant is Figure 10 Vented hot water generator
dedicated circulator
generally dependant on the type of
3. Low Temperature Hot Water (LTHW) building, where hot water is needed and Figure 11 Unvented hot water generator
boiler plant, dedicated or more likely the volume required. For toilet wash
forming part of the space heating basin ‘hand rinse’ purposes only, where HWS distribution
plant relatively little hot water is required then TemDerature I--+
a local heater positioned adjacent to the reliei valve
4. Steam, when available from a central
draw-off fittings would be appropriate.
plant facility.
This may be considered particularly
Energy forms, which provide a direct suitable for office and school toilets. The
Expansion
means of heating hot water, i.e. electric advantages of this type of installation can vessel
and gas in particular, are the most be low installation, energy consumption,
effective in t e p s of efficiency because of and maintenance costs, plus alleviating
least loss of heat during the heat transfer the need for secondary circulation
process. Sharing hot water generation pipework and pump to maintain
with space heating plant can decrease distribution temperatures. Check ialve presiure
the energy efficiency through the relief valve
8
expansion. These units generally are Secondary circulation and particularly suited for these type of units.
storage type units rather that semi-
trace heating A number of different types of local
storage units. As an open vessel the heaters are available. Most commonally
maximum pressure is the static head are ’unvented units’ supplied directly from
Secondary circulation or trace heating
from the cold water feed cisterdtank.
needs to be provided when the length of the incoming mains or from the main cold
Individual vessels should be provided
hot water pipework and the volume of water distribution system within the
with their own open vent. A pressure
water the pipework contains, becomes building. Usually a minimum inlet
and/or temperature relief valve can be
such that it would take an unreasonable pressure is required, often being 1.O bar
considered in place of a separate open
length of time to draw off the cool water. or above, subject to the manufactures
vent subject to the vent being combined
The Water Regulations Guide instructions.
with the cold feed/expansion pipe, and
recommends that un-circulated hot water The Water Regulations govern the
there being no means of closing off the
distribution pipes should be kept as short requirements for unvented water heaters.
vent.
as possible and if uninsulated not exceed Heaters with a capacity of less than 15
Unvented hot water generators are the maximum length stated. litres are classed as being instantaneous
generally supplied from Utility Company’s
mains, or pumped distribution systems. Table 7 Water Regulations Guide and need no temperature or pressure
relief valves, or expansion valves or
Provision for expansion and Max. lengths of uninsulated pipes vessels. Units above 15 litres capacity
pressure/temperaturerelief is provided PipeOD I Length 1 (Seconds) require such devices.
by mechanical fittings to provide a safe
system. Unvented units are commonly
semi-storage types. The pressures that
they are subjected to are the operational
head of the ‘mains’ or ‘pumped system
inclusive of any ‘closed head’ situation. Control of legionella
For unvented units with a capacity of 112 The ‘seconds’ column illustrates the
litres or less, the Building Regulations approximate length of time it would take The means of controlling legionella
require that the unit is provided complete to draw of the cool water based on the bacteria is determined by the Health &
with all it’s safety fittings. For larger draw off rate of a wash basin tap with an Safety Approved Code of Guidance L8.
unvented units the ‘Designer’ is required 0.15 I/s flow rate. The Health & Safety Figure 13 Design temperature and
to specify the safety fittings in Legionella Code L8 states a maximum associated risks (CIBSE TM 13)
accordance with the Water Regulations. draw off period for hot water to reach its
correct temperature shall be 60 seconds.
Multiple hot water Insulating the pipes does not stop the hot
water cooling, it only slows down the too
generators cooling rate. Once the temperature has A
dropped below 50°C,then the Health & No viable
Legionella
Safety’s ‘60 seconds’ maximum length of
Hot water flow distribution
time criteria applies. The insulating of B
80
pipes is desirable as it delays the cooling
Hot water rate of the hot water enabling it to be ........................................ ...........
-
generators in ‘useful’ for longer, and by that means Legionella
parallel with saves energy and the associated costs.
strictly balanced C will not
60 multiply and
pipework Once it becomes necessary to provide
connections in die in time
length and
secondary circulation or trace heating, ........................................ ..........
configuration secondary then it should be extended to serve the D
return whole of the hot water distribution
40 E Legionella
system making un-circulated or trace will multiply
F
heated sections of pipework as short as
Hot water cold feed practicably possible, and not the
maximum lengths stated in the table. 20 ..................6-................. ...........
H Legionella
I will remain
Figure 72 Multiple hot water heaters Local heaters dormant
0
Where multiple hot water generators These generally comprise of small self
become necessary for capacity/output, contained electrically heated hot water Increasing multiplication of legionella
andlor standby/back up purposes care units individually placed near to the
must be taken to ensure that the position that hot water is required, and
interconnecting pipework configuration serve either a single draw off or a A. Steam humidification
provides a balanced use and flow number of draw off’s which are adjacent B. LTHW heating
through the two of more hot water to each other. Gas heaters are available, C. Hot water storage
generators. D. Hot water taps outlets
but not commonally used due to the E. Cold water storage, sprinklers
need to make provision for flues.The F. Spray humidification
purpose of such units provide hot water G. Mains cold water and air cooling coil
in a simple manner, in particular where condensate
the draw off is remote and only low
volumes of hot water is required, such as
for hand rinsing. Office toilet
accommodation and single showers are
9
- - -
The Code identifies specific practical Graph 1 Temperature and duration of exposure, sufficient to cause burns in thin
guidance on how this is to be achieved in areas of skin
water supply systems. The key aims
being:
1. Maintain cold water below 25°C 80
2. Maintain stored hot water between

60-65"C
3. Maintain hot water distribution above
50"C, and preferably at 55°C 70
0
aa
U)
4. Insulate all cold and hot water 2
storage vessels and distribution aa
U
pipework c
._
60
5. Minimise the length of un-circulated c
e
and none trace heated hot water 01
pipes , E
c"
6. Avoid supplies to little or unused
draw-off fittings 50
7. Maintain balanced use and flows

through multiple cold water
cisternshanks and hot water vessels.
See Figure 13.
NOTE: 1 10 100 1000 10000

For further details please see 'legionella
section', contained within this guide. Time in seconds
Design Codes for Health buildings Type 2 - a thermostatic mixing valve,

Safe water require that all draw-off points that can
be used by patients have the
complying with BS 1415 part 2.
Type 3 - a thermostatic mixing valve with
temperatures temperature of the hot water limited to a
safe temperature.
enhanced thermal performance
compiling with the NHS Estates Model
The Health Codes also extends to elderly Engineering Specification D08.
care homes and sheltered dwellings,
which are under the responsibility or
licence of the Local Authority. Other
buildings that require consideration are
nurseries, schools, and anywhere where
there is a 'duty of care' by the building
Water conservation
owner's landlord, and/or management.
The efficient management of water
The temperature control is achieved by usage and supplies is necessary to
the deployment of single control mixer comply with National and International
taps or valves. The type of valves can environmental conservation 'best
vary dependant on their application. practice' aims and is covered in detail
The types of mixing valve, as defined by within the Resource Efficient Design
the Health Guidance Note, are: section. The Water Regulations
incorporate this requirements under their
Type 1 - a mechanical mixing valve, or prevention of 'waste, misuse, and undue
tap including those complying with BS consumption, and also the specification
1415 part 1, or 885779 incorporating a for reduced capacity of WC flushing
maximum temperature control stop cisterns and limit to automatic urinal
device. flushing cisterns.
Appliance Application Max
Temp Table 9 Recommended application for The key water conservation areas within
Bidet All 38°C mixing valves a water supply installation are
Shower All 41"C 1. Low volume flush WC's
Wash Hand rinse only Application I Type
basin under running Bidet 2. Urinal Controls
water, i.e. toilets 41°C 3. Draw-off tap controls
Wash For an integral
basin part of ablution, persons not being at risk 4. Clothes and dish washing machines
i.e. bathroom 43°C 5. Leak detection
Wash basins for persons
Bath All 44°C at risk, i.e. elderly, infirmed, Type 3 6. Limited need for garden and
Bath Where difficult to young, etc
attain an adequate landscape watering
bathing temperature 46°C
10
7. Rainwater reuse Table 12 Notifiable installations

8. Grey water recycling.
Water regulations
The DTER (now DEFRA) Water The erection of a building or other
The Water Regulations Guide is structure, not being a pond or swimming
Conservation in Business document published by the Water Regulation
(2000) provides proposals and examples Advisory Scheme (WRAS), incorporating
for water savings. An example the 2 The extension or alteration of a water
the Department of the Environment, system on any premises other than a
document proposes is the potential water Transport, and the Regions (DETR, now
savings that could possibly be made in house
DEFRA) Guidance and Water Industry A material change of use of any
an off ice building. recommendations. Dremises
Table 10 Office water consumption The Guide interperates the Regulations 4 I The installation of:
Activity
I
I
Ohwater
used I
I
Anticipated
%saving
and identifies how water supply systems
shall be installed to comply with the
Statutory Regulations.
(a) A bath having a capacity, as measured
to the centre line of overflow, of more
than 230 litres
WC flushing I 43% I 30%-6O%
A bidet with an ascending spray or
Washing 27% 50% - 60% The prevention of contamination is the (b)
overall main aim of the Water flexible hose
Urinal flushing 20% 50% - 80%
Regulations, and the identification of (c) A single shower unit (which may consist
Miscellaneous 10% 20% of one or more shower heads within a
~
risks is one of the main changes

Significant additional water reductions can be single unit) not being a drench shower
between the previous Water Bylaws and
made by incorporating leak defection sysfems, installed for reasons of safety or health,
the Water Regulations.The risks are connected directly or indirectly to a
grey water recycling, rain water collection and
water efficient garden and landscape.
categorised into five Fluid Category supply pipe which is of a type specified
definitions. Refer to Table 13. by the regulator
The risk of contamination is made (d) A pump or booster drawing more than
The Building Research Establishment 12 litres per minute, connected directly
provide an assessment method called present through back pressure andlor
back syphonage, termed as Backflow or indirectlv to a SUDD~VDiDe
‘BREEM’ which provides a range of
performance criteria to assess water
economy in buildings. For an office
being the source of risk into the water
distribution system. I
(e) A unit which incorporates reverse
osmoses
building the BREEM design and (f) A water treatment unit which produces
To Protect against Backflow there are a a waste water discharge, or which
procurement performance scoring gives range of mechanical and non-mechanical requires the use of water for
a ‘pass’ for 200 points, and an ‘excellent’ devices. Reference to the Water regeneration or cleaning
for 490 points. Table 11 shows the Regulations is required for the selection A reduced pressure zone valve
(9)
importance of water conservation design of the appropriate device to match the assembly or other mechanical device for
and management, which overall fluid category risk. protection against a fluid which is in
represents 62 points out of the total fluid category 4 or 5
BREEM score. Air gaps are the most effective means of
protecting against backflow and the (h) A garden watering system unless
designed to be operated by hand, or
resulting risk of contamination, and a
Table 11 BREEM 98 for offices water correctly provided air gap protects (i) Any water system laid outside a building
assessment prediction check list and either less than 750mm or more
against all fluid categories from 1 up to 5. than 1350mm below ground level
All other means of protection, will protect
Item Score 5 The construction of a pond or a
between Fluid Categories 1-4.
swimming pool with a capacity of more
Where predicted water consumption
6 than 10,000 litres which is designed to
is 10-20m3 per person per year
be replenished by automatic means and
Notification
Where predicted water consumption
is 5-9m3 Der Derson oer Year I 12
The Water Regulations requires that
is to be filled with water supplied by a
water undertaker.
Where predicted water consumption notice shall be given to the water
is c5m3 per person per year Crown copyright 1999 with the permission of the
undertaker (company) of work intending Controller of Her Majesty’s Stationery Office.
Where a water meter is installed to to be carried out, which shall not begin
all supplies in the building without the consent, and shall comply
Where a leak detection system
is installed coverinQ all mains supplies1 6
with any conditions set by the water Backflow prevention
undertaker (company).
Where proximity detection shut off It is necessary to protect against the
Notice of the work shall include likelihood of the backflow of
is provided to water supplies in details of:
WC areas contaminated water back into the water
Where there are established and 1. Who requires the work supply installation, The contaminated
operational maintenance procedures water is any water that has been
2. Who is to carry the work out delivered to the draw off point and has
covering all water system, taps,
sanitary fittings and major water 3. Location of premises left the water supply system. The degree
consuming plant of contamination is as defined by the
4. A description of the work Water Regulations Guide, categorised as
Where water consumption monitoring
is carried out at least every quarter 5. Name of the approved contractor, if Fluids 1 to 5. Refer to Table 13.
using historical data an approved contractor is to carry out
Where storm water run off is the works.
controlled at source
The other assessment criteria for the building
are Building performance, Design
procurement assessments, and management
and operational assessments.
11
~~
Table 13 Water regulation fluid categories and examples

Fluid Category 1: Wholesome water supplied by a Water supplied directly from a water undertaker’s main.
water undertaker and complying with the requirements
of reaulations made under section 67 of the Water
Industries Act 1991. (The incoming water supply).
Fluid Cateqorv 2: Water in fluid cateaorv. 1 whose Mixing of hot and cold water supplies.
aesthetic q;ali& is impaired owing toy Domestic softening plant.
a. A change in its temperature, or Drink vending machines having no ingredients injected into the distribution pipe.
b. the presence of substances or organisms causing Fire sprinkler systems without anti-freeze.
a change in its taste, odour or appearance, including Ice making machines.
water in a hot water distribution system. Water cooled air conditionina units (without additives).
Fluid Category 3: Fluid which represents a slight Water in primary circuits and heating systems in a house.
health hazard because of the concentration of Domestic wash basins, baths and showers.
substances of low toxicity, including any fluid which Domestic clothes and dishwashing machines.
contains: Home dialysing machines.
a. Ethylene glycol, copper sulphate solution or similar Drink vending machines having ingredients injected.
chemical additives; or Commercial softening plant.
b. sodium hypochlorite (chloros and common Domestic hand held hoses.
disinfections). Hand held fertilizer sprays.
lrriaation svstems.
Fluid Category 4: Fluid which represents a significant General: Primary circuits and central heating systems in other than a house. Fire
health hazard because of the concentration of toxic sprinkler systems using anti-freeze solutions.
substances, including any fluid which contains: House and gardens: Mini-irrigation systems without fertilizer or insecticide application
a. Chemicals, carcinogenic substances or pesticides such as pop-up sprinklers or permeable hoses.
(including insecticides and herbicides), or Food processing: Food preparation, dairies, bottle washing apparatus.
b. environmental organisms of potential health Catering: Commercial dishwashing machines, bottle washing apparatus, refrigeration
significance. equipment.
Industrial and commercial installation: Dyeing equipment. Industrial disinfecting
equipment. Printing and photographic equipment. Car washing degreasing plant.
Commercial clothes washing plants. Brewery and distillation plant. Water treatment plant
or softeners using other than salt. Pressurised fire fighting systems.
Fluid Category 5: Fluid represents a serious health General: Industrial cisterns, Non-domestic hose union taps. Sinks, urinals, WC pans
hazard because of the concentration of pathogenic and bidets. Permeable pipes in other than domestic gardens laid below or at ground
organisms, radioactive or very toxic substances, level with or without chemical additives. Grey water recycling systems.
including any fluid which contains: Medical: Any medical or dental equipment with submerged inlets. Laboratories. Bed pan
a. Faecal matter or other human waste; washers. Mortuary and embalming equipment. Hospital dialyses machines. Commercial
b. butchery or other animal waste; or clothes washing plant in health care premises. Non-domestic sinks, baths, washbasins
c. pathogens from any other source. and other appliances.
Food processing: Butchery and meat trades slaughterhouse equipment. Vegetable
washing.
Catering: Dishwashing machines in health care premises. Vegetable washing.
Industrial and commercial installations: Industrial and chemical plant, etc. Mobile
plant, tankers and gully emptiers. Laboratories. Sewage treatment and sewer cleansing.
Drain cleaning plant. Water storage for agricultural purposes. Water storage for fire
fighting purposes.
Commercial agricultural: Commercial irrigation outlets below ground or at ground level
and/or permeable pipes with or without chemical additives. Insecticides or fertiliser
applications. Commercial hydroponic systems.
COMMENTS:
1. The list of examples of applications shown above for each fluid category is not exhaustive, others will present themselves and require to be
matched to a Fluid Category; possibly by seeking guidance from the Water Regulations Advisory Scheme.
2. The Categories distinguish between domestic use, m eaing dwellings; and non-domestic uses, meaing commercial buildings.
3. The Fluid Categories define that the water within sinks, baths, basins and showers in domestic premises is a lesser Fluid Category risk, than
the water within sinks, baths, basins and showers in medical premises, ie hospitals.
Crown copyright 1999 with the permission of the Controller of Her Majesty’s Stationery Office
varies dependant on the occupational 1%. This has been established to be

Distribution pipe use in the various types of building. reliable in that it has not led to an under
assessment of simultaneous demand
sizing calculation.
Probability theory The probability of a particular number of
The sizing of a water distribution pipe The use of probability theory in draw off’s occurring at any one time is
system is achieved by establishing the assessing simultaneous demand is only determined by dividing the time for the
anticipated flow rates, in litres per second fully applicable where large numbers of appliance to be filled, by the time
(11s) taking account of the diversity of use appliances are involved, as probability between successive usage of the
of all the various types and numbers of theory, as the name implies, is based on appliance to arrive at the probability
appliances, and equipment requiring a the likelihood of situations occurring and factor.
water supply connection. therefore its predictions may on t - time in seconds of appliance filling
occasions be at variance with the actual P=
in practicalterms all the water draw-off T -time in seconds between
points are not in use at the same time. demand.
successive usage of the appliance
The actual number in use, in relation to The criteria for this Occurrence is
the total number capable of being used deemed to be reasonable if it is taken as
12
Graph 2 Probability graph An example of this application which

utilises the probability graph is if 100
appliances each take 30 seconds to be
filled, and are used at 1200 seconds (20
Probabilitv of dixharae factor P = 0.oU 0.030 minutes) frequency intervals, then:
300 = 0.025 probability
p= r=1200
Using the Probability graph, and the
probability factor in this example, then
out of the 100 appliances being supplied,
only 7 would be in use at any one time.
Simultaneous demand
The number of draw-off points that may
be used at any one time can be
estimated by the application of probability
theory.
The factors, which have to be taken into
account, are:
a. Capacity of appliance in litres
b. Draw-off flow rate in litres per second
c. Draw-off period in seconds, i.e. time
taken to fill appliance
d. Use frequency in seconds, i.e. time
between each use of the appliance.
All of these factors can vary.
'Ib io 2i)o 1000
Number of appliances The capacity of wash basins, sinks and
other appliances all vary in capacity.
Draw-off tap sizes and flow rates differ
between appliances.The frequency of
Table 14 Simultaneous demand - base data

Type of appliance
Bucket sink, 15mm taps 0 3600 I 0.017

Slop hopper, cistenr only I 7.5 I 0.1 I 75 I 600 I 0.125
Slop hopper, cisternhaps I 7.5 I 0.2 I 60 I 600 I 0.100
Clothes washina m/c, dom. I 5 I 0.2 I 25 I 600 I 0.042
13
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ _ _ _ _ _
the use of the appliances are different in considered as representative of flow

varying locations, both within a building, rates, which have not given rise to
and within different buildings. complaints of inadequacy.
Care is required with the ‘loading unit’
method of calculation where usage may Loading Flow rate
Frequency of use be intensive.This is particularly Units LU I/s
This is the time between each use of the applicable to field sports showers, Pipe size Velocity
appliance. Refer to Tables 14 and 15. theatre toilets, and factory wash rooms,
etc. where it is necessary to establish the
Low use is deemed to have 1200 likely period of constant usage and
seconds (20 minutes) between each use, provide the flow rate to suit.
and is appropriate for dwellings, and in
other buildings where appliances are
dedicated for use by a single person, or Flow rates
a small group of people, as a private Figure 14 Pipe section loading
facility. To determine the design maximum
simultaneous flow rate for a specific
Medium use is deemed to have 600 of the provisional calculation is a ‘head
water distribution system the following
seconds (10 minutes) between use, loss in metres, per metre run of pipe.’
process is necessary:
being appliances that are available to be This figure can be used with the pipe
used by a larger group of people, as and a. Identify the type and position of all sizing charts to establish the assumed or
when they require on a random basis the appliances and equipment provisional pipe size. As the loading unit
with no set time constraint, typically requiring a water supply. for each pipe section is established enter
associated with ‘public use’ toilets. the figures into the calculation sheet. See
b. Determine the pipe routes and
High use is deemed to have 300 location for the incoming mains, cold Figure 15.
seconds (5 Minutes) between each use & hot water distribution, and the
for appliances to be used by large locations of storage cisterndtanks
numbers of persons over a short period, and hot water generators. Pipe sizing chart definitions
as would be the case within buildings
c. Sketch a scaled plan and a
such as theatres, concert halls and fixed Pipe reference
schematic or an isometric of the
period sports events. pipework distribution and plant layout. Numbered or lettered sections of the
system identifying the start and finish.
d. Identify type, position of all fittings,
Loading units i.e. couplings, elbows, tees; all valves,
loading units
(isolation, service, check, double
check, pressure reducing) all Simultaneous maximum demand figure
. cisterns/tanks and vessel entry and being carried by that section of pipe.
exit arrangements.
Flow rate (l/s)
e. Identify all types of draw-off fitting
attached to appliances and Litres per second derived from the
equipment. loading unit figure.
f. Establish the mains pressure Assumed pipe diameter (mm)
available, in metres, and the
cisternhank head available in metres. Nominal internal diameter established
from the available head divided by the
g. Identify the index run, ie. the furthest index circuit length plus 30% for loss
and/or highest outlet, and greatest through fittings.
draw-off volume.
Type of Frequency of use
appliance Low Med High Having established items a-g, proceed to length (m)
Basin, 15mm sep. taps 1 2 4 add the sanitary and appliance loading Length of pipe, in metres of the pipe
units, loading each section of pipe with section being sized, measuring its total
the number of loading units that it is route length.
required to carry.
This is best achieved on either a plan or Pipe losses (mh/m)
Bath,l5mm seplmixltap 4 a 16 isometric of the system. A useful
In metres head per metre of pipe, taken
technique is to use a four-quarter frame.
from the pipe sizing charts.
WC Suite, 6.litre cistern 2 5 See Figure 14.
Shower, 15mm head 12 3 6 The pipe size at this initial stage is Velocity (m/s)
Urinal. sinqle bowl/stall I - 1 - provisional in order to enable the
Velocity, in metres per second of the
calculation to proceed. The provisional
Bidet, 15mm mix tap 1 1 1 -
pipe size can be established by water flowing through the pipe being
Hand SDrav, 15mm I - 1 - calculating the available head or sized, taken from the pipe sizing charts.
Bucket sink, 15mm taps I - 1 - pressure, in metres head and dividing it
Pipe loss (mh)
SIOD HODDer. cistern onlv I - 3 - by the overall length of the index circuit,
i.e. the longest pipe route with the
Slop Hopper, cistern/taps I - 5 - greatest duty and least head or pressure,
In metres head, being the multiplication
of the pipe length and the metres head
Clothes washina m/c. dom. I 2 - - plus a 30% factor for, at this stage an loss per metre run of pipe length.
Dishwasher mkdomestic I 2 - - assumed loss through fittings. The result
14
Sink
3 3 12
'" I I
I
Bucket
Sink
wc
2
2
Basin
10
Continue for the remainder of the system
Figure 15 Pipework isometric and calculation sheef
Fittings head loss (mh) Total head available (mh) and terminal outlets, against a range of
flow rates and sizes.
In metres head, for each Pipe fitting and In metres head, being either the mains or
valve on the section of Pipe being sized. Loss of head through Tees should be
pump pressure and/or the height of the assumed to occur at the changes of
gravity feed cistern/tank. See Table 16.
Total head loss (mh) direction only.
In metres head, being the total sum of Pipe size lmm)
Final For fittings not identified reference shall
the pipe head loss and the fittings head be made to the respective manufactures
in mm, nominal internal diameter,
loss. literature.
confirming the pipe size for that section
of pipe. Where the flow rate falls between the
System head loss (mh) stated figures then the proportional flow
In metres head, being the total sum of all rate difference between the higher and
the sections of pipe relevant to the loss of head through fittings lower figure shall be equally applied to
source of head available. the higher and lower head loss figure.
Refer to Table 19 loss of head, in metres
through various pipeline fittings
15
~ ~~ ~ ~~
Pipe sizing by velocity

Where there is ample head available, or
the water supply is by a pump or pump
set, then pipe sizing can best be
achieved by using an optimum pipe
velocity.
In a gravity down feed system where the
head available is a limiting factor, pipe
velocities are generally IOW,often in the
range of 0.4 to 0.8 metreshecond.
Where delivery is to be a pumped supply,
then the pipe velocities can be allowed to
increase to 1.O to 1.5 metres/second,
and possibly higher where pipes are
routed in non occupied areas.
See Table 17.
Pipe velocities, ultimately are limited by
16 156.91 1.57 I 1.6 I 160 16.32 either of the following:
17 166.71 1.67 I 1.7 1 170 17.34 a. Noise
18 176.52 1.77 I 1.8 1 180 18.36
b. Erosionkorrosion
c. Cavitation.
Noise is a major consideration, and
velocities above 1.5 metres/second in
pipework passing through occupied
areas, in particular bedrooms should be
avoided.
Erosion and corrosion are less of an
issue. If velocities are being set to limit
noise then erosion and corrosion will not
generally be a problem. Where velocities
exceed 2.5 metreshecond erosion and/or
corrosion can result from the abrasive
action of particles in the water. This type
The use of various units to describe pressure can cause confusion. The calculation of ‘Head loss’ of water would normally be associated
in this Guide Section is declared in ‘Metres head’ as a readily usable means of measurement. with a ‘raw’ water rather than a water
Metres head can be easily converted to Bar, kN/m2 and/or Pascals pressure figures as there is a
supply for domestic use purposes where
close correlation between all of them. The table above provides the comparative figures for eas of
reference. filtration has taken place as part of the
1 litre of water weighs 1 kilogram, or 1000 grams. treatment process by the Water
1 cubic metre of water = 1000 litres. Companies who have a duty to provide a
1 metre head of water = 9810Pa or kN/m2, or 9.81Pa or kN/m2, or 0.1 bar. ‘wholesome’ supply for domestic
purposes.
Table 17 Pipework velocities Cavitation caused by velocity is not
considered an issue with water supply
Location Noise systems as velocities should always be
below the 7.0 to 10.0 metres/second
NR
where velocity cavitation can occur.
Service duct, riser, shaft, plant room 50 2.0 2.5 Having determined the appropriate
Service enclosure, ceiling void 40 1.5 1.5
velocity for the location of the distribution
pipes, using the pipe sizing charts you
Circulation area, entrance corridor 35 1.5 1.5
can determine the pipe size by cross
Seating area, lecturelmeeting room 30 1.25 1.25 reference to the design flow rate, and
Bedroom 25 1.o 1.o record the pipe head loss per metre.
Theatre, cinema 20 0.75 0.75 From thereon the pipe sizing schedule
Recording studio <20 0.5 0.5 for the whole system can be completed.
16
Table 18a Heat emission from insulated pipes (40°C temperature difference)
Value of pipework insulation thermal conductivity WlmK
Pioe size Coooer/stainless steel I Plastic Steel
20 43 Refer 51
25 53 to 62
32 64 I manufacturers I 75
40 75 data 84
50 93 102
65 112 125
75 125 143
Pipework taken to be shiny surface, individual, with zero air movement, and a 40°C temperature
difference between the pipe content and surrounding air temperature.
Figure 16 Secondary circulation pipework isometric and calculation sheet
.f Bath
Vent
2 I Balancing
valve Sink
I
I
I
I Basin
I
I
I
!---
Pump
HW generator
Pipe Heat
Re1 loss
load
(W)
1-2 (flow) 400
2-3 (flow) 200
3-4 (flow) 200
4-5 (flow) 200
5-6 (flow) 200
6-1 (return) 200
7-1 (return) 400
Hot water secondary The total heat loss from each section of which permit an accurate ‘low flow’
pipe is converted to a flow rate setting to be achieved and retained when
circulation necessary to replace the lost heat. the valve may be shut off and re-opened
during maintenance of the system. The
In order to maintain the correct Watts
kgls = use of ordinary isolation valves can
temperature of hot water within the hot 4.187 (shc of water) x 1000 achieve a crude form of restricting the
water distribution system, provision of a
The pipework heat loss is that which is flow for balancing purposes, but these
‘return’ pipe to enable the water to be
emitted through the pipe wall and rarely remain effective, or return to their
circulated back to the hot water
insulation material. See Tablesl8a and initial setting after being shut off.
generator is required.
18b for pipes with and without insulation. The over-riding purpose of the balancing
Hot water circulation can be achieved by
A ‘Rule of Thumb’ method of sizing valve is to maintain the correct
gravity or pump circulation means,
pumped HWS secondary circuits is to temperature within the pipework
although in nearly all instances a
initially select a return pipe size two sizes distribution system to minimise the
pumped system is provided.
lower than the flow. As a guide select potential for bacterial growth, in particular
smaller sizes over larger pipe sizes, and legionella.The Health & Safety Approved
maintain a check on the HWS return pipe Code of Practice Guidance L8 should be
Secondary circulation velocities. applied (see earlier).
pipe sizing Pipe circuit balancing valves will be
The formal method of sizing the needed where the HWS return has a
secondary circulation pipework is to number of branches and loops to serve
calculate the heat loss from all of the the various parts of the circulation
‘flow’ and ‘return’ pipe circuits throughout system. These valves restrict the flow to
the system. Calculating the heat loss the circuits nearest the pump where
allows a comparable flow rate to be there is greater pump pressure, forcing
established, and thereafter the head loss the HWS return to circulate to the
throughout the system is determined, furthest circuit. Commonly the circuit
and the duty of the circulating pump. valves are a double regulating pattern
Table 19 Loss of head through pipe fittings (expressed in millimetres, ie lmm = 0.001 m unless otherwise stated)
18
32 20 65 140 250 540 950 2220

40 30 60 115 250 430 1030 1810 2840
50 40 85 150 350 620 1010 1330 1880
19
Table 19 Loss of head through pipe fittings - continued

Table 20 Water supply system - pipe sizing table

System Total Final
loss available size
21
Graph 3 Pipe sizing chart - copper and stainless steel.
22
Graph 4 Pipe sizing chart - plastic
200
100
.. _- ..... ..............
80
60
\ Y
................ - ........................
H
................................................................
40
30 8000
20 5000
3auMD
10
1500
8
1000
6 800
c)
T
0
U cn
+
.-
3 4 c
400
--s!L .-
c
T)
m
.- 0
-J
s 2 200
E
i8
-i1.5
100
1 70
0.8 50
40
0.6 30
20
0.4
0.3 10
0.2 5
0.15 3
0.1 1 'I,
0.08
0.06
0.05
0.001 0.002 0.005 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.50
Head loss in metres per metre run
23
prime concern, then waters having a the selection of components and

Hard water hardness level of below 150ppm, and materials the main considerations are:
generally not being heated above 65”C,
generally will not require treatment. a. Suitability
However, to assist in extending the life of b. Availability

Hard water occurs with the presence of the hot water generating plant a ‘Water C. Appearance (if to be seen)
calcium and magnesium salts in solution Conditioner’ fitted to the cold water
in the water. This occurs naturally in the supply would be beneficial where the d. cost
water but its extent varies considerably hardness level is above 1OOppm. e. Durability
throughout the British Isles.
For water above 150ppm treatment will f. Compatibility with existing
The definition or a ‘hard water’ is be needed to protect the condition and
generally measured in either parts per maintain the expected life of the water 9. User choice
million (mg/l as calcium carbonate) or supply system, in particular hot water h. Spares.
‘Clarks’ scale. plant and thermostatic valves. Either a
The range of materials and components
When the water temperature is raised ‘water softener’ or a ‘water conditioner’
available from merchants held or readily
can be used for protecting the system.
within a water supply system the salts available stocks are an excellent guide
change to solids and they are deposited If softer water is desired by the user for as to the most used and suitable in any
as a hard rock-like scale in vessels and washing, or manufacturing production particular regional area, and more often
pipes. Hard water can lead to widespread purposes then a base exchange ‘salt than not represent the best discounted
damage incurring expensive regeneration’ water softener will be cost component(s).
replacement, increased maintenance and necessary. It will be required to be
operating costs. installed on the cold water supply to the
All water containing salts will, when
hot water generator, or to all the water Plumbosolvent
draw off points except the draw offs used
heated deposit scale to a varying amount
specifically for drinking water. (dissimilar materials)
. dependant on the level of hardness and
heat applied. If the protection of the Water conditioners are effective for the Plumbosolvency covers the compatibility
water supply installation apparatus is the protection of the hot water system of the materials within the water system.
because they alter the mineral crystals, Where there is a mix of metal materials,
reducing their ability to adhere to the such as copper, stainless steel, and
Table 21 Classification of hardness internal surfaces of the system, enabling galvanised steel then there is the
them to pass through the water system. potential for corrosion to occur. This
Category I Mg/l I Clarks The effectiveness of this process is ‘potential’ can increase to a ‘likelihood’
Soft I 0-50 I under3.5- limited by time, therefore the shorter the where:
Moderatelv soft 1 50-100 I 3.5-7 period water is retained in the system a. The metals are widely apart on the
after conditioning the better. Therefore ‘galvanic’ scale
Slightly hard 100-150 7-1 0.5
within large water distribution systems
Moderately hard 150-200 10.5-14 the placing of a water conditioner b. the water has a greater acidity or
Hard 200-300 14-21 immediately prior to the hot water alkalinity above or below the neutral
Very hard I Over300 I Over21 generator, and other plant, will provide pH value of 7.5
the best results possible. c. the water in contact with the two
Table 22 Typical water hardness levels metals is warm or hot.
location Hardness ppm To prevent, or minimise the effect of

corrosion through ‘Galvanic’ action then
Bradford
Bristol 250-350
Water supply the selection of compatible materials for
the type of water is required.
Cardiff
Where dissimilar metals are in direct
contact, and they do not have a close
e50 Galvanic relationship, then the
Hartlepool I 400-580 The installation of the water supply
system components requires planning installation of an intermediate metal link
Hull I 250-400
and co-ordination prior to is appropriate to reduce the likelihood of
Leeds 120-220 commencement of work to achieve the corrosion occuring.
best possible integration within the The ‘Galvanic’ relationship of metals is as
building and the areas to be served. shown in Table 30.
Manchester
Middlesbrough I 145-165 NOTE:
Newcastle 150-165 Materials For a greater appreciation of corrosion refer to
the later part of this section.
Norwich 300+
The correct selection of the component
Nottingham 220-300
materials is of paramount importance.
Reading 260-300 The available range of water supply Pseudomonas bacteria
Sheffield <loo installation materials is extensive, and Pseudomonas bacteria is a potential risk
Southhampton 280 includes numerous types of components to water supply systems. More common
Southport 220-300 made from metals and plastics, or a in the closed water circuits of heating
Sunderland 80-420 combination of both, often for similar and chilled water systems, but known to
Warrington 70-250 purposes. occur in water supply systems.
York 200-300 Some materials are more suited to There are many different types of the
particular applications than others. For
24
Comoonent Options
Underground mains Soft copper Polyethylene UPVC Ductile iron, lined
Storage tanks Polypropylene Glass reinforced plastic Steel, lined
Pipework Copper Stainless steel Polybutylene CPVC
Hot water vessels Copper Steel, copper or glass lined Stainless steel
Draw off fittings Chromed brass Brass, brass alloy Plastic
Valves Chromed brass Brass, brass alloy Plastic
Pseudomonas bacteria that once in a Avoiding the above circumstances will building’s accommodation
water system can be difficult to eradicate. greatly reduce the likelihood of
c. Under floor voids, unless part of the
If not completely destroyed the bacteria pseudomonas bacteria becoming building’s accommodation
can reappear and grow at a fast rate to prevelent within the water supply
form a biofilm within the system. installation. d. Outhouses, enclosures, sheds, and
Problems occur due to a greasy brown garages etc.
Infected systems must be disinfected and
slime or biofilm that coats strainers, e. Adjacent to ventilators, air bricks, or
flushed. Any excessive growth may
pipework, tanks etc. creating corrosive anywhere subject to external drafts of
require repeated disinfecting and flushing
conditions which can discolour the water air.
to effect a reduction. Ultra-violet water
and can exude a noxious smell.
treatment is an effective method of killing
If the above, and similar locations cannot
Pseudomonas Bacteria can grow more the widest range of micro-organisms.
be avoided then protection will need to
when it has access to a higher level of However both ultra-violet and disinfection
be provided by insulating the pipework
oxygen and temperatures between 20°C will only provide a temporary respite
and components, and possibly providing
and 40°C,although it can grow outside unless the causes are identified and
heating to the spaces that contain water
this range if the water has a pH value of removed.
supply installations.
7-8.5.
Insulation alone will not ultimately
Pseudomonas has greater chance of
occuring under the following Frost protection prevent freezing, but only slow down the
lowering of the temperature of the water.
circumstances. Precautions are required to be taken to However if a suitable type and thickness
a. Water used for temporary works and prevent the water contained within the of insulation is used, and it is protected
fillinghesting of pipework coming from water supply distribution system freezing, from damage or moisture, then it is a
dirty cisternshanks or temporary as this will likely cause components to worthwhile method of protection.
mains with dead legs and areas of fail, or burst due to the increase in the
internal pressure by the expanding Reference should also be made to the
low use. guidance provided within the Water
volume as the water turns to ice.
b. Non-disinfected hoses used for filling Regulation Guide.
systems. To minimise the risk of ‘bursts’ pipework
and associated components should An enhanced and very effective method
c. Systems that are filled and then left always be located within areas where the of frost protection is the provision of trace
for long periods with stagnent ambient temperature will remain above
untreated water, or are partially or Table 25 Thermal conductivity of
freezing. In practical terms this would be
fully drained down and then left for insulating materials
3°C and above.
long periods with wetted surfaces. Material Thickness,
Locations to avoid are:
d. Pipework installed on site where mm, W(m.K)
there is substantial amounts of debris. a. All external locations, unless a Rigid phenolic foam < 0.020
minimum of 750mm below ground
e. If ambient temperatures are high. Polisocyanurate foam
b. Roof spaces, unless part of the Rigid polyurethane foam 0.020
to
0.025
PVC foam 0.025 to
Nominal outside diameter of pipe Thermal conductivity (W/mK) 0.03
0.035 0.04 0.055 0.07 0.035 0.04 0.055 0.07 Expanded polystyrene.
Extruded polystyrene.
indoor installations (mm) Outdoor installations (mm) Cross linked polyethylene foam
Up to and including 15 1 22 I 32 I 50 I 89 I 27 I 38 I 63 I 100 Expanded nitrile rubber.
Improved polyethylene foam. 0.03
Over 15. UD toandincludina22 I 22 1 32 I 50 I 75 1 27 I 38 I 63 I 100 to
Over22, up toandincluding42 I 22 I 32 I 50 I 75 1 27 I 38 I 63 1 89 0.035
Over 42, up to and including 54 1 16 I 25 I 44 I 63 1 19 1 32 I 50 I 75 Standard polyethylene foam
Expanded synthetic rubber
Over 54.. UD -
. to and includincl76 I 13 I 25 I 32 I 50 I 16 1 25 1 44 I 63
Over 76, and flat surfaces I 13 I 19 1 25 I 38 I 16 1 25 I 32 I 50
Cellular glass 0.035
to
This table is reproduced from BS 6700, and lists the thermal conductivity value with an air 0.040
temperature of OOC,and the minimum thickness of insulating material that will afford worthwhile Cork board 0.04 to
protection against freezing during the normal occupation of buildings. 0.055
Storage cistern and pipework in roof spaces are considered as indoor installations in this Exfoliated vermiculite
context. Pipes in the air space beneath a suspended ground floor or in a detached garage (loose fill) 0.055 to
should be protected as outdoor installations. 0.07
All insulation requires to be vapour sealed to remain effective.
can enter in to the building in its desired

location.
Pipe size (mm) od Insulation material and thickness
Glass fibre Phenolic foam Nitril rubber Pipes laid below ground require to be of
a suitable material. The most commonally
0.040W/mK 0.018WlmK 0.035WlmK used is polyethylene, certainly for sizes
15 25 15 13 up to 50mm ID (65mm MDPE OD).
22 25 15 19 The depth of pipes required to comply
25 32 20 25 with the Water Regulations is a minimum
32 32 20 32 of 750mm from ground level to the top of
40 32 20 32 the pipe barrel, and a maximum of
50 32 20 32 1350mm, unless in a duct. Where pipes
65 32 20 32 are located below a road the depth
75 32 20 32 should increase to 900mm and be
100 38 20 32 ducted. Where water pipes are laid in a
service strip close to other services, the
National Joint Utilities guidance
documents recommends that the depth
of the water service is at 900mm
throughout to coordinate with the depth
heating. This comprises of self regulating the respective manufactures of the other services, and enable
electrical heating elements in a tape requirements and recommendations services to cross each other. The
form, capable of being wrapped around should be fully adhered to. minimum distance between the water
pipework and componants. By the pipework and other sevices is
Pipework requires supporting throughout
selection of the appropriate type and recommended as being 350mm.
its length at regular and specific positions
rating of heating tape the water within
to maintain its stability, avoid movement The pipe trenches should be kept to the
pipework and componants can be kept
which could result in noise or vibration, minimum width that is practicable and
above the freezing temperature. Trace retain the trench wall to minimise ground
whilst enabling sufficient movement for
heating is used in conjunction with loadings transfering onto the pipe. The
insulation and weathering protection. pipework expansion and contraction.
See Table 27. trench bottom requires to be firm, level
and to the correct depth. A bedding of
sand is appropraite having a minimum
General insulation Underground pipework depth of 50mm, to provide a suitable
Pipework and plant componants means of bedding the barrel and joints of
The Water Supply Company mains are the pipe. The trench back filling should
throughout the distribution system should
be provide to keep hot water hot and located below ground, and therefore the be of a suitable material such as
incoming mains connection to the selected excavated or imported material,
cold water cold. Without insulation a hot
water distribution system would loose building will also be below ground until it consolidated to resist subsequent
heat wasting energy, requiring a larger
generating plant, and increasing the Table 27 Pipe supports - maximum spacing
opportunity for bacteria growth and
potentially failing to comply with the
Legionella Codes. The impact on the cold
water system would be to unneccessarly
gain heat from the warmer ambiant
temperature and any adjacent heat
sources making the water less palatable
for drinking, and again increasing the
opportunity for bacteria growth and a
failure to comply to the Legionella Codes.
The insulation for cold water components
requires them to be vapour sealed to
prevent condensation forming on the
Intermediate supports will be required at changes of direction, branches, and connections to
cooler surfaces within the higher ambient plant. Polybutylene and CPVC pipe supports can benefit from being provided with a continuous
areas. trav, rigid bar or rail spanning between support brackets at centres similar to copper, with straps
Recommended types and thicknesses of to secure the pipe to the bar.
insulation are scheduled in Table 26.
Table 28 Thrust per bar internal pressure (kN)
Pipework and plant supports Nominal internal End Radial thrust on bends of angle
Water supply pipework, plant and diameter of pipe thrust 90 deg 45 deg 22.5 deg 11.25 deg
components require to be adaquately 50 0.38 0.53 0.29 0.15 0.07
supported to be functional and prevent 75 0.72 1.02 0.55 0.28 0.15
noise, vibration and general movement, 100 1.17 1.66 0.9 0.46 0.24
which would become a nuisance andfor
125 1.76 2.49 1.35 0.69 0.35
lead to damage to itself and other
elements of the building. 150 2.47 3.50 1.89 0.96 0.49
For the support of plant and components,
26
-
Chemical disinfection off line -

The use of oxidising disinfectants is still
the most commonly used method of
disinfecting both new and existing
domestic hot and cold water systems
and is highly effective when carried out
correctly. The most common oxidising
disinfectant used is sodium hypochlorite
(often referred to as ‘chlorination’) but
stabilised chlorine dioxide is rapidly
gaining in popularity as an alternative
without the problems associated with
hypochlorite’s use. Other oxidising
disinfectants like bromine and ozone, and
Figure 17 Direction of thrusts developed in a pipeline due to internal pressure non-oxidising disinfectants are commonly
used for disinfecting industrial process
and cooling water systems. Water
containing disinfectant at concentrations
movement of the pipes. No large stones For a building having no basement or greater than that approved for drinking
or sharp objects shall be allowed to be in under floor void then a pipe duct water is classed as fluid category 3
contact or near the pipe material. incorporating a 90” bend. If the incoming under the Water Regulations so suitable
pipe size is larger than can be passed backflow prevention is required. It is also
Below ground pipework requires to be
through a pipe sleeve bend, then a pit, or a hazardous waste so suitable disposal
restrained throughout it’s length. To
reduced section of floor will be required procedures for used disinfectant solution
combat the thrust of the internal pressure
to pass the pipe into the building in a must be followed and if necessary
and flows. For the greater part of the
manner similar to a basement consent to discharge must be obtained
pipework this should be achieved by the
arrangement, but then rising vertically to from the Environment Agency.
weight of the backfill material but at
the building ground floor level. Once the
bends, tee’s, blank ends, and valves the
provision of thrust blocks will be required
and must be placed in a position that is
in the line of the thrust developed in the
pipework is installed then the openings
between the external and internal parts
of the building require to be sealed. The
Thermal disinfection off line -
pit can be filled with sand and topped off This method, often referred to as
pipeline due to internal pressures. pasteurisation, involves raising the water
with a floor screed.
For standard fittings, the thrust can be temperature in the calorifier and
calculated by multiplying the values given circulating through the entire system for
in the Table 28 for thrust in kN for a one at least an hour, running each tap and
bar internal pressure. The internal outlet for 5 minutes, with a temperature
pressure can be deemed to be the between 60-70°C being maintained at all
maximum working pressure of the below times in all parts of the system. Good
ground pipe system. insulation is vital, as It may be difficult to
The process of disinfection is sometimes maintain a high temperature in all parts
Thrust blocks for the restraint of below misunderstood and described as of the system for the time required.
ground pipework will require an adaquate ‘sterilisation’or ‘chlorination’. It is Scalding may be a significant risk, due to
bearing area to resist the thrust. Refer to important that the terminology is the high temperatures and risk control
Table 29 for the bearing capacity of soils understood and used correctly. methods need to be in place. Thermal
for horizontal thrust. disinfection does not address the need to
Disinfection describes the process of
killing reducing or inactivating disinfect the cold-water storage and feed
microorganisms, especially by chemical system to the calorifiers.
Entry to buildings means.
Pipe entries to buildings may be made by
a number of methods. If entry can be
made into a basement or under floor
Sterilisation is to render sterile, defined
as completely free of living
Chemical dosing on line -
microorganisms. The most commonly used methods are
area then the pipe can pass through a the continuous dosing of chlorine or
pipe sleeve constructed into the section Chlorination refers to the use of chlorine, chlorine dioxide, or the release of copper
of wall below ground, into the building. in particular sodium hypochlorite, as a and silver ions from electrodes. All can
disinfectant. be equally effective if delivered and
Table 29 Bearing capacity of soils
kN/m2 managed correctly and if the water
conditions required for them to operate
Disinfection and
Soil type
I
Safe bearing
load
control methods
effectively are maintained.Temperature,
hardness/alkalinity,pH, dissolved solids -
Soft Clay 24 these may all have an effect on the
Disinfection is carried out whilst the efficacy of some of these systems. It is
system is not in use, or ‘off-line’. therefore essential that the system is
Control methods are used to kill bacteria properly assessed, designed and
Bondes with Clay and prevent their growth while the maintained as part of an overall risk
Shale 240 system is in use, or ‘on-line’. control strategy. Chemicals continuously
dosed to domestic water systems will
require approval for use in drinking water.
27
Temperature control on line - Water quality

is usually measured by a conductivity
monitor that measures the conductivity in
microsiemens. Totally deionised water
This requires the storage of hot water at
60°C and distribution so that a has zero conductivity (as there are no
The quality of water is defined by
temperature of at least 50°C is attainable ions present to carry current).
chemical and bacterial analysis and
at all outlets within 30-60 seconds of where the end usage is directly or The operation of deionisation is based on
running. Cold water storage and indirectly for human consumption. It using twin bed or mixed bed columns of
distribution is recommended to be at should comply with recognised standards positive and negative charge ionised
20°C or below. For hot water systems to ensure freedom from harmful bacteria, resins so that the incoming water
these temperatures present a risk from acute and long term toxic substances disassociates into positively charged ions
scalding. Where a significant scalding and in addition, the water should be such as magnesium and calcium which
risk has been identified the use of clear, odourless, tasteless and exchange with the hydrogen ions of the
thermostatic mixing valves at the point of wholesome. acidic resins.
use to appliances should be considered.
The InternationalStandards for Drinking Likewise the negative ions of sulphate
The NHS Estates Health Guidance note Wafer produced by the World Health and bicarbonates are exchanged with the
on safe hot water temperatures, Organisation define the toxic limits for hydroxyl ions of the alkaline resins, the
recommends maximum outlet substances frequently found in water resultant hydrogen and hydroxyl ions
temperatures for different appliances. supplies. combining to form theoretical H,O. The
exhausted resins are periodically
Waters that satisfy the quality standards
replaced or regenerated with acid and
Other methods for human consumption are not always
suitable for certain medical, industrial
alkaline regenerates.
Other disinfection methods for domestic and commercial uses. They may contain As the name of the process implies, only
systems are available, for example ultra- levels of trace elements, high total ionisable dissolved solids and gases can
violet light (UV) or ozone, but these are dissolved solids contents, non- be removed and the treated water is not
considered to be non-dispersive, i.e. their pathogenic bacteria, gases and necessarily pure or sterile. Centralised
effect is close to the point of application, suspended matter which necessitate recirculating systems, local units, and
not to the system as a whole and as a some form of treatment before water can both in combination where terminal
consequence are not always as effective. be used in activities such as food and polishing is required, can produce water
pharmaceutical preparation, brewing, up to the megohms at 25°C which is
research, medicine and in many areas close to theoretical maximum.
Please Note where heat generation and transfer take
Figure 18 shows a two bed recirculation
Schedule 2 paragraph 13 of the Water place.
system suitable for providing 3m3/hr of
Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999 Pure water exists of an equilibrium deionised water up to 1 microsiemen
requires that ‘Every water system shall be between the acid species, the hydrogen centimetre quality.
tested, flushed and where necessary ion (H+)and the hydroxyl ion (OH). In
disinfected before it is first used’. neutral water the acid concentration
However, there are a number of factors equals the hydroxyl concentration, and at Softened water
to be considered before attempting the room temperature they are both present
at io-’ gram equivalents (or moles) per Water softening in large quantities for
disinfection of any water system and commercial use and distribution is
approved training is required before litre. The purest water contains no ions at
all. usually carried out using one or more of
undertaking either risk assessment or the the lime or lime/soda processes. For
disinfection of water systems within Water that has 1O-’ gram equivalents per domestic application however, the base
buildings. It is also essential to remember litre of hydrogen ions is said to have a exchange system of softening is more
that disinfection and control methods are pH of 7. commonly used and only this method is
not a substitute for maintaining a high described. Base exchange softening
degree of water system cleanliness and pH is a numerical indication of the
intensity of acidity or alkalinity of a operates on a similar principle to the ion
carrying out good plumbing and exchange described in the ionised water
engineering practices. solution. It is defined as - log 10 (H+),
where (H+) is the hydrogen ion and functions by the process of
concentration.The scale is logarithmic exchanging sodium salts for those of
and runs from 0-14. Low numbers are calcium.
acidic and high numbers are alkaline. A The action of softening can be expressed
neutral solution exhibits pH of 7. The chemically as follows:
logarithmic nature of pH can be
confusing, e.g. as the acid concentration SODIUM CALCIUM CALCIUM SODIUM
increases, the pH value decreases. A t exchanges to t
solution of pH5 is 10 times more acidic ZEOLITE CARBONATE ZEOLITE CARBONATE
than one of pH6 and 100 times more
And that of re-generation:
acidic than one of pH7.
CALCIUM SODIUM SODIUM CALCIUM
t exchanges to t
Deionised water ZEOLITE CHLORIDE ZEOLITE CHLORIDE
Where water is required to a higher Because the base exchange system
biological and chemical purity than that produces water of zero hardness, it is
supplied by the local water company, often only necessary to soften part of the
single or mixed bed deionisers are total water requirement and blend the
capable of producing pure and ultra pure raw and softened water together.
water approaching theoretical H,O. Purity
28
- Ring main return

2 Recirculation pump by-pass
- Raw
1
water in
1. Hand isolation valve 6. Non-return valve 11. Solenoid valve 16. Conductivity controller
2. Break tank for raw water 7. Pressure relief valve 12. Break tank for recirculation water 17. Conductivity meter
3. Low level float switch 8. Integrating water meter 13. Recirulation pump 18. Water condition alarm
5. Pump motor start 9. Rate of flow meter 14. Deioniser cylinder 19. 0.21 Particle filter
10. Two bed automatic deioniser 15. Line cell 20. Pressure regulating/relief valve
Figure 18 Recirculation deionisation system
Operation of a base Brine rinse Corrosion

exchange water softener Ordinary salt (sodium chlorine) has the
ability to fully restore the softening
The raw/hard water supply is connected Corrosion is one of the major causes of
capacity of the mineral. A measured
into the top of the softener tank and premature failures in plumbing services.
amount of salt brine is drawn from the
flows downwards under pressure through Not only is it responsible for increased
brine tank through the brine injector and
the bed of softening material (zeolite) maintenance cost but losses in efficiency,
rinsed slowly down through the mineral
where the hardness is removed by the particularly in heating systems, can
bed to remove the hardness, which is
process of ‘ion exchange’. At the same increase running costs.
rinsed to drain.
time, sediment in the water is filtered out Corrosion may be defined as the reaction
and retained by the mineral bed. Clear of a metal with its environment resulting
Flushing
soft water leaves the bottom of the tank in damage that impairs the function of a
into the water distribution system. The water flow is again reversed to re- component or system. Whilst the
pack the mineral bed and any trace of mechanism’s of corrosion are common to
The softening mineral eventually
sediment not removed by the backwash different plumbing applications, methods
becomes saturated with hardness and no
is flushed to drain. The softener can now of control and/or prevention have to be
longer softens the water. Regeneration of
be returned to normal service. tailored to suit that particular
the softening material is then necessary
and the three stage process is as environment .
follows:
Backwash Causes of corrosion -

Reverse the water flow through the basic theory
mineral bed to remove accumulated
Before discussing the causes of
sediment and wash to drain. A backwash
corrosion in detail it is useful to define
controller is necessary to limit the water
and clarify in simple terms some of the
flow and thus prevent washing out the
nomenclature used in the text.
mineral bed.
A salt (not to be confused with common
salt, NaCI) is formed by the replacement
of acidic hydrogen in an acid by a metal
or basic group.
2Na + H,SO, + Na,SO, + HI,
metal acid a salt hydrogen
When most salts are dissolved in water may be controlled by the solubility and different oxygen concentrations reaches
they form ions which are atoms or diffusion rate of dissolved gases that vary a maximum, however, where appreciable
groups of atoms carrying positive or appreciably with temperature. levels of chlorides are present
negative charges. The resulting solution (>200mg/litre), the corrosion rate
As the rate of corrosion of steel is partly
is called an electrolyte because of its continues to increase with increasing
determined by the availability of oxygen
ability to conduct an electrical current. oxygen availability.
at the surface, it is found that this rate
Na,SO, + 2Na+ + SO, has a maximum in the range 75-85"C, Two indices have been developed to
a salt positive ion negative ion which is approximately 4 times that at predict whether a carbonate scale will be
ambient temperatures. deposited from a supply water of given
Some salts are much more soluble than composition. These are called the
others and their solubility in water often With other metals, for example zinc, the
Langelier and Ryznar indices
depends to a large extent on solution variation of corrosion rate with
respectively; a positive Langelier index or
temperature. temperature is related to the nature of
a Ryznar index of less than 6 indicating
the corrosion product. At temperatures
In practical terms, pH is used to measure that the water is scale forming.
that produce a continuous/adherent
the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. corrosion product, the corrosion rate is Since the deposition of a carbonate scale
Values range from 0-14, those less than low. However, when a granular, non- can stifle corrosion, it often follows that
7 being acid and those greater are adherent product is formed, the corrosion these waters are less corrosive than
alkaline. rate increases considerably. those that tend to dissolve calcium
Corrosion is electrochemical in nature carbonate. Their behaviour however,
Differences in surface temperature on the
and can occur by oxidation (dry depends greatly on the form in which the
same metal component can create areas
corrosion) or wet corrosion. Most scale is laid down, a discontinuous layer
differing in potential, resulting in
corrosion problems in plumbing providing relatively little protective value.
increased corrosion.
applications are caused by wet corrosion When natural water runs over a metal
which requires the presence of an surface, it can take up traces of that
electrolyte to allow the passage of an Differential aeration metal, which are later deposited on
electric current and some agency to another metal. This may form a bimetallic
maintain a difference in potential. Many If part of a metal surface is shielded from couple and if the deposited metal is
corrosion processes also require the air, the natural oxide film can break cathodic to the substrate, rapid corrosion
presence of oxygen. Natural and supply down. Where the oxygen availability is will ensue. Typical examples are copper
waters contain dissolved salts that make low, these areas become anodic to those pipework upstream from galvanized
them into electrolytes and therefore areas to which there is greater supply. cisterns and run-off from copper roofs
capable of carrying an electric current. This results in localised corrosion, which into aluminium gutters. The high acidity
The factors which may cause and will can occur particularly in crevices and of rainfall in certain areas, due to the
affect the rate of corrosion are as follows: also underneath surface deposits, for dissolved sulphur and nitrogen oxide
example mill scale. This type of corrosion pollutants has generally resulted in
is called differential aeration. reduced service life of exposed metal
Solution potential surfaces.
If a metal is placed in an electrolyte, Dissolved salts
corrosion in the form of a chemical
reaction may occur accompanied by the The influence on corrosion of salts Surface e# ects
passage of an electric current. That part dissolved in natural or supply waters is Certain surface films are cathodic to
of a metal system where current, i.e. determined both by their concentration steel and under wet conditions where
positive charges in the form of metal and more importantly, by the type of ion there are breaks in the film, the
ions, leaves and enters the solution is produced in solution. In general, a high underlying steel surface becomes the
called the anode while the resulting dissolved solids content would be anode and will corrode preferentially.
electrons (negative charges) migrate to expected to exacerbate corrosion, due to
an area of higher potential, the cathode, the increase in conductivity, if conditions
where they react with other ions or favour it. Some ions, however, for Ion concentration
oxygen. example carbonates, can be protective
due to their scale forming ability on metal As discussed above, the solution
In the corrosion process it is always the surfaces. Other ions, in particular potential is affected by the concentration
anode that is dissolved. The difference in chloride and sulphate, are aggressive as of ions in the electrolyte.The higher the
potential between the anode and the they interfere with the development of concentration, the more cathodic the
cathode at equilibrium is termed the protective films and also allow passive metal becomes. If therefore, a metal
solution potential.This potential has films to be broken down more readily. surface is in contact with an electrolyte
different values for different metals and Both ions occur naturally in source that varies in concentration, those areas
conditions, e.g. temperature, electrolyte waters, with additional sources of of metal in contact with dilute solution will
concentration and the surface or chloride being fluxes, washing up liquids become anodic to those areas in contact
metallurgical condition of the metal, has (sometimes misguidedly used to quieten with the more concentrated solution and
a profound effect on corrosion. noisy boilers), and malfunctioning water corrosion will be accelerated.
softeners. Sulphate ions also support the
growth of anaerobic bacteria.
Temperature
Although in certain conditions the overall
In general, rates of chemical reaction rate of corrosion may not be increased,
and therefore corrosion, increase with a the attack may be more localised and
rise in temperature. However, some therefore corrosion pits tend to be
corrosion reactions, for example the deeper. In the absence of aggressive
corrosion of steel in aerated solution, ions, the corrosion rate of steel at
30
Table 30 Galvanic series of metals and

alloys in natural waters
Metal Normal electrode potential
(vs standard hydrogen electrode, mV)
‘Noble’ or cathodic, ie protected end
+200
OXYGEN
Graph 5 The effect of pH on mild steel Graph 6 Effect of oxygen concentration

corrosion rate in an open on corrosion at different
recirculating cooling system temperatures
0
Contact with dissimilar

Waters with a pH below 7 will dissolve materials -1 00
most metals to an appreciable extent. -200
This will not necessarily cause serious Metals -300
deterioration of the metal structure
concerned, but it can produce If different metals are immersed in an -400
undesirable amounts of dissolved metal electrolyte, after a period of time each
in the water. will attain a characteristic potential. In -500
this way it is possible to arrange metals
Graph 5 shows the effect of pH on the in what is termed a galvanic series,
corrosion of iron. Within the acid range -700
however the precise order may differ
(pHc4), the iron oxide film is continually slightly depending on the particular -800
dissolved.The increased potential for metal/alloy composition and the nature of
calcium carbonate deposition with higher the electrolyte. -1 300
pH causes the corrosion rate to decrease ‘Base’ or anodic, le corroded end
; slightly from 4-10. Above pH 10, iron Table 30 gives the galvanic series for
becomes increasingly passive. metals and alloys when in contact with
films in air which are non-conductive. If
natural waters. they prevent a current flow between the
Corrosion occurring when two differing metals then bimetallic corrosion will be
Dissolved gases metals/alloys are in electrical contact is prevented. In the absence of dissolved
termed bimetallic corrosion.There are oxygen, bimetallic contact will not cause
The significant gases are oxygen and three other factors that can influence iron and steel surfaces to corrode.
carbon dioxide. Oxygen is the main corrosion at a bimetallic junction.
driving force for corrosion of steel in Other materials
water. The increase in corrosion with The first is the relative areas of the two
temperature for a given oxygen metals in contact. If the area of the Many non-metallic materials found in or
concentration is due to more rapid cathodic metal is large compared with around buildings can be responsible for
oxygen diffusion occurring at higher that of the anodic (corroding) metal, corrosive attack on metals. Some woods
temperatures. corrosion would be concentrated are acidic and under damp conditions
resulting in rapid attack. Conversely with can cause attack on steel, cadmium, zinc
Carbon dioxide is present in some supply a large anode connected to a small area and lead. If the wood has been treated
waters, particularly those derived from of cathodic metal, although some with a copper/chrome arsenate
deep wells and has the effect of lowering corrosion will be localised adjacent to the preservative, corrosion can be
the pH. This will cause any protective contact area, most corrosion will be accelerated and in particular aluminium
scales to dissolve. distributed over the remaining area and alloys and zinc are attacked.
It must be borne in mind that plastic the relative thickness loss will be less.
Fresh concrete is very alkaline (pH12.6-
materials, unlike metals, are permeable The second is the conductivity of the 13.5) and while this is responsible for
to gases. This can exacerbate oxidative electrolyte. In an electrolyte of low protecting steel reinforcement against
corrosion of iron/steel components in conductivity, attack will be confined corrosion, other metals, for example zinc,
closed systems where plastic pipework is adjacent to the joint area and may be aluminium and lead will be attacked.
used for distribution or under floor relatively intense. Where the electrolyte Some concrete also contains chlorides,
heating. conductivity is high, the attack will spread which will increase the risk of corrosion.
out more and the level of general
corrosion will be greater. Bleach and some soldering fluxes
contain high level of chloride ions, which
The third factor concerns electrical will cause rapid attack on many metals
contact between the dissimilar metals. including copper and stainless steel.
Some metals, in particular aluminium Furthermore, some plastics on heating or
and stainless steel, form coherent oxide degradation also give off acids and/or
31
chlorides, which in the presence of mechanical damage to the metal surface significant quantities (Duralumin), are
moisture will cause corrosive attack. at that point and exacerbate corrosive less resistant to corrosion.
attack. This mechanism is responsible for
Soils are complex in nature and therefore The most commonly encountered form of
water hammer.
are extremely variable in corrosive aluminium corrosion is pitting but the rate
activity. The most widespread form of of propagation is very dependent on the
corrosion is due to sulphate reducing alloy composition and nature of the
bacteria. Other problems are caused by Stray current corrosion solution with which it is in contact. While
acidic conditions due to natural Stray earth currents, in particular DC, many neutral or weakly alkaline solutions
constituents or contamination by can produce cathodic and anodic areas allow self-passivation, others particularly
industrial waste, for example ashes and where they enter and leave buried those containing chlorides or copper
cIinker. pipelines or other metallic structures ions, cause rapid propagation of
Although not strictly corrosion, it is worth causing severe corrosion. corrosion pits in some alloys.
mentioning that other industrial wastes, Aluminium alloys may also suffer a
for example, tar, oils, can cause failures preferential attack at the boundaries
in buried plastic pipework due to Organic matter between the grain structure that is
environmental stress cracking.They may Organic matter, derived from their natural termed intercrystalline corrosion.
also attack protection on metal pipework, or industrial sources, may lower the pH
thus exposing the underlying surfaces to Aluminium and its alloys have very good
and increase corrosion rates as well as resistance to atmospheric corrosion
corrosive attack. preventing scale deposition. Bacteria are providing the surfaces are regularly
also often present in organic matter and washed by rain etc. Where deposits of,
these may be responsible for fouling and for example acidic sulphates are allowed
Bacteria increased corrosive attack under both to build up on sheltered surfaces,
In the absence of oxygen, corrosion may aerobic and anaerobic conditions. moisture from condensation is sufficient
continue by the cathodic reduction of It can be seen from the forgoing that to give an increased rate of attack.
sulphate, which is present in most soils corrosion phenomena are very complex In all environments, aluminium is very
and natural waters. This is facilitated by in nature and are affected by many sensitive to bimetallic corrosion. Contacts
anaerobic bacteria (called sulphate- factors. Most of these factors can have a with copper and copper alloys, and to a
reducing bacteria, disulpho-vibrio profound effect on corrosion rates and lesser extent, iron and iron alloys, should
disulphoricans) that are able to use highlight the difficulties in predicting be avoided.
cathodic hydrogen in their living process corrosion behaviour and time to first
and convert sulphate to sulphide. This maintenance or failure. However, many
type of corrosion is responsible for the techniques are now available for Cadmium
smell of ‘bad eggs’ (hydrogen sulphide) identifying, monitoring and controlling
sometimes observed when venting corrosion to acceptable limits. The main application of cadmium is as a
radiators. protective coating on steel. It is
particularly useful as a plated finish on
high strength steels where zinc finishes
Flow, erosion, impingement can heighten the risk of cracking due to
and cavitation Effects of corrosive hydrogen embrittlement. Its corrosion
behaviour is similar to zinc and although
Corrosion can be aggravated by the it is less protective to steel, unlike zinc, it
nature of water flow across a metal is stable in alkali solution.
surface. The overall rate will be controlled
both by the rate of reaction and how Corrosion can manifest itself in
quickly reactants and products can numerous ways, depending on the metal Cast iron
approach and leave the metal surface. or alloy and particular environment in
These are termed chemical and diffusion which it is in contact. It is convenient to Cast irons are ferrous alloys containing
control respectively. Flow may be look back at the various metals likely to generally 2-4% carbon and frequently
stagnant, laminar or turbulent which will be encountered in plumbing applications have high silicon contents. A wide variety
affect the rates of diffusion. and the environments that can be of compositions are available and
detrimental to their service life. additions of silicon, chromium and nickel
Where the flow is turbulent, the can be used to improve corrosion
impingement of gas, liquid or solids or a Some of these metals are also used as resistance.Typical applications include
combination of any three can cause protective coatings and their performance boiler sections, pump housings and pipe
mechanical damage, which removes or together with that of the substrate is also fittings (malleable iron). Although
prevents formation of a protective film. If considered. corrosion rates are similar to those of
the metal or alloy is corrodible in that steel, above ground corrosion is not
environment, localised attack of the normally a problem due to the thick
surface will occur. Aluminium and sections used for cast iron components.
Cavitation is a particular type of attack aluminium alloys When in contact with some natural
that occurs when a metal surface is Although aluminium is a very reactive waters, particularly those that are slightly
exposed to a high velocity, low-pressure metal, it has a high resistance to acidic or contain chlorides (salt), cast
liquid. iron may suffer a form of attack called
corrosion because of the tenacious, inert
In areas where the pressure is oxide film that forms on the surface. Pure graphitisation. The iron corrodes leaving
sufficiently low, pockets of vapour form, aluminium is generally stable in the pH weak, porous structure composed of
which may suddenly collapse when they range 4.5-8.7 but outside this range, graphite and iron oxides. This can result
pass to an area of higher pressure. The attack can be rapid. Aluminium alloys, in catastrophic failures in underground
shock generated is sufficient to cause particularly those containing copper in pipes where soil or ground movement
causes large sections where
32
graphitisation has occurred to crust corrosion are those drawn from wells and remain intact for approximately 3 months
without warning. springs (usually privately owned) which to fulfil its purpose.
are often soft and contain dissolved
Although not directly associated with Problems, which have been generally
carbon dioxide. Such waters are called
corrosion, it is worthwhile mentioning a confined to cylinders not fully complying
cuprosolvent. Here the role of dissolved
common cause of premature failure in with BSI 566 (for indirect) or BS699 (for
oxygen is less significant and corrosion is
gas-fired sectional boilers. If hard-water directs), were found to arise in two ways
most marked when the water has been
scale is allowed to build up inside the from one cause. Poor insulation of the
heated.
cast iron sections, and flame connection point resulted in early
impingement occurs on the outside, Pitting corrosion of copper is divided into detachment of the anode, whereupon it
overheating can cause a change in the three categories: fell to the base of the cylinder, causing a
cast iron structure to a weaker massive build up of oxide sludge.
‘undercooled’form. Subsequent thermal Type 1 Normally such oxide debris would form
. stress can result in fracture and around the extremities of the anode and
consequent leakage from the boiler. Type 1 pitting is characterised by be carried away by the water flowing
broad/shallow pits. Temperature is a through the vessel, however, where
significant factor with corrosion more sludge built up, under-deposit corrosion
likely to occur in cold and lukewarm
Copper and copper alloys water than in hot water. It is most usually
of the base of the cylinder was initiated
due to differential oxygenation. Rapid
Copper and its alloys comprise a associated with borehole waters or failure could occur. If failure didn’t occur
versatile range of materials, which are waters that have been treated by in this way, the absence of the anode
used in a wide variety of plumbing flocculation. Often the total hardness of from its proper position allowed corrosion
applications. the water is greater than 100mg/l and is by the mechanisms it was originally
usually greater than 150mg/l but installed to prevent.
Copper is used extensively for pipework corrosion can occur in soft waters. It is
and heat exchanges due to its excellent thought that in surface derived waters, Rosette corrosion is another form of
ductility and thermal conductivity. A wide the presence of extremely low levels of copper corrosion.The phenomenon is so
range of copper alloys are available and organics such as polyphenols acts to named because the corroded copper has
in addition to the aforementioned inhibit this form of attack. Type 1 pitting the characteristic appearance of petal
applications, they are used for valve and needs initiation and used to be caused shapes etched on to its surface. There
pump components, pipe fittings, etc. by carbon film in copper tube remaining are no reported instances of copper
Most problems occur when these after the drawing process. The modern other than that associated with cylinders
materials are in contact with water or use of abrasive cleaning of the tube being affected. Research into the causes
steam containing dissolved oxygen or minimises the problem. continues, but factors known to
carbon dioxide and/or acids or chlorides, contribute to its occurrence include
although corrosion can also result from nitrate and the presence of an aluminium
Type 2
contact with aggressive atmosphere e.g. anode. There is also evidence that
Type 2 pitting is characterised by rosette corrosion is favoured when a
flue gases or certain bacteria.
narrow/deep pits. It occurs in soft waters copper vessel fitted with an aluminium
These environments cause a breakdown at temperatures above 60°C. The anode has been allowed to stand full of
in the protective oxide film formed on the bicarbonate/sulphateratio is often less water for an extended period.
surface by contact with oxygen and than 1 with the pH less that 7.6. In the
water, thus allowing corrosion to United Kingdom it is thought that the In some parts of the country, the
proceed. Not only will this eventually presence of manganese is contributory. concentration of nitrate has risen
result in failure of the component, but significantly over the last few years,
also dissolved copper can cause probably due to the permeation of nitrate
Type 3 based fertilisers down to the aquifers
accelerated corrosion if it is deposited on
other metals that are more anodic. Type 3 pitting is characterised by pepper providing all or part of the mains supply
pot holes under a crust. This form of water. However, it remains unproved that
corrosion remains a major area of this is the main factor responsible for the
research. It is virtually unknown in apparent increase in rosette corrosion.
Copper England but is prevalent in Scotland
Copper is used extensively in the form of where it is associated with moorland Changes to the design of cylinders to
tube for pipework and the manufacture of waters. The cause is uncertain however; inhibit the formation of stable areas of
hot water cylinders. When in contact with it appears that the standard of tubing is colder water (less than 30°C) will prevent
natural waters corrosion can occur by a not important. Research is concentrating many early failures, whether they are due
variety of mechanisms. on finding methods of analysis for the to Type 1 pitting, or by elimination of the
detection of microscopic quantities of aluminium anode, rosette corrosion.
A major factor in the corrosion of copper organic acids, which it is thought, might Standards include a test to ensure that
is dissolved oxygen. The higher the be contributory. water in the base of the cylinder is
temperature of the water the less heated appropriately.
dissolved oxygen it can contain, Copper cylinders can be prone to pitting
consequently cold water is more attack, particularly in the base sections Specifiers and installers can also take
corrosive to copper than hot water. where near stagnant conditions exists in sensible steps to help themselves, by
Typically when copper is first exposed to crevices or underneath debris. In an installing only units correctly sized for the
a water, a significant increase in the attempt to control the problem, the job, so eliminating large volumes of
copper concentration will occur, however, incorporation of aluminium anodes, unused water from residing in the vessel.
within a short period of time the which corrode preferentially whilst a In regions of the country where pitting
corrosion rate will fall to an acceptable uniformly thick protective film builds up failure is known to be a problem, end
level due to the formation of protective on the surface of the copper, was users should be encouraged to
films or scales on a metal surface. included in a British Standard and soon periodically drain their cylinder
became commonplace. In most cases it completely. This might well be applied to
Waters given rise to the highest rates of was necessary only for the anode to cylinders filled and left in non-use
33
situations, e.g., new unoccupied a brass and in the range 47-50% zinc is suffer attack by impingement or
properties. another single-phase alloy termed p cavitation. This may cause particular
brass. Alloys containing 39-47% zinc problems down stream from valves that
Compared with its alloys, copper
content, both phases are termed a + p or when properly open, cause a pressure
generally has a lower resistance to
duplex brasses. The latter alloys are drop sufficient to create air bubbles from
impingement attack in waters containing
more suitable for hot pressing or die- dissolved gasses and initiate attack. It is
oxygen andtor carbon dioxide. Where
casting small components. important therefore that valves are
dissolved gases are absent, for example
in closed heating systems, this type of carefully positioned in plant so that
An alloy has been developed having a
attack is not a problem. Table 31 gives controlled composition so that it is possible damage from this type of attack
recommended maximum water velocities is minimised.
suitable for processing as a duplex brass
for copper pipework carrying fresh but heat treated to attain the
aerated water of pH not less than 7. dezincification resistance of inhibited
brass (see below). This material is Bronzes (gunmetals,
Table 31 Maximum recommended water
velocities for copper tube at
termed DZR (dezincification resistant) phosphor bronzes and
brass and fittings are marked by the
different temperatures
Water Research Centre recognised tin bronzes)
(metreskecond)
symbol CR. It should be noted that
Temperature “C I 10 I 50 I 70 I 90 brazing alloys containing zinc can suffer
Technically the term ‘bronze’ should refer
to copper-tin alloys, but in practice a
Pipes that can
be replaced
I I I I
4.0 3.0 2.5 2.0
from similar forms or attack to brasses.
Brasses can suffer a form of selective
variety of copper alloys are termed
bronzes, irrespective of whether they
Pipes that
be replaced
1 I I I
2.0 1.5 1.3 1.0 corrosion called dezincification. Zinc is
preferentially removed form the alloy
contain tin.
This wide variation in composition makes
For short leaving a porous mass of copper having corrosion behaviour of a component
connections which little strength. Where the zinc corrosion difficult to predict unless the specific
are used products are not washed away, they may composition is known.
eg taps
intermittently, form bulky hollow shells which readily
116.0 112.0 110.0 18.0 In general, copper-tin alloys have a good
block waterways. This is termed
‘meringue’ dezincification. In the single- resistance to corrosion when in contact
phase brasses the whole of the metal is with both water (natural and sea) and
Impingement attack has a distinctive
corroded either uniformly over the steam and rarely suffer from the selective
appearance, the pits formed having a attack (dezincification) that brasses do.
water swept appearance, sometimes in surface or more commonly on the form of
the shape of horseshoes and being free a ‘plug’. With duplex brasses the phase
from corrosion products. In closed which contains a higher proportion of
heating systems where the oxygen zinc is preferentially attacked. Aluminium bronze
content is low, this type of attack does In general the risk andtor rate of These materials generally have a high
occur. dezincification is increased by higher resistance to corrosion, impingement
Copper can fail by stress corrosion proportions of zinc in the alloy, high attack and cavitation erosion. They are
cracking (the combination of constant temperature, high chloride content of the however, surprisingly prone to pitting
stress together with a specific corrodent, water, low pH, low temporary hardness, corrosion in natural waters and can suffer
(see brasses) and corrosion fatigue low water speed and the presence of selective corrosion analogous to
results from the conjoint action of surface deposits or crevices. dezincification.
fluctuating stresses, which may be Where leakage or breakage of a fitting
caused by expansion and contraction in has occurred, dezincification may be
restrained pipework, vibration of suspected if the defective areas have a
Cupro nickel alloys
equipment, poorly supported tubes, or dull, coppery appearance. Alloys containing copper and nickel have
pressure variations and a corrosive excellent resistance to corrosion and
environment. Brasses may be inhibited against
dezincificaiton by small additions of many environments, including those
Occasionally,corrosion can result in arsenic. Duplex brasses cannot be containing chlorides. They are more
copper calorifiers where large inhibited in this way and where there is a stable than brasses under flow
temperature differences exist. This may risk of dezincification, either DZR brass conditions, less susceptible to stress
be between a coil carrying steam, high or gunmetal must be used. corrosion and are used in heat
temperature water under pressure or exchanger applications.
immersion heater sheath and the Where brasses have a high degree of
calorifier shell. The large differences in internal stress, which may be induced
temperature are sufficient to generate a during manufacture, in particular those Lead
potential difference and cause containing ammonia or ammonium
preferential attack on the hotter surface. compounds (in-organic or organic) can Lead and lead alloys have a good
This may be prevented by electrically cause failure by a mechanism called corrosion resistance due to the formation
insulating the shell and heater. stress corrosion cracking (season of insoluble adherent carbonate or
cracking). The corrosive environment is sulphate corrosion products. These films
normally external and may result from an are protected and may be formed over a
ammonical compounds used as light wide range of pH values (3-11) in most
Brasses weight concrete foaming agents, in natural and treated waters. However, in
The common brasses consist of a range rubber lattices used as cement additives soft waters with a low carbon dioxide
of copper alloys containing from 10-50% or for bonding floor tiles, and from content, a less protective oxide film is
zinc and other minor alloying elements. fertilisers either as residues in aggregate formed which allows corrosion to
Alloys containing up to 39% zinc from a or airborne pollution. proceed slowly.
single-phase alloy with copper is termed Lead is generally resistant to
In common with copper, brasses can
34
atmospheric corrosion but may be common austenitic alloys contain 1522% alkaline waters, calcium carbonate (lime
attacked by organic acids or free alkali. chromium, 6-11% nickel and 0.05-0.15% scale) can deposit on steel surfaces and
Run off from roofs bearing organic carbon and have the highest resistance provide a protective coating.
growths, acetic acid derived from wood to corrosion (grades 302, 304). The Although carbon dioxide has no specific
and fresh cement, can all cause addition of molybdenum (2-4%) confers influence on the corrosion of steel, it will
corrosive attack. even greater corrosion resistance (grade increase the corrosion rate by lowering
316). They are non-magnetic and not the pH and also preventing the formation
In its pure form, lead has poor hardenable unless heavily cold worked.
mechanical properties and without small of protective calcium carbonate films.
alloying additions, is susceptible to creep The main applications in plumbing In the absence of oxygen, corrosion can
and fatigue failures induced by thermal services are for pipework, boiler flues, occur in waters where sulphate-reducing
movement. sinks and urinals. bacteria are active.
Stainless steels owe their high corrosion The effect of dissolved gases and
resistance to the presence of self-healing
Magnesium oxide films on the metal surface.
calcium carbonate in fresh waters has
already been discussed. Water may also
The only plumbing application in which However, certain environments may contain a variety of other dissolved
magnesium is likely to be met is that of cause these films to break down and material present in the supply or as a
cathodic protection.The greater negative allow corrosion rates comparable to result of subsequent contamination. Ions
potential in relation to steel and those of mild steel. The most common such as chloride and sulphate can
compared to zinc or aluminium makes environments to cause attack are those interfere with the development of
magnesium alloys efficient for protecting containing chlorides and in crevices or protective films and lead too more
the interior of steel (either unprotected, underneath surface debris where the localised attack whereas other ions such
painted or galvanised) water cisterns or absence of oxygen prevents repair of the as calcium and bicarbonate have
the exterior of buried steel structures and protective oxide film. inhibitive properties. Small concentrations
pipelines. Corrosion of stainless steels is often of organic matter can improve the
localised.The presence of chlorides can protective qualities of carbonate films;
cause rapid pitting, particularly at grain however, organic acids resulting from
Soft solders (tin alloys) boundaries and can initiate intergranular decomposition of vegetation can
attack and stress corrosion cracking. increase corrosion rates by lowering the
Soft solders (i.e. tin alloyed with lead, pH. Where the pH is reduced to values
antimony, silver and/or copper) are below 4 as a result of acid
anodic to copper and therefore corrosion
of solder used in capillary joints could be Steels (low alloy) contamination, then the corrosion rate
will progressively increase with a further
expected. However, due to the nature of Low alloy steels, due to their ease of decrease in pH. Other surface
the protective film formed, corrosion fabrication and the range of mechanical contaminants such as oil, mill scale or
often occurs in waters of high properties attainable by alloying deposits may not increase the overall
conductivity, for example those additions, are used in a wide variety of rate of corrosion, but can localise the
containing chlorides. Most problems with plumbing applications. When compared attack causing pitting and pinhole
capillary joints may be attributed to the with other metals in most environments, corrosion.
use of soldering fluxes which leave they are found to have a much lower
aggressive residues at, or adjacent to the corrosion resistance. Under certain Steel pipes are not normally suitable for
joint area. conditions, small additions of copper, use in wet soils unless protected against
chromium and nickel improve corrosion external corrosion.
resistance but the overall effect is often
Stainless steels small and variable.
Steel can exhibit two entirely different
Zinc
The term ‘stainless steel’ covers a variety
of alloys which may be simply and types of corrosion behaviour depending Zinc is used almost exclusively in
conveniently divided into the following on the nature of the environment with plumbing applications as a protective
three categories: which it is in contact. In the passive state, coating on steel. It may be applied by a
for example when in contact with neutral variety of methods, which give widely
Martensitic stainless steels or alkaline natural water free from varying coating weights and consequent
bacteria and oxygen, the corrosion rate degrees of protection. Both zinc and zinc
These alloys generally contain 12-14% is negligible. However, in the active state alloys have good resistance to corrosion
chromium and from 0.1-2 ‘%o carbon, widely differing rates of corrosion, either under conditions of exterior exposure
which confers hardenability and controls general or localised, can occur and when in contact with most natural
the mechanical properties.They are used depending on the many factors that have waters. This resistance is due to the
for applications requiring high strength been discussed earlier. protective layers of zinc oxide and
and wear resistance combined with hydroxide, or other basic salts depending
considerable corrosion resistance. The most common cause of corrosion is on the nature of the environment, which
exposure to water containing dissolved are formed on the metal surface.
Ferritic stainless steels oxygen. The rate of attack is greatest
when the water is soft and/or acidic and Under atmospheric conditions, the rate of
Alloys containing 16-18% chromium and the corrosion products often form bulky corrosion depends on the degree of
having a low carbon content are termed mounds in the surface called tubercles. pollution. Heavily polluted industrial areas
ferritic stainless steels. They are not These overlie areas where localised containing sulphur dioxide can increase
hardenable and are used for flue and attack is occurring and can seriously the rate of corrosion by a factor of up to
sink components. reduce the carrying capacity of pipes. In 10 as compared with rural areas. Where
severe cases, iron oxides can cause new zinc surfaces are stored under damp
Austenitic stainless steels contamination leading to complaints of conditions, an unsightly white corrosion
Often termed 18/8 stainless steels, the ‘red water’. In hard, neutral or slightly product may be formed. This is termed
‘white rust’ and can be prevented by to a certain extent on the particular

oiling or a chromate treatment. Prevention situation in which the supply or
circulating water is being used.
In natural waters, the rate of corrosion is
governed by the presence of dissolved corrosion It must be stressed that conclusions from
salts and gases. The presence of carbon analytical results should be drawn very
dioxide together with calcium and Before deciding on the most suitable carefully and expert consideration needs
magnesium salts will form a basic course of action required, if any, to to be given to the many factors involved.
carbonate film that is protective to the control or prevent corrosion, it is often It is only then possible to formulate the
base metal. Zinc is anodic to steel and beneficial to assess the nature of the most appropriate treatment to control
will provide protection in the form of a environment to which the metal will be corrosion and also scale deposition,
coating even if small areas of substrate exposed or the rate at which corrosion which may affect the efficient operation
are exposed due to damage or in will occur. In certain cases, metal loss of a system.
fabrication. due to corrosion may be economically
The data given should only be used as a
Temperature has a marked effect on the acceptable providing the required service
guide and no indications have been
corrosion of zinc in natural waters. Due life or life to first maintenance is
given as to the relative importance of the
to a change in the nature of the
exceeded. Furthermore, where corrosion
different factors.
protective films, the corrosion rate has occurred, there are now several non-
increases in the range of 55°C to 95”C, destructive techniques that may be used
to quantify the extent of the attack and
giving a maximum increase of some 100
metal loss. Wholesome (supply), hot
times at 70°C. In some natural waters
where zinc is used as a protective and cold domestic waters
coating on steel, a reversal of potential The ability of these waters to deposit a
occurs above 65°C. The zinc then Assessing the corrosivity of protective film of calcium carbonate scale
becomes cathodic to steel, stimulating the local environment on internal metal surfaces can play an
attack which results in localised (pitting) important part in controlling corrosion. As
corrosion and subsequent perforation. External surfaces described earlier, the Langelier and
In general zinc and copper or copper Ryznar indices indicate whether a
The external surfaces of pipework, etc. particular water will dissolve or deposit a
alloys are not compatible when used in may suffer attack if buried in soil, located
natural water systems. Where waters protective scale.
in ductwork subject to condensation or
which are cupro-solvent (e.g. those flooding, or where exposed to rain, spray, A negative Langelier index indicates that
containing free carbon dioxide) flow etc. the water will tend to dissolve scale and
through copper pipework, traces of promote corrosion while a positive index
copper are dissolved which can The aggressiveness of soils to buried indicates that a protective film will be
subsequently deposit as metallic copper metals, particularly ferrous, may be deposited.
on zinc surfaces and stimulate attack due assessed using resistivity data to
to bimetallic corrosion. Brass fittings on measure the likelihood of oxidative The Ryznar index is a modified form of
galvanised steel tanks and cisterns, corrosion and redox-potentialsto indicate the Langelier index that is claimed to be
however, rarely cause problems due to the risk of bacterial corrosion. Soils may more reliable. Using this index, a water is
the relatively small area of brass to zinc. be considered aggressive if the resistivity considered to be corrosive when the
is less than 200Qcm at the specified index exceeds approximately 6 and scale
Where unprotected galvanised pipes are depth or the mean redox-potential is less forming when it is less that 6. Where the
used below ground the most severe than +0.400 volts (standard hydrogen water is used to feed heating plant, then
attack occurs in soils which are poorly scale) when corrected to pH = 7 (+0.430 the hardness value will determine the
aerated and/or have high acid and volts if the soil is predominantly clay). need for chemical treatmentlsoftening to
soluble salt contents. minimise scale deposition.
Accelerated corrosion may also be
In conclusion, galvanised tankskisterns,
calorifiers and pipes should not be used
caused by the presence of stray
electrical earth currents from for
Primary and secondary heating waters -
at temperatures above 65°C or example, DC railway systems or rectified chilled water systems
downstream from copper pipework. induced AC from high voltage These systems, whether open vented or
Below ground, galvanised pipework is transmission systems, and these may be sealed, should use little or no make-up.
best protected using proprietary tape identified from the measurement of Problems can arise when there are
wrap systems. voltage differences in the soil. excessive water losses, air ingress, and
Where metal surfaces may be exposed aggressive residues from fabrication or
cleaning operations. Flushing will be
Plastic and rubber to natural waters, either due to
necessary to reduce the risk of
immersion, condensation or rainfall,
components corrosion can be severe particularly if corrosion. Guidance on system cleansing
salts or other pollutants are present. The is given in BS 7593: 1992, ‘Treatment of
Although polymeric materials do not water in domestic hot water central
corrode in the accepted sense, they may likely corrosivity of these environments
can be assessed using a variety of heating systems’ (the advice is equally
degrade when exposed to certain suited to chilled systems). Analytical data
environments. These environments electrical and electrochemical
techniques. can be used to assess the waterside
include ultraviolet light, heat, organic condition.
compounds and inorganic and metallic
Internal surfaces
ions, but the wide range of materials and
compositions available make specific
-
pH Aluminium
The nature of the water in contact with
guidance impossible. the metal surfaces may be most A pH less than 5.0 or greater than 8.5 is
conveniently assessed or monitored by liable to be detrimental to aluminium. A
chemical analysis of representative pH outside these limits is unlikely to have
samples. The analysis required depends occurred naturally. If the pH is lower than
36
5.0, an acid is present. If higher than 8.5, If the test sample contains rust particles, temperature drop of 58°C. This
the water is alkaline, either due to the they will be dissolved when the test is evaporation leaves behind both dissolved
presence of an alkaline treatment, e.g. carried out. The iron reading will then be solids that build up until deposition
caustic soda, or in some circumstances the dissolved iron plus the iron due to the occurs and aggressive ions, for example
due to alkali generated within the system particles. Care should be taken to ensure chlorides, which will exacerbate
naturally. that the suspended solids are corrosion. In addition the cooling water
representativeof the overall system may become contaminated by
Conductivity conditions. atmospheric pollution resulting in acid
corrosion due to the reduced pH.
If the system water has a higher
Copper
conductivity than the supply water, this
indicates that the water has been treated A dissolved copper concentration of
with an inhibitor or contaminated.The 0.2mg/l more in the system than in the
Corrosion control and
levels of concentration to be expected in supply water is significant. prevention
the other analyses can be estimated
from this comparison, e.g. a high Aluminium External surfaces
conductivity is likely to be associated
with high levels on the other tests. Where aluminium components are A variety of methods are available for
present, an aluminium concentration of protecting pipework etc. When their
0.3mg/l or more in the system water than external surfaces are exposed to a
Chloride in the supply water indicates that some corrosive environment.
Chloride is naturally present in all supply corrosion has taken place. If the pH lies
waters. A high level may indicate the between 5.0 and 8.5, the aluminium Organic coatings such as paints, plastic
presence of residues from acid de- surfaces will be passive and further coatings or tape wrap systems may be
scaling or chloride based fluxes. It should corrosion will not be occurring. Any given applied to the metal surface which has
be noted that the chloride concentration concentration of aluminium is not a been prepared by grit blasting and/or the
in a towns mains supply water is liable to problem in itself, but an increase over a application of a suitable primer. In
fluctuate, however, a level more than 25 period should be noted and would general the more severe the conditions
mg/l greater or 50% greater in the require corrective action. of service, the thicker and more resistant
system, is strongly suggestive of flux the coating needs to be. These types of
More significance should be attached to coatings can be very susceptible to
contamination.
the aluminium concentration when an mechanical damage and this should be
aluminium heat exchanger is fitted. borne in mind during installation.
Sulphate Where aluminium radiators are
concerned, concentrations above 0.5 Both tanks and pipes can be repaired
Sulphate is naturally present in all supply
mg/l do not present any special problem, and protected using either glass
waters. A low level (e10 mg/l) in the
provided there is no deterioration. reinforced plastic (GRP) or specially
system may indicate the presence of
formulated concrete linings.
sulphate reducing bacteria.
Metal coatings, for example zinc and
Hardness Steam boilers and aluminium, may be applied to steel
surfaces by hot dipping or spraying,
Towns mains supplies are categorised in water heaters which gives the thickest coating, diffusion
Table 22 or in the case of zinc, electro-deposition.
BS 2486: 1997 ‘Treatment of water for
Generally speaking, hard water is steam boilers and water heaters’ gives These metals will corrode, albeit at a rate
present in 60% of the country (especially recommendationsfor the control of much slower than steel and therefore the
in the Eastern, Central and Southern waterside conditions of steam boilers and coating thickness required depends on
areas of England) and to varying water heaters and also for the the aggressiveness of the environment.
degrees in the rest of the United preparation of feed water for such plant. In severe cases, an additional paint
Kingdom and Northern Ireland.The water Categories covered are: coating may be applied.
for some northern cities is supplied from Another method of protecting
a. Hot water systems i.e. water above
naturally soft water reservoirs in Wales underground pipelines is that of cathodic
120°C (HTHW), water below 100°C
and the Lake District. protection. Two methods are available
(LTHW), water at 100-120°C inclusive
Most calcium salts form a scale when (MTHW) each of which produce a counter current
heated. Comparison with the system sufficiently large to neutralise the
b. Electrode boilers currents responsible for corrosion.The
water will indicate if scale has been
formed. If a high level of hardness is C. Shell (fire tube) boilers operating at first uses a more electro-negative metal,
present in the system water after it has pressures up to 30 bar the most common being either
been heated, it may be because of water magnesium, aluminium or zinc, in the
d. Water tube boilers operating up to form of sacrificial anodes which are
loss and subsequent make-up.
critical pressure connected electronically to the metal
Iron e. Once through boilers, including ‘coil’ requiring protection. The second uses an
and ‘hairpin’ types, operating up to impressed current from a generator in
As a heating system corrodes, iron will critical pressure. conjunction with auxiliary anodes of iron,
dissolve or form corrosion debris and steel, graphite, lead or platinised
hydrogen gas will be generated. The titanium.
amount of any debris present (visible as
suspended solids) is a factor in
Cooling waters
Internal surfaces
determining the seriousness of a Cooling for air conditioning systems is
corrosion problem. In terms of dissolved most commonly achieved by evaporation All internal surfaces that store or carry
iron, an increase of 0.5mg/l over that in of water, normally 1-1.5% of the water, for example pipes, tanks,
the supply water is significant, with an circulation rate being used to cause a calorifiers, heat exchangers, radiators
increase of more than 3mg/l very high. etc. may be subject to corrosive attack.
There are many different possible joints and causing leaks. Where larger minimise corrosion. In addition to
approaches to preventing corrosion and systems suffer continuous water loses treatment for the prevention of corrosion,
it is of utmost importance that the correct due to the presence of leaks, it can be sludge and scale deposition also needs
method is chosen to suit each particular beneficial to use softened water for to be carefully controlled to maintain
situation. In most cases, proprietary make-up to reduce the need for frequent efficiently and steam purity, particularly
blends of chemicals are available which scale removal. as the trend in modern boilers is towards
fulfil some or all of the required a lower water content and higher heat
preventative treatment. Cooling waters transfer rates. In brief, the concentration
of solids in the boiler water may be
Other factors may also need to be Corrosion may be controlled by dosing controlled by the following methods
considered for example toxicity when the system with a suitable inhibitor. This depending on the quality of supply water:
treating wholesome waters or if there is a needs to be carried out continuously at a
risk of crossover between primary rate proportional to the bleed-off required i. Softening and filtration of the feed
heating and domestic supplies. to prevent scale deposition and water to remove dissolved and
excessive levels of aggressive ions suspended solids.
Both polyphosphates and sodium
silicates may be used as a non-toxic, building up. The treatment should also ii. Precipitation of hardness salts as a
tasteless, odourless and colourless include sludge conditioners to prevent mobile sludge in the boiler by
treatment for domestic waters. They both localised scale deposition and biocides to maintaining a controlled reserve of
prevent iron corrosion discolouring the control bacteria and algae (slime) growth. either carbonate or phosphate in
supply water (commonly known as ‘red In hard water areas, the cost of water solution in the boiler water. In
water’) and inhibit the deposition of scale and treatment chemicals can be high and addition, organic sludge conditioners
by forming a thin film on the metal therefore consideration should be given may be added to ensure that the
surfaces, which acts as a barrier. They to using a softened make-up supply. precipitated salts are non-adherent
are dosed either in liquid form using a Disposal of bleed-off water also needs to and mobile.
proportional dosing pump or as slowly be considered as some treatment iii. Maintaining the total dissolved solids
dissolving crystals from a suitable chemicals are toxic and cannot be below the maximum level applicable
dispenser. drained into local sewerage systems. to the particular boiler and operating
Storage tankskisterns may be protected conditions (usually below 3500mg/l)
internally using cathodic protection. Steam rising plant by ‘blowing down’. Blowdown may be
Sacrificial anodes, normally magnesium Steam boilers are treated by ensuring either intermittent or continuous.
for steel or aluminium for copper, are that the boiler water is alkaline at all iv. Cleaning the boiler when shut down.
connected to and suspended in the tank. times and by removing dissolved oxygen
While aluminium anodes in copper tanks to maintain a protective film of magnetite
only have to last for sufficient time to (magnetic iron oxide) on steel surfaces.
form a permanent protective film, In addition, treatment may also be
Cleaning and descaling of
magnesium anodes in steel tanks need necessary to prevent corrosion in boilers and associated plant
to be replaced when consumed. condensate lines, which is most
In newly installed systems, it is often
commonly caused by the presence of
Primary and secondary heating waters - dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide
necessary to remove internal
contaminants, for example flux residues,
chilled water systems gases.
metal filings and other builder’s debris by
These systems, because they are Dissolved oxygen in boiler water may be flushing. Even if carried out in
essentially closed recirculating systems, removed by means of a physical de- accordance with recommended
may be treated with either oxygen aerator or oxygen scavenger, the procedures, it is unlikely that all will be
scavengers, which act by the removal of chemicals most commonly used being removed due to either their insolubility or
oxygen responsible for the corrosion catalysed sodium sulphite, certain the internal geometry of the system. This
process, or inhibitors which slow down selected tannins or hydrazine. highlights the need to adopt working
the corrosion reactions to acceptable Condensate corrosion may be controlled procedures that negate the need for
levels, sometimes in conjunction with pH by the addition of volatile amines which flushing, for example using non-
control. either neutralise the acidity caused by aggressive fluxes and cutting rather than
the presence of carbon dioxide, or form a sawing copper tubes.
Inhibitors need to be chosen carefully to
protective film on the metal surfaces.
suit the system under consideration. In older systems, particularly where there
Some inhibitors may reduce corrosion in Caustic cracking, which used to be a has been water losses or air ingress;
one environment while increasing it in fairly common phenomenon particularly scale and sludge may have deposited,
another, while others only work in riveted boilers, can occur if which will affect the efficiency. In the
effectively in a certain concentration concentrations of sodium hydroxide worst case, particularly where low water
range, actually intensifying corrosion greater than 5% exist. This may be content boilers are used, overheating will
outside this range. Sulphate reducing prevented by either: lead to eventual failure of sections or
bacteria may be controlled by splitting of tubes.
maintaining the ratio of sodium nitrate
maintaining a specified level of biocide in
to total alkalinity (in terms of calcium If inspection indicates that de-scaling is
the system.
carbonate) at a minimum value of necessary, the nature of the deposits
With the current trend towards very low 0.32 at all times should be determined to ascertain the
content boilers, it is also advisable to use best method of removal.
maintaining the ratio of sodium
sludge conditioners to prevent scale
sulphate to caustic alkalinity (in terms Loose deposits may be removed
deposition inside boiler sections and
of calcium carbonate) at a minimum manually or mechanically but hard
tubes. These materials should be used
value of 2.0 at all times. deposits will normally require chemical
with caution in older systems as they
removal. Table 32 indicates chemicals
may dislodge scale and corrosion In high-pressure boilers, the level of
that may be used to remove the most
products highlighting weaknesses at chloride ions needs to be limited to
38
Table 32 Cleaning and descaling treatments

Treatment I Deposit x indicates effective treatment
W
c
m
0
E
W
e
m
r
L
m
W
W
c
Oll
0
L )
-m
W e
c
W
W
.-
W
c
n
M
r
-a
E
-
.- n W
-
M
U E
m
-
.-
m
M
8
c
0
n v) v) U 0 5 z- 0
e
L1
Hydrochloric acid (inhibited) X X X X

Hydrochloric/hydrofluoricacids (inhibited) X X X X X
Sulphuric acid (inhibited) X X X

Sulphamic acid X
Citric adic X X
Ammonium citrate with oxidising agent (pH 9.5) X

Formic acid X X X X
Tetra sodium salt of EDTA (ethylene diamine-tetra
acetic acid) X X X
Tetra-ammoniumsalt of EDTA X X X X X X
Sodium hydroxidelsodiuimphosphate X X
common types of deposit. If scaling is References

present in a confined part of the system,
for example the boiler, then treatment Water Regulations Guide, including the
should be isolated to that part of the Water Byelaws 2000 (Scotland), ISBN 0-
system. Progress of the cleaning should 9539708-0-9;Water Regulations
be strictly monitored, care being taken to Advisory Scheme, Fern Close, Pen-y-Fan
ensure that all aggressive chemical Industrial Estate, Oakdale, Newport,
residues are removed after completion of NP11 3EH.
the de-scaling operation. Throughout the
The HSE’s ACOP and Guidance
treatment, adequate safety precautions
need to be observed and the effluent document - L8 2001.
disposed of in accordance with statutory The Department of Health’s code of
and other requirements. practice HTM2040 - the control of
legionella in healthcare premises.
BS6700:1997 - Specification for the
Plant shutdown design, installation, testing and
When plant and associated equipment is maintenance of services supplying water
taken out of service for any length of for domestic use within buildings and
time, steps need to be taken to prevent their curtilages.
damage due to internal corrosion. The Institute of Plumbing - Legionaire’s
In the case of heating and chilled water Disease - good practice guide for
systems, they should be left completely plumbers.
filled with water containing oxygen
scavengers or corrosion inhibitors and a
biocide maintained at a high pH. In this
situation, precautions may also need to
be taken to prevent frost damage. Plant
should only remain in a drained down
condition if left and maintained
completely dry internally, otherwise rapid
localised attack, particularly in for
example steel panel radiators, can occur
resulting in premature failure.
Cooling towers need to be drained and
where necessary dismantled to prevent
seizure of pumps etc. When they are
brought back on line, treatment with
suitable biocides is recommended to
control bacteria.
39

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Pllumbing Engineering Services

The Institute of Ilumbing

The Institute of Plumbing

The Institute of Plumbing

The Institute of Plumbing cannot accept responsibility for any errors

th&&,,te The Institute of Plumbing

13. 3. P = 1 = 300 should read P = t = 2 = 0.025

13. table 14. Basin - 15mm sep taps (33/1200) -

13. table 14. Type of applicance, slop hopper cistenr only-

18. 2 Equation should redd&g/s=- watts

The Institute of Plumbing

Table 1 Drinking water standards From this connection, which generally

relaxation of any part of the regulation Table 2 Daily water demand

Water supply companies are empowered

4. Bath 15% 5. Health 8, Safety, prevention of

Storage Tank Height level

Sports hall, Four persons per badminton court

hot water due to the mixing effect of the E

2. Maintain stored hot water between

7. Maintain balanced use and flows

NOTE: 1 10 100 1000 10000

Design Codes for Health buildings Type 2 - a thermostatic mixing valve,

7. Rainwater reuse Table 12 Notifiable installations

risks is one of the main changes

Table 13 Water regulation fluid categories and examples

varies dependant on the occupational 1%. This has been established to be

Graph 2 Probability graph An example of this application which

Table 14 Simultaneous demand - base data

Bucket sink, 15mm taps 0 3600 I 0.017

the use of the appliances are different in considered as representative of flow

Continue for the remainder of the system

Figure 15 Pipework isometric and calculation sheef

Pipe sizing by velocity

Pioe size Coooer/stainless steel I Plastic Steel

Figure 16 Secondary circulation pipework isometric and calculation sheet

32 20 65 140 250 540 950 2220

Table 19 Loss of head through pipe fittings - continued

Table 20 Water supply system - pipe sizing table

loss available size

Graph 3 Pipe sizing chart - copper and stainless steel.

Graph 4 Pipe sizing chart - plastic

prime concern, then waters having a the selection of components and

However, to assist in extending the life of b. Availability

location Hardness ppm To prevent, or minimise the effect of

can enter in to the building in its desired

For the support of plant and components,

Chemical disinfection off line -

Temperature control on line - Water quality

- Ring main return

Figure 18 Recirculation deionisation system

Operation of a base Brine rinse Corrosion

Backwash Causes of corrosion -

Table 30 Galvanic series of metals and

Graph 5 The effect of pH on mild steel Graph 6 Effect of oxygen concentration

Contact with dissimilar

‘white rust’ and can be prevented by to a certain extent on the particular

Table 32 Cleaning and descaling treatments

Hydrochloric acid (inhibited) X X X X

Sulphuric acid (inhibited) X X X

Ammonium citrate with oxidising agent (pH 9.5) X

common types of deposit. If scaling is References

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