Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Size of proteins relative to other substances (proteins in GREEN) How many amino acids...? Speed of protein synthesis
INSIDE
2 at least Humans
700
PROBING PROTEINS
A numerical look at proteins
0.1 2
Diameter of a hydrogen atom
STRUCTURE AND MOVEMENT
4 4
are found in nature Prokaryotes (e.g. bacteria)
20 15
How proteins give structure to
organisms and help them move
TRANSPORT
How proteins carry substances 6
Globular protein
0.8
20
Ribosome
in human proteins
3000
Source: www.mhhe.com/physsci/chemistry/carey5e/Ch27/ch27-1-1.html, web.expasy.org/cgi-bin/protparam/ The_Pathway_of_Gene_Expression/Chapter_14._
protparam1?Q8WZ42@1-34350@ Translation%3A_Protein_synthesis
SIGNALLING
How proteins are involved in cell
signalling and communication
10 strength of different substances (PROTEINS IN GREEN)
Mitochondrion
300 1900
finding data
CATALYSIS
How, as enzymes, proteins 12 Carbon fibre
catalyse reactions (man made)
4000
Spider silk Putting this diagram together, we
Collagen triple helix found that different sources gave
real voices
Three people talk about their
interest in proteins
14 100 different numbers for the same thing.
Why don’t they match?
HIV Human egg Bird muscle 53 Well, data can be interpreted in
different ways, and estimates can be
100 000
made using different methods and/or
baseline data. Definitions matter, too
– different sources might define ‘size’
ONLINE or ‘strength’ differently.
1500
Wool High-tensile steel
Go to www.wellcome.ac.uk/bigpicture/
proteins for more teaching resources,
including extra articles, useful web links, lesson
200 (man made) Which should you choose? The source
itself is important – is it reliable?
ideas, curriculum links and more. You can Are the figures recent? How might
also download the PDF of this magazine and an organisation’s ‘agenda’ affect
subscribe to the Big Picture series. All measurements in nanometres (nm). Tensile strength (the force required to pull apart a substance), measured in megapascals (MPa). how it calculates and presents data?
Source: en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Cell_Biology/Introduction/Cell_size, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2846778/. Source: www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0011234
Wellcome Images
Collagen comes in different varieties, but arteries, and one of the thin
they all have the same basic structure: a layers of the cornea that made of microtubules (tube-shaped
sequence of three amino acids repeated protects our eyes. Altogether, Structural proteins such as polymers of the protein tubulin).
hundreds of times. The sequence is Gly- around one-third of all collagen are made in large Microtubules are very versatile and have
Pro-X, where Gly is glycine, Pro is often the protein in vertebrates is amounts, and any variation in evolved to work in a range of different
proline and X is usually a modified form of collagen. their make-up is very noticeable. ways. For example, microtubules form the
proline called hydroxyproline. This amino Collagen fibrils combine There are more than 30 different cytoskeleton, an internal scaffold in cells.
acid sequence allows the polypeptide chain with other materials in the genes for collagen in humans, and Microtubule structures are dynamic and
to fold into a helix (this is different from the extracellular matrix, which fills genetic mutations can weaken the are constantly being built, pulled apart
alpha helix seen in the secondary structure the space between cells in different structures supported by collagen. and rebuilt. Cilia of the bronchus of the respiratory tract.
of some proteins). Three collagen helices ways in different tissues. In bone, for Some mutations are fatal; others Cilia, thin rods that protrude from
then wind round one another to form a example, calcium phosphate crystals can cause problems such as slow the surface of cells, are bundles of species have microtubule, cilia and flagella
strong, stable collagen triple helix. These form in the gaps between collagen growth and bones that break microtubules. The most basic cilia move in proteins with very similar sequences
helices covalently bond with each other to fibres to harden it. easily. Brittle bone disease, or the ebb and flow of fluid outside the cell, and secondary structures. As such,
create fibrils, which can, in turn, be bundled Partially degraded collagen from ‘osteogenesis imperfecta’, arises sensing changes in the environment. Motile these proteins are ‘highly conserved’. In
into collagen fibres. the bones and skin of animals from mutations in one type of cilia can move fluid themselves instead prokaryotic cells such as bacteria, which do
The collagen triple helix is the most makes gelatine, which is the collagen (see ‘Real Voices’ on pages of just being moved by it. Millions of cilia not have a nuclear membrane, the flagellum
common protein structure in the body. substance that gives marshmallows 14–15 for more on this). move to sweep mucus up out of the lungs is made from a different protein called
It is found in bones and teeth, tendons, and sweets their squishy texture. Alterations to some other into the throat, removing inhaled dust and flagellin.
ligaments and cartilage, the walls of forms of collagen affect connective dead cells. Motile cilia and flagella are powered by
tissue. People with Ehlers–Danlos Flagella, which are larger, are also tightly tiny cellular machines, which are also made
syndrome, which is also caused by arranged bundles of microtubules. They from proteins. Molecular motors like this
a range of different mutations, may help cells move and can also be involved in move muscles, power cilia, shift cargo along
DISCUSS have very stretchy skin that bruises sensing the environment outside the cell. networks of microtubules inside the cell
easily and heals badly. Ehlers– Eukaryotes (cells with nuclei) from any and organise chromosomes for cell division.
Meaty issues Danlos syndrome can also cause
Discussing protein in the diet weakness in heart valves, weakness
in the walls of the bladder or
uterus, and floppy joints.
What’s your type?
Meat, fish, eggs, milk and Vegans do not eat anything most energy-efficient factory Questions
Some of these problems arise Proteins can be separated into broad groups
cheese contain proteins with derived from animals, which farming of meat. • Can you list three pros and
directly from changes in collagen
broadly the same amino acid means they have to get The search is on for three cons of using land to Fibrous proteins form long fibres and often (water-hating) parts facing the centre and
protein sequences. Others are
composition as those found in essential amino acids from supplements or substitutes for raise livestock? have repeated sequences of amino acids. the hydrophilic (water-loving) parts facing
caused by changes in the enzymes
our bodies. Digestion breaks other food sources. Some plant meat that could help humans • Are lab-grown burgers a They are insoluble in water. Structural the outside.
that alter some amino acids
these proteins down into foods – including soya, quinoa to avoid eating animals, ease promising innovation or an proteins, including collagen and keratin, Some proteins exist within cell
after the basic protein is made, a
amino acids, which are then and hemp – contain all the pressure on cropland or simply expensive diversion from are usually fibrous. They are found in the membranes. Read more about these on
process called post-translational
available for reuse in roughly essential amino acids. offer healthier alternatives – feeding the world? tough parts of organisms, such as bones, pages 7 and 10–11.
modification.
the proportions we need to Meat is an important source especially to red meat, which • Billions of people already beaks, claws, skin, hair and feathers. Conjugated proteins are those that
Those enzymes – that convert
build new proteins. of protein for many people includes saturated fat as well eat insects regularly. Would Structural proteins knit together in stable include non-protein parts, such as
proline to hydroxyproline or lysine
If particular amino acids around the world (see page 3). as protein. You can already buy you? Why? arrays, with lots of cross-links to hold haemoglobin. In the human form, this
to hydroxylysine – also depend on
are in short supply in our diet, The global appetite for it is meat substitutes made from a them together. protein has four polypeptide chains, each
vitamin C. Many of the symptoms
we can make some of them growing, which is putting more protein-rich fungus. In 2013, For more on this topic, see the Globular proteins include haemoglobin, arranged around a (non-protein) haem
of scurvy (vitamin C deficiency) are
from other molecules we eat. pressure on food production: the first burger grown from video at www.wellcome.ac.uk/ antibodies in mammals and most enzymes. group (read more on page 6).
seen in connective tissue. Leaky
However, humans cannot feeding crops to animals is cow stem cells was cooked and bigpicture/proteins. They tend to be soluble in water because
capillaries cause bleeding under
make ten so-called ‘essential’ much less efficient than eating eaten. Protein powder made their 3D structure has the hydrophobic
the skin, teeth come loose, and
amino acids, so they come only crops ourselves. For example, from farmed insects could also
wounds no longer heal.
from our diet. Essential amino the least energy-efficient plant be a protein source of
acids include phenylalanine food uses around one-tenth the future.
and tryptophan. as many fossil fuels as the
Shutterstock/Elnavegante
DISCUSS
Insulin is a small protein hormone that proinsulin, is snipped Hormone systems often act kinases regulate many outside the cell. However, some example. Several chemicals that
signals how much of the sugar glucose free by enzymes, leaving through a sequence in which interactions in cells. The mutations make it permanently inhibit BRAF show promise as
there is in the blood. It has also been central the small, soluble hormone the hormone binds to its insulin receptor, for example, active as a kinase, even without potential cancer treatments,
to the history of protein research. It was protein free to do its job. receptor on the outside of the operates by turning on a this signal. but they will need to be tested
discovered in the 1920s, and it was quickly People with type 1 diabetes cell to activate the enzyme protein kinase when insulin Some inborn mutations in in clinical trials before they can
used to treat patients with diabetes. It was make too little or no insulin inside the cell. This system binds. BRAF cause growth disorders. be used in hospitals.
the first protein to be sequenced, the first and are treated with the allows a signal carried by BRAF is a human gene that Some mutations, which
to be chemically synthesised and the first hormone. People with small amounts of a hormone contains the information to can also arise in individual
human protein to be made in engineered type 2 diabetes, which most to be amplified inside the make a protein called BRAF. cells later in life, can lead
bacteria. often appears in later life, cell. Typically, the enzyme BRAF is an enzyme that to uncontrolled cell growth
It has just 51 amino acids, arranged in have lost some degree involved, a kinase, adds a small regulates cell growth. To – cancer. The skin cancer
two chains linked by disulphide bonds. It of response to insulin. chemical group (a phosphate) be active, the BRAF protein melanoma is often associated
begins life as a much larger protein, which Their treatment initially onto another protein. Protein usually requires a signal from with BRAF mutations, for
helps the molecule fold into the right shape. focuses on diet.
Then a large fragment of the precursor,
Shutterstock/Valertyn Volkov
Calling adenosine triphosphate (ATP) making enzyme rotates 150 Enzymes, like inorganic chemical catalysts, Competitive inhibitors are molecules traces of metals such as iron, magnesium,
synthase an enzyme hardly does it justice. times a second. The cleverest cannot make new reactions happen, but that have a similar shape to the enzyme’s copper and zinc in our diet. Organic
True, it makes ATP, but the protein is an part is that these motors can be they speed them up enormously by lowering substrate, but do not react and instead block cofactors, known as coenzymes, often
impressive nanoscale machine – a complex thrown into reverse, and ATP the activation energy for the reaction. the active site. These competitive inhibitors come from vitamins and make up part of
of proteins consisting of a transmembrane can be hydrolysed to provide the Generally, enzymes are globular proteins, can make good drugs – and poisons. the enzyme’s active site. NAD is an
pump and two linked motors, which rotate. energy to pump protons against and they need the right conditions to do Many enzymes need a non-protein example of a cofactor, derived
Different forms of ATP synthase are an electrochemical gradient. their job. Substrate–enzyme binding often component called a cofactor to work. from niacin (vitamin B3).
found in bacteria and in the membranes This protein is fundamental depends on weak electrostatic forces and Some contain a metal atom held inside a
of mitochondria and plant chloroplasts, to living things. A person is easily disrupted by changes in acidity stable chemical structure, such as haem in
but the enzyme’s general mechanism is makes and recycles roughly (pH). Heat denatures proteins and destroys cytochrome 450, an enzyme that detoxifies Black-eyed beans are a good source of B vitamins,
conserved across organisms. As protons their body weight in ATP enzyme activity. chemicals in the liver. This is why we need including thiamin, niacin and riboflavin. iStock
cross the membrane, down a concentration every day.
gradient, one motor turns, driving an axle
that turns the other and producing ATP
in the process. The axle driving the ATP- Growing old too soon
Enzymes are involved in ageing
Enzymes that are inactive, or of the cell nucleus. Patients ZMPSTE24, is a complex about this unusual protein
Life on the edge Break it down! not active enough, are among typically suffer hair loss, joint transmembrane protein. structure may eventually help
Meet nature’s extremophiles The proteins that dispose of proteins many contributors to human problems and heart disease, and In 2013 a team of X-ray in the development of treatment
ageing. Progeria is a very rare usually die in their mid-teens. crystallographers solved its for progeria and also explain the
Proteins are generally sensitive to withstand the freezing temperatures Cells make proteins, but they must also exaggerated form of ageing. A major cause of progeria 3D structure, explaining how more gradual deterioration seen
Eye of Science/Science Photo Library
heat, but in recent decades bacteria of the Antarctic. Experiments by dispose of the unwanted, damaged or It is seen in children with is a defect in a protease that several mutations disable in normal ageing.
and other organisms that survive in NASA showed it is also able to misfolded ones. In eukaryotic organisms, inadequate supplies of lamin, completes the production the enzyme and bring on
extreme conditions have been found. tolerate the high vacuum and intense some protein degradation happens in a fibrous protein that is vital of lamin from its precursor, the symptoms of one type of
These ‘extremophiles’ need specially radiation of space. The water bears special bags of enzymes called lysosomes for maintaining the structure prolamin. The protease, progeria. Understanding more
adapted enzymes so they can carry survive thanks to an unusually large inside the cells, and some in a big protein
out essential reactions. Thermophiles repertoire of heat shock proteins – complex that floats free in the cell, the
thrive in high temperatures. One so named because they were first proteasome. The proteasome stops DISCUSS
example is the bacterium Thermus discovered as part of cells’ response to proteases attacking everything in the cell by
aquaticus, first isolated from the heat stress. Most organisms produce containing them in a protein assembly. well digested
scalding hot springs of Yellowstone some of these, and they have a general The proteins destined for destruction Digestive enzymes can be useful
Park. Its enzymes work normally at role in protecting other proteins. are tagged with a small protein named
the temperature of a hot cup of tea. Many are chaperone ubiquitin, which is found in all eukaryotic
The polymerase chain reaction proteins, which cells and has an identical sequence in all We make proteins by breaking down Digestive enzymes are useful in dioxide emissions by being used in place of
(PCR), which is widely used in help to stabilise animal species. Enzymes recognise proteins the ones we eat, then building new ones industry. Researchers have discovered fossil fuels. However, the potential impact
laboratories to amplify small newly formed that are no longer required and tag them. from their component amino acids. This enzymes in bacteria that can digest wood on forests of large-scale biofuel production
samples of DNA, uses cycles of protein There is also a more drastic process of breaking down is digestion, and lots to produce liquid biofuel. Biofuels are fuels remains to be seen.
heating and cooling to separate chains. self-digestion: programmed cell death, or of enzymes contribute. Proteases, for made from living matter, such as trees or
and rejoin DNA double helices. Closer apoptosis. This involves the activation of instance, hydrolyse (break) the peptide cereal crops. At its most efficient, biofuel is Questions:
The synthesis of new DNA, which to home, a whole set of enzymes, mainly proteases, bonds in protein. carbon neutral because the carbon dioxide • Describe three other ways that enzymes
produces the amplification, needs a our stomach that degrade large molecules and destroy Some proteases are very specific and do released when the fuel burns was absorbed are used in industrial settings.
DNA polymerase enzyme that can contents are the structure inside a cell. Apoptosis is more than food digestion. Several viruses, from the atmosphere relatively recently, • How should we decide how much land
withstand high temperatures. The kept at a pH triggered by various kinds of cell damage, as including HIV and poliovirus, use some during the life of the plant. to use for biofuels and how much to use
answer was to use Taq polymerase low enough to cells can be sacrificed for the greater good of of their proteases to produce finished In theory, using the woody parts of for food production?
from Thermus aquaticus. kill most cells and the organism. It also occurs in development protein products from larger precursor plants and crop waste would enable biofuel
A microscopic animal called the denature enzymes, when there is large-scale cell loss (e.g. when polypeptides. Insulin, as mentioned on to be produced without competing with
water bear (Milnesium tardigradum, but our digestive the webbing between a growing fetus’s page 10, is produced in the same way. food production – and reduce carbon
right) can withstand prolonged drying proteases operate happily in this fingers disappears).
out and is a psychrophile – it can acidic soup.
What do you do? hypothesis and seeing where it Teachers’ advisory board: Peter Anderson,
What do you do? snapped my collarbone. How did you start weightlifting? How often do you train?
Paul Connell, Emma Cresswell-Maynard,
I’m a high school student and leads you. I used to be a language teacher, I started when I was 11, at secondary I train about five times a week.
Alison Davies, Helen English, Ian Graham,
the inventor of a test to detect but I am now working in Are there any treatments? school. I hold a few British records I’m not funded [by British Weight Stephen Ham, Kim Hatfield, Jaswinder
pancreatic cancer. When might the test be marketing and PR. I’m also There is no known cure, for my age category and for my Lifting] at the moment, so I work Kaur, Pauline Newnham, Robert Rowney,
available? doing some acting – I’m quite but there are a few drugs weight category, and I’ve competed full time as a classroom assistant at Jonathan Schofield
How does your test work? Right now I’m in talks with busy! I’m 27 and currently (bisphosphonates) that can be internationally for Great Britain and a primary school. Going from being
I’ve created a novel paper sensor biotechnology companies to living in London. taken to increase bone density. for England. funded and able to train twice a day Advisory board: Iraj Ali, Fabia Allen,
made from ordinary filter get the strip made more quickly Curvature of the spine can to working full time and trying to Hannah Baker, Liz Carpenter, David
paper, single-walled carbon and uniformly so it can get Carr, Stephen Curry, Lydia Harriss, Alex
What is brittle bone disease? often be rectified by putting How do people react? squeeze training in around work is
Johnstone, Wen Hwa Lee, Ross MacFarlane,
nanotubes and an antibody to to clinical trials. It takes a lot It’s a genetic disorder that rods into the back, which Most of the time, the reaction is quite hard – but I choose to do it.
Ann Mills-Duggan, Giles Newton, David
mesothelin, a protein biomarker longer to get from ‘proof of affects type I collagen in I’ve had done. I’ve also got shock, mainly because I’m only 4’ 8”. Ron, Louise Stubberfield, Thomas Sorenson,
for pancreatic, ovarian and concept’ to a finished product the body and is also known telescopic rods in my legs to I also often get asked if weightlifting Is it a male-dominated sport? Sabrina Taner
lung cancers. I dipped the filter than I imagined! as osteogenesis imperfecta. support them and to correct is the reason I’m so small, but it’s not. Yes. Women didn’t compete in the
paper into a mixture of the There is a lot of collagen in any bowing. My height’s an advantage. Usually Olympics until 2000. In the 14 years Wellcome Trust: We are a global charitable
antibody and nanotubes, let it What are you working on now? our skeleton so it causes us to the best shape for weightlifters is since, though, the standard of female foundation dedicated to achieving
dry, and repeated until there I want to diagnose a variety have very low bone density and What’s the most difficult short everything: short arms, short lifting has rocketed. There are extraordinary improvements in human and
was a coating on the paper. I of diseases easily, quickly and animal health. We support the brightest
fragile bones. thing? legs and short body. women out there who are outlifting
minds in biomedical research and the
then measured the conductivity. economically. I also want Owing to multiple fractures, Analysing everything I do men. 2012 has opened people’s eyes to medical humanities. Our breadth of support
After mesothelin was applied to develop my sensor to test people with the condition and reducing all the risks. If Which category are you in? new sports. includes public engagement, education
to the sensor, the mesothelin more diseases. I’m a junior in usually have stunted growth. I’m going out for drinks with I’m in the lightest bodyweight and the application of research to improve
bonded with the antibody and high school so have two years This happens because when friends, I have to think: how category (48 kg), but I’m light for my What’s next for you? health. We are independent of both political
pushed the nanotubes apart. before college. This year will you’re constantly fracturing, am I going to get there? What class at 45 kg. Usually girls in this The 2014 Commonwealth Games will and commercial interests.
This changed the conductivity be busy because I’m taking a the body needs to attend to the happens if they don’t have a class train around 50 kg and then lose be the biggest chance I’ve ever had to
and could be measured with lot of advanced classes, taking fracture before it can continue disabled toilet? What happens the last 2 kg over a couple of weeks perform on the international stage, The future of science depends on the quality of
an ohmmeter that measures important exams, researching science education today.
to grow. The new bone that if there is a flight of stairs? to compete. The heavier you are, the so I’m working really hard and trying
electrical resistance. my projects, travelling and grows back is very weak and So I do have to do a lot of more you lift, so if you’re training to keep things quiet. All images, unless otherwise indicated, are
speaking. can also be deformed, causing planning for even the simplest heavy then you’re training better. I’m from Wellcome Images
Why pancreatic cancer? bowing of the arms and legs. of activities. constantly trying to put weight on. Find out more at (images.wellcome.ac.uk).
When I was in middle school, a What’s the best advice you Usually we have scoliosis, I’m quite eager to make www. britishweightlifting.org Big Picture is © the Wellcome Trust 2013
close family friend passed away have? which is a curvature of the sure that people view disabled Do you eat lots of protein? and is licensed under Creative Commons
from pancreatic cancer. I didn’t Read widely and brainstorm spine. That can push on our people as integral to society. A mistake a lot of people make when Attribution 2.0 UK. ISSN 1745-7777.
even know what a pancreas a lot! The best advice I’ve heart and lungs. I’ve always been very positive weight training is to overload on Cartoon illustrations are © Glen McBeth.
was, so I turned to the Internet been given is to patent your and achieved a lot in my life – protein thinking that it’s going to
to find out. The statistics I idea before you speak about How does it affect you? in spite of the fact that I’ve had help them build massive muscles, This is an open access publication and, with
found shocked me, and I was it publicly. If a 15-year-old I’ve got type III osteogenesis to battle a lot due to my health, but your body is only going to use the exception of images and illustrations,
determined to find a better way who didn’t even know what imperfecta, which means that and because we don’t live in so much. The thing I eat most of the content may unless otherwise stated
of diagnosing the disease so a pancreas was can create a be reproduced free of charge in any format
I’m a full-time wheelchair user. a world that is designed for is complex carbohydrates, as that’s
or medium, subject to the following
people could have the cancer sensor to detect cancer using I’ve had approximately 200 disabled people. what’s going to help me put on
conditions: content must be reproduced
detected earlier when they the Internet, just imagine what breaks in my life. They actually weight, but protein straight after accurately; content must not be used in a
would have a better chance of you can do! We need to remove started in the womb, when my Find out more at training is what helps you build the misleading context; the Wellcome Trust
survival. obstacles to learning by having mum was carrying me. When I www.brittlebone.org muscle once you’ve broken it down in must be attributed as the original author and
open access to journal articles was a baby I would fracture up training. the title of the document must be specified
What was the best part of and scientific knowledge so kids to a few times a week. There’s in the attribution.
making the test? like me can create and innovate. no indication when I’m going Chocolate is my weakness. I’m
Working in the lab and learning The Wellcome Trust is a charity registered
to break: I’ve been tipped out not really bothered about junk
in England and Wales, no. 210183. Its sole
from the scientists there. The Find out more at of my chair onto a pavement food, but every single day I find
trustee is The Wellcome Trust Limited, a
process of science is the most www.jackandraka.net and nothing’s happened to me, myself thinking ‘I really want some company registered in England and Wales,
fun part – just testing your but I’ve rolled over in bed and chocolate’! no. 2711000 (whose registered office is at 215
Euston Road, London NW1 2BE, UK).
PU-5689/23K/10–2013/JS
MORE ONLINE: www.wellcome.ac.uk/bigpicture/proteins
Are you a teacher in the UK? If so, you can order a class set. Email publishing@wellcome.ac.uk ISSUE 18 | SUMMER 2013
BRINGING CUTTING-EDGE SCIENCE INTO THE CLASSROOM
Name:
Job title:
Organisation:
Address:
Email address: