THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN AFRICA

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES IN EDUCATION

UNIT TITLE: ETHICAL ISSUES IN EDUCATION

UNIT CODE: ED 504

PRESENTATION TITLE: ETHICAL ISSUES IN MANAGEMENT, RESEARCH AND DIVERSITY.

STUDENT: DOROTHY NYAGENG’O

REG NO: 1029133

LECTURER: DR.ELIZABETH NDUKU

Contents
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 2
1. Definition of concept ............................................................................................................................ 2
2. Ethical issues in research ...................................................................................................................... 3
2.1. Research plagiarism and fraud...................................................................................................... 3
2.1.1. Misuse of privilege ................................................................................................................ 4
2.2. Ethical Issues concerning research subjects ...................................................................................... 4
2.3. Ethical issues concerning the research process ................................................................................. 9
2.3.1. Ignoring pertinent issues in research.......................................................................................... 9
2.3.2. Ethical issues in experimental designs ........................................................................................ 9
2.3.3. Use of tests in research ............................................................................................................. 10
2.4. Ethical issues in management .......................................................................................................... 10
2.5. Ethical issues in the workplace ........................................................................................................ 10
2.5.1. Performance appraisals ............................................................................................................ 11
2.5.2. Employee discipline .................................................................................................................. 12
2.5.3. Office romance.......................................................................................................................... 12
2.5.4. Giving gifts in the workplace ..................................................................................................... 13
2.5.5. Opportunity for new skills......................................................................................................... 13
2.5.6. Working conditions ................................................................................................................... 13
2.5.7. Honoring benefit provisions ..................................................................................................... 14
2.5.8. Fair hiring , treatment and justified termination ..................................................................... 14
2.6. Factors to consider for a manager to promote ethical principles ................................................... 14
2.6.1. Hiring and promotion................................................................................................................ 14
2.6.2. Organizational culture and leadership ...................................................................................... 15
2.6.3. Decision-making process........................................................................................................... 16
2.6.4. Ethics Officers ........................................................................................................................... 16
2.6.5. Moral courage ........................................................................................................................... 17
2.7. Measures that managers can take to ensure that a climate of fairness and ethical behavior is
upheld ..................................................................................................................................................... 17
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................... 19

1
Introduction
The necessity of professional ethics has been fully recognized by society,in general and by

professional groups,in particular.Nothing is more indicting to a professional than to be charged

with unethical practices. While the word conjures up images of a supreme authority and

absolutes, ethics in research and management are basically the principles of right and wrong

that a particular group accepts at a particular time. Most academic specialists and professions

have codes of ethics that set forth the rules that should be adhered to. Some codes are

thoughtful and help sensitize members to dilemmas and moral issues they must face;others are

narrowly conceived and do more to protect the professional group from attack than to set forth

a moral position.

1. Definition of concept

Ethics refers to the principles of conduct governing an individual or a group and specifically to

the standards that you use to decide what your conduct should be.(Dessler,2011)

The term ethics refers to accepted principles of right or wrong that govern the conduct of a

person, the members of a profession,or the actions of an organization.(Hill-McShane,2009)

Ethics is the study of conduct.This means that it is concerned only with that portion of human

behavior susceptible to ascriptives right and wrong.

Thus the behavior of animals, infants, and insane persons is not considered to be conduct.

(Reagen,1976)

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An ethical issue is a situation, problem, or opportunity in which an individual must choose

among several actions that must be evaluated as right or wrong. (Bateman &Snell,2004)

Ethics is the code of moral principles and values that governs the behaviors of a person or

group with respect to what is right or wrong.( Daft,2010)

2. Ethical issues in research

According to Mugenda&Mugenda(2003)most professions have ethical guidelines which govern

their profession.Since researchers are people genuinely concerned about other peoples’ quality

of life they must be people of integrity that will not undertake research for personal gain or

research that will have a negative effect on others.Other reasons for being completely ethical is

that there are laws which guide the research process such as:

2.1. Research plagiarism and fraud

Plagiarism refers to situations where a researcher refers to another person’s work as theirs

without acknowledging the author.In addition,stealing ideas from another scholar is also

plagiarism.In some universities,it is not uncommon to find researchers stealing the work of

students and assistants or fellow researchers and presenting that work as their own.Plagiarism

is a crime punishable by law.In addition,it erodes the integrity of the victim leading to serious

professional consequences.Fraud refers to the situation where a researcher fakes data that has

not actually been collected. Fraud also refers to false presentation of research methodology

and result.

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 2.1.1. Misuse of privilege
Aresearcher has some power over the subjects owing to the training they have,their

expertise,their legal authority to undertake research,and their perceived ability to provide

help,especially in Africa where the poverty level is very high.Research subjects therefore

participate in the research on trust.It would be extremely unethical for researchers to abuse

this trust by using their power negatively.For example,it would be unethical for a doctor

researcher to undertake certain research tests on the pretext of providing treatment or

research on lack of facilities only to promise that they would provide facilities at the end.It

would also be wrong for a researcher to use the collected data to get somebody into trouble or

to stigmatize them.

2.2. Ethical Issues concerning research subjects

2.2.1. Confidentiality and privacy

Respondents should be protected by keeping the information given confidential,especially if

confidentiality has been promised.In some cases,the respondents may not be that concerned

about confidentiality but their consent must be sought before revealing any information.Lack of

confidentiality and mishandling the information provided may cause respondents physical or

even psychological harm.For example,releasing the names of teachers or pupils who are

suffering from HIV/AIDS may stigmatize them.The researcher should not relate specific

information about individuals to others and should be particularly watchful of sharing

information with people at the research site who could choose to use the information in

political or personal ways.

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2.2.2Anonymity

This refers to the identity of individuals being protected either by using numbers, third parties

or pseudo names. A researcher could disclose information about a particular individual but

protect the identity and privacy of that individual. Anonymity therefore refers to a situation

where a respondents name is not disclosed. Sometimes it’s not always necessary to keep

names anonymous in the interests of follow up efforts and longitudinal studies. On the other

hand, when some sensitive information is being sought, for example, details of sexual behavior,

it may be wise to keep the respondents identity anonymous in order to get more honest

responses.When anonymity is required yet there is a need for a follow- up,an individual code

should be put on the questionnaire. The researcher then is able to link the code to the name in

order to do a follow-up. Though this method is not completely anonymous, it may allay some

fears on the part of the respondents. The important thing is for the researcher to be honest. If

confidentiality and anonymity are promised, then they must be assured. It should extend not

only to writing but also to the verbal reporting of that information that one has learnt through

observation.

2.2.3. Physical or psychological harm

A researcher should never undertake research that may cause physical or psychological harm.A

researcher should do all the preliminary tests and obtain all the background information in an

effort to avoid imparting any harm to subjects.In social science research,psychological harm is

more likely to occur than physical harm.Psychological harm can be caused by asking

embarrassing questions,expressing shock or disgust while collecting data,using threatening

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statements or compelling people to say something that they don’t believe in or causing fear

and anxiety among respondents.Any action or statement which lowers subject’sself-esteem or

self-worth is also considered unethical and should always be avoided.Another form of

psychologically harmful action may be to force respondents to recall unpleasant occurrences

against their will,thus creating discomfort and resentment.

2.2.4. Voluntary and informed consent

A researcher must confirm to the principle of voluntary consent where the respondents

willingly participate in research.Unethical behavior would occur if the researcher failed to

disclose the real purpose of the research fearing the subject’s refusal to participate.

Researchers should neither lie to subjects nor record conversations on hidden mechanical

devices. For example,it is unethical for a researcher to get people to participate in a piece of

research regarding the unavailability of health services by falsely promising them health

facilities after the research.In social research,permission to undertake research from a

participant may not be adequate. It is unethical to get permission from a subject if that

permission is based on deception as regards the reasons for undertaking research or the

intended use of research findings. A subject must be told the truth and be given all the facts

about the research in order to make an informed decision about participating or not. Informed

consent should be based on information regarding.

2.2.5 Use of vulnerable and/or special populations

A researcher should be particularly sensitive and diligent in explaining oneself and getting

consent when studying people who are vulnerable to manipulation.It is considered extremely

unethical if populations which are disadvantaged in one way or another are used without their

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consent or the consent of a guardian.Such special populations include children,mentally

disabled people,sick people,the poor and others with special needs like street

children.Permission from those who care for these special populations must be sought and

must be based on the principle of informed consent. In relation to this people doing research

have always been concerned with taking more from the subjects than they

give(Whyte,1992).Researchers write dissertations that lead to career advancement or books

that result in promotion and royalty checks. What the subjects get from the arrangement is not

as clear.In recent years this issue has reared its head regularly in discussions about

ethics.Feeling this is not enough, some researchers do things for their subjects that bring more

tangible help such as sharing loyalties, advocating for them or assisting them with legal and

other problems(Liebow,1967;Lincoln,1995;Curry&Davis,1995).

2.2.6. Financial issues and sponsored research

In some cases,a sponsor of a particular research may demand some compromises on quality of

research to save money or time.In other cases,some unprofessional sponsors of research may

demand that the findings be reported in a distorted manner for their own selfish reasons. Alot

of researchers has fallen prey to such sponsors because of money and considerations of

promotion.An ethical researcher should never accept such compromise in order to protect his

or her integrity.Another aspect of finances that results in unethical conduct is when researchers

divert research funds for other purposes. This affects the quality of research and may also yield

misleading data. A good researcher should derive satisfaction from a good piece of research

done honestly and legally.

2.2.7. Dissemination of findings

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It is unethical to conceal research findings after completion of research.Some researchers may

decide not to reveal findings if they are contrary to their expectations,or their sponsor’s

expectations.A researcher should tell the truth when they get to do a right up and reporting the

findings.Although for ideological reasons one may not like the conclusions reached and may

also be put under pressure to show certain results that one’s data does not reveal,the most

important trademark of a researcher should be his or her devotion to reporting what the data

has revealed. Fabricating or distorting data is the ultimate sin of a scientist.For example,a

researcher may fail to reveal research findings if they are likely to affect certain policies

negatively,or an institution may want to keep the results if such results are likely to bring about

protests.If findings are sensitive,modalities of releasing them should be agreed upon rather

than shelving the findings completely. Some other situations pose difficult dilemmas because

they place the researcher in a position where his or her obligations as a researcher conflict with

those of being a good citizen. What is the ethical responsibility of researchers in these

cases(Taylor, 1987)?Researcher or not you should of course intervene and stop whatever is

going on which may ultimately interfere with your research. According to Punch (1994) a

researcher you have to know yourself, your values and your beliefs, and be familiar with the

principles other researchers have used in making such decisions.Other ethical issues are related

to publication of research findings.Every researcher should be aware of intellectual property

rights.For example, if a research was done jointly by a team of researchers,it would be unethical

for any participant then to publish the study as a personal effort without consulting the other

team members.The issue of first and second authors should be thoroughly discussed so that

everybody’s intellectual contribution is fairly recognized.

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2.2.8. Academic freedom

Academic freedom is the existence of an open and unrestricted atmosphere for the free

exchange of ideas and information. Academic freedom is very important in research because

the researcher must be free to discuss and publish findings without fear of intimidation, losing

jobs or being victimized. Researchers should be sensitized about their rights to academic

freedom and on issues of intellectual property.

2.3. Ethical issues concerning the research process

2.3.1. Ignoring pertinent issues in research

One of the methodological issues that have been debated in relation to ethics is the choice of

the topic.It is considered by many experts unethical to purposely avoid a pertinent research

issue for fear of repercussions or because of conflict of interest.A researcher is expected to be

honest in search of genuine research problems and should exercise academic freedom to

discuss any findings.

2.3.2. Ethical issues in experimental designs

In experimental designs,where control and treatment groups are used to provide meaningful

comparisons,some experts have seen the differential treatment among both groups as unfair

and unethical.In experimental studies,the treatment interventions,e.g. training,provision of

medicine etc. are given to the experimental group and not the control group.The reason is that

the researcher would like to see the effect of the intervention by comparing the experimental

group (which got the treatment)and the control group(which did not get the treatment).One

way of resolving this dilemma is by providing the same treatment to the control group after the

9
study.If resources cannot allow this,candid explanation of the research to the control group

may help reduce the feeling of unfairness.

2.3.3. Use of tests in research

Because of the school systems, which emphasize examinations and competition in many

countries,a lot of people become very anxious during tests or any kind of examinations.Some

experts have argued that subjecting respondents to tests is unethical due to discomfort and

anxiety experienced.It is the responsibility of the researcher to pick a data collection method

that is fairly free of anxiety.If tests are the most preferred method,the researcher should make

every effort to put the respondents at ease by proving relevant information and reassuring

them.

2.4. Ethical issues in management

An ethical issue is present in a situation when the actions of a person or organization may harm

or benefit others.Yet ethical issues can sometimes be exceedingly complex.People in

organizations may hold widely divergent views about the most ethically appropriate or

inappropriate actions related to a situation.Managers often face situations in which it is difficult

to determine what is right.In addition,they might be torn between their misgivings and their

sense of duty to hide their bosses and the organization.Sometimes,managers want to take a

stand but don’t have the backbone to go against others,bring unfavorable attention to them,or

risk their jobs.

2.5. Ethical issues in the workplace

According to (Mejia, Balkin&Cardy,2008) the workplace presents a variety of ethical challenges

to managers,teams,and employees. Examples of ethical dilemmas at work are:

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  performance appraisals

 employee discipline

 romantic relationships

 gift giving

 Fair hiring and justified terminations

 Opportunity for new skills

 Working conditions

 Honoring benefit provisions

2.5.1. Performance appraisals

This is a formal evaluation of an employee’s performance provided on a recurring

basis.Typically,an employee receives feedback regarding his or her strengths and weaknesses in

a document summarizing the employee’s performance over the period of evaluation,which is

usually one year.In most cases,the individual providing the performance appraisal is the

supervisor.In order to do an effective job at evaluation,the supervisor should devote substantial

time to collecting accurate performance information.This feedback will be used to let

employees know which skills they have mastered and those which require improvement.

Performance ratings are also used as the basis for pay increases,future work

assignments,promotions and sometimes layoffs.So it is crucial to collect accurate and fair

information.Managers who deliberately provide false or misleading information for reasons of

vengeance,dislike of subordinate, or racial or sexual discrimination are violating ethical and

legal standards.

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2.5.2. Employee discipline

One tool that managers use to change an employee’s behavior when it does not meet

expectations or when it is inappropriate is the discipline system.An example of a behavior that

fails to meet expectations is when an employee arrives late to work without a reasonable

excuse.An illustration of inappropriate employee conduct requiring immediate intervention

would be when colleagues as teachers in a school get engaged in a fight or verbally attack each

other.Supervisors can misuse discipline by making it a way to intimidate employees they do not

like or for retribution when an employee makes a mistake.When a supervisor uses employees

discipline for purposes of revenge rather than to correct an inappropriate behavior,the abuse of

power is of course unethical.

2.5.3. Office romance

Romance often blossoms in the workplace.People who spend time together are likely to

develop romantic feelings.Unfortunately,when a romantic relationship ends,as many of them

do,one partner may feel angry and abandoned.A broken relationship can be highly disruptive to

people who are simply trying to focus on work.Co-workers may even be drawn into the conflict

which can strain working relations if the unit requires a high degree of collaboration between

employees.Most institutions actually ban romantic relationships in the

workplace.However,many try to provide basic rules of conduct regarding office

romances.Employees should be sensitive not only to the feelings of the partner in the

relationship but also to co-workers and customers who may be affected by the couple’s

behavior.

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2.5.4. Giving gifts in the workplace

Gift giving routinely occurs in the workplace.Employees often exchange gifts with each other

during the Christmas holidays;managers give flowers to their secretaries on special occasions

these situations represent constructive gift giving to build relationship between people by

letting them know they are appreciated.In the school setting it may happen between a parent

and a teacher or a student and a teacher which may result in an ethical dilemma.A test of the

ethical appropriateness of accepting the gift would be to first think about how a manager or co-

worker would perceive the gift and the person who gave it.If you would feel uncomfortable

explaining the gift,the discomfort probably means it will be ethically problematic.

2.5.5. Opportunity for new skills

If your administrator or the head of department chooses who gets training either on/off the job

training in the institution it can run into ethical issues.Because training is an opportunity for

advancement and expanded opportunities,employees who are left out of training may argue

that they are not being given equal opportunities in the workplace.

The administratormust make certain to clarify the institutions reason behind its training

decisions so employees understand why specific individuals receive training when others don’t.

2.5.6. Working conditions

The administrator must work to maintain safety standards and clean working conditions for

employees based on occupational safety and Health administration requirements.Employees

also have the right to expect a workplace free of sexually suggestive signs or comments,and

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disabled employees must have access to the building,HR must make sure lighting and air quality

are adequate.

2.5.7. Honoring benefit provisions

Some institutions have reneged on promises they made regarding pensions programs.HR has an

ethical responsibility to make sure that any benefits offered to employees actually pay as

intended.This means monitoring the managed benefits as well as insurance companies to make

sure there are no financial problems that would shortchange employees.

2.5.8. Fair hiring ,treatment and justified termination

Hiring and termination decisions must be made without regard to ethnicity,race,gender;sexual

preference or religious beleifs.HR must take precautions to eliminate any bias from the hiring

and firing process by making sure such actions adhere to strict guided regulations. Employees

like to be treated with respect and not as value adding commodity or as a resource. By being

treated respectfully they gain in self-esteem, become happier and work better.(Gichure,2008)

2.6. Factors to consider for a manager to promote ethical principles

According to Hill &McShane the following are factors to consider in promotion of ethical

principles

2.6.1. Hiring and promotion

It seems obvious that institutions should strive to hire people who have a strong sense of

personal ethics and would not engage in unethical or illegal behavior.Similarly you would rightly

expect an institution to not promote people,and perhaps fire people,whose behavior does not

match generally accepted ethical standards.But when you think about it,doing so is

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difficult.How do you know that someone has a poor sense of personal ethics?In our society we

have an incentive to hide a lack of personal ethics from public view.Once people realize that

you are unethical,they will no longer trust you.Thereby institutions can give potential

employees psychological tests to try to discern their ethical predisposition,and they can check

potential employee’s references. People who have displayed poor ethics should not be

promoted in an organization where culture places a high value on the need for ethical

behavior,and where leaders act accordingly.

2.6.2. Organizational culture and leadership

To foster ethical behavior,institutions need to build an organizational culture that places a high

value on ethical behavior.Three things are particularly important in building an organizational

culture that emphasizes ethical behavior.First, educationalinstitutions must explicitly articulate

values that place a strongemphasis on ethical behavior.Many schools now do this by drafting a

code of ethics,which is a formal statement of the ethical priorities the said institution adheres

to.Others have incorporated ethical statements into documents that articulate the values or

mission of theinstitution a good example is cuea which in itself has a specified code of ethics

and a mission statement which acts as a guide on the values they uphold as an institution.

Having articulated values in a code of ethics or some other document,it is important that

managers i.e. principals and head teachersgive life and meaning tothose words by repeatedly

emphasizing their importance and then acting onthem.This means using every relevant

opportunity to stress the importance of practicing ethics and making sure that key decisions not

only make good economic sense but also are ethical.Many institutions have gone a step

15
further;hiring independent firms to audit the institution and make sure employees are behaving

in a manner consistent with their ethical code.

Finally,building an organizational culture that places a high value on ethicalbehavior requires

incentives and reward systems,including promotion systems,that reward people who engage in

ethical behavior and sanction those who do not.An example can be reviewing the performance

of managers, dividing them into several different groups whereby over performers who display

the right values are singled out for advancement and bonuses, and over performers who

displayed the wrong values are let go.

2.6.3. Decision-making process

In addition to establishing the right kind of ethical culture in an organization,managers of

educational institutions must be able to think through the ethical implications of decisions in a

systematic way.To do this they need a moral compass,which both rights theories and Rawls

theory of justice help to provide.Beyond these theories,some ethics experts have proposed a

straight forward practical guide-an ethical algorithm-to determine whether a decision is ethical.

2.6.4. Ethics Officers

To ensure that institution employees behave in an ethical manner,a number of firms now have

ethics officers.These are individuals who make sure that all employees are trained to be

ethically aware,that ethical considerations enter the decision-making process, and the

company’s code of ethics is adhered to. Ethics officers may also be responsible for auditing

decisions to make sure they are consistent with this code. In many businesses an ethics officer

acts as an internal ombudsperson-handling confidential inquiries from employees,investigating

16
complaints from employees or others, reporting findings, and making recommendations for

change.

2.6.5. Moral courage

It is important to recognize that on occasion managers may need significant moral courage.This

enables managers to walk away from a decision that is profitable but unethical.Moral courage

gives an employee the strength to say no to a superior that tells her or him to pursue actions

that are unethical.And moral courage gives employees the integrity to blow the whistle on

persistent unethical behavior in the institution. Moral courage does not come easily –there are

well known cases in which individuals have lost their jobs because they blew the whistle on

certain unethical behaviors and speaking out on what was happening.

2.7. Measures that managers can take to ensure that a climate of fairness and ethical

behavior is upheld

Managers and supervisors can influence their organizations climate of fairness and ethical

behavior by the tone they set for employees in their work units.

Specifically,managers and supervisors can:

 Take actions that develop trust,such as sharing useful information

Keeping promises made to employees

 Acting consistently so that employees are not surprised by unexpected management

actions or decisions.

 Being truthful and communicating clearly to employees

 Demonstrating integrity by keeping confidence and showing concern for others

17
 Meeting regularly with employees to discuss and define what is expected of them

 Ensuring that employees are treated equitably and that there is no favoritism

 Adhering to clear standards that are seen as just and reasonable

 Demonstrating respect towards employees

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Conclusion

In view of all these, ethical issues play a major role in professional development of any given

institution. These can be applied to make individuals aware of the underlying problems and

how to deal with them both in the research and management fields. Therefore as

administrators it is mandatory to keep in mind all the practices upheld in our institutions of

learning to improve and develop a conducive working environment for all.The research process

should also follow the required guidelines to help develop the country across all fields.

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Bateman&Snell(2004)Management:The New Competitive Landscape.New York:McGraw Hill

Daft.(2010)New Era of Management.Canada:Nelson Education Ltd.

Dessler,G (2010).A framework for Human resource management.6th edition.South Asia: Pearson

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Gichure.C.(2008)Ethics For Africa Today:An Introduction to Business Ethics:Nairobi:Paulines

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Hill &McShane(2009).Principles of Management.Glasgow:Great Britain.

Kisire.J(2010).SimpleRevisionManual:HumanResource Management.Nairobi:Kenya

Mejia.Balkin&Cardy(2008)Management.New York:McGraw Hill

Mugenda&Mugenda(2003)Quantitative and Qualitative Approches. Nairobi: Acts Press.

Reagan &Thomas(1976)Ethics for Scientific Research.Springfield:Ilinois

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