Instrumentation & Measurement

Lecture#2

Maliha Saleem Bakhshi

 Topics to be covered today
• Overview of the last lecture
• Accumulated Errors of measuring devices
 Example
The following resistance values of a platinum
resistance thermometer were measured
at a range of temperatures. Determine the
measurement sensitivity of the instrument
in ohms/°C.
 Measurement

Physical Measurement
phenomenon Output

Measurement output:
• interaction between a sensor and the environment surrounding the
sensor
• compound response of multiple inputs

Measurement errors:
• System errors: imperfect design of the measurement setup and the
approximation, can be corrected by calibration
• Random errors: variations due to uncontrolled variables. Can be
reduced by averaging.
Measurements
Heisenberg (1927): ”The momentum and position of a particle can
not both be precisely determined at the same time.”
Measuring activity disturbs the physical process (loading effect).
Measurement error:
That is the difference between the measured value and the true
value.
error = measured value - true value
Deterministic errors:
They are repeated at every measurement, e.g. reading offset or
bias. Such errors can be corrected by calibration.
Random errors:
They are caused by several parameters and change in time in an
unpredictable fashion. They can be quantified by mean errors,
standard Deviation.
Importance of effective measurement in process industry

Perhaps the best advice for engineering students is that

“instruments are always incorrect”!!!!.

This surprising statement is not intended to undermine reasonable

confidence in applications of sensors and valves. However, new
engineers sometimes tend to accept instruments as exactly correct
without evaluating the likely errors associated with their use.
Depending on the instrument, the process operating conditions and the
application, the instrument errors can be small enough to be
insignificant or can be large enough to seriously degrade control
performance. The engineer must evaluate each application during the
process design and select an appropriate instrument.
Failure to measure effectively the level of liquid
in bottom of the tower lead to

--- Fire

--- Explosion
Static Error

• Numerical differences between true value

of a quantity and its value as obtained by
measurement.

• Static errors are generally of three types;

1. Mistake or gross error (human mistakes)

2. Systematic errors (instrumental or
environmental errors)
3. Random or accidental errors (unknown)
 Sources of Error
• Elements within Instruments
• Atmospheric Conditions
• Loading Effect
Elements within Instruments
 Piston &Cylinder type pressure gauge
Draw signal flow diagram of this pressure gauge:
 Loading Effect
• The required energy for functioning of the
instrument is drawn from the measured
medium therefore the process of
measurement itself disturbs the parameter
being measured. This phenomenon is called
the “loading effect” of the instrument.
Mechanical Tachometer
Methods of minimizing or eliminating
the effects of error sources
• Backlash
• Friction
• Temperature
• Loading effect
• AC power lines
Temperature
 CALIBRATION
Assigning standard values to an equipment is calibration.

process of comparing an unknown against a

reference standard within defined limits, accuracies
and uncertainties
• Establishing the relation of an instrument’s
accuracy to the international standard
 CALIBRATION
As components age and equipment under goes
changes in temperature or humidity or sustains
mechanical stress, performance gradually
degrades. This is called drift. When this happens
your test results become unreliable and both
design and production quality suffer. While drift
cannot be eliminated, it can be detected and either
corrected or compensated for through the process
of calibration.
 CALIBRATION
A proper course of action must be defined which describes the
procedures to be followed when an instrument is found to be out
of calibration. The required action depends very much upon the
nature of the discrepancy and the type of instrument involved.
For example,
• Simple output bias can be corrected by a small adjustment
• Alternation of scale factor may be corrected by redrawing
the output scale or adjusting the amplification.

For the corrections mentioned above, the adjustment screws

must be sealed to prevent tampering. In extreme cases, where
the calibration procedure reveals signs of instrument damage, it
may be necessary to send the instrument for repair or even
replacement.
Calibration process
The purpose of calibration is to ensure that the measuring accuracy is
known over the whole measurement range under specified environmental
conditions for calibration.

Instrument to be
Instrument Output
Input (whole calibrated
measuring range)

Instrument of The input value

Higher Standard with known
accuracy

Ensure the
Environmental calibration is done
Conditions Standard
Instrument under the specified
(Modifying Inputs) environmental
conditions
Calibration of Instrument
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Instrument calibration has to be repeated at prescribed intervals
because the characteristics of any instrument change over a
period of time. Factors deciding the frequency of calibration:

• usage rate
• conditions of use
• skill level of personnel
• degree of accuracy expected
• costs of calibration

Maintaining proper records is an important part of fulfilling the

calibration function, which is very useful in providing a
feedback which shows whether the calibration frequency has
been chosen correctly or not.
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Traceability
National standard organization
As shown in Fig, calibration has a chain- (Primary reference standard)
like structure in which every instrument in
the chain is calibrated against a more
accurate instrument immediately above it in Standards laboratory
the chain. (Secondary reference standard)

The knowledge of the full chain of

instruments involved in the calibration Company instrument laboratory
procedure is known as traceability, and is (Working standard)
specified as a mandatory requirement in
satisfying the ISO 9000 standard.

Documentation must exist which shows Process instruments

that process instruments are calibrated by
standard instruments which are linked by a
chain of increasing accuracy back to Calibration Chain
national reference standards.
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 CALIBRATION
Properly calibrated equipment provides confidence that your
products/services meet their specifications.
Calibration:
 increases production yields
 optimizes resources
 assures consistency and
 ensures measurements (and perhaps products) are compatible
with those made elsewhere.
By making sure that your measurements are based on
international standards, you promote customer acceptance of your
products around the world. But if you're still looking to justify
that the cost of calibration does add value, you need to measure it