Journal oi' Strength and Conditioning Research, 2007. 21(3).

793-800
1) 2007 National Strength & Conditioning Association

NONFUNCTIONAL OVERREACHING DURING

OFF-SEASON TRAINING FOR SKILL POSITION
PLAYERS IN COLLEGL\TE AMERICAN FOOTBALL
CHRISTOPHER A. MOORE AND ANDREW C . FRY
Human Performance Laboratories, Department of Health and Sport Sciences, The University of Memphis,
Memphis, Tennessee 38152.

ABSTRACT. Moore, C.A., and A.C. Fry. Nonfunctional overreach- cently, 2 different types of overreaching have been de-
ing during off-season training in skill position players in colle- fined: "functional" and "nonfunctional" (15). Functional
giate American football. J. Strength Cond. Res. 21(3)-.793-800. overreaching occurs when an increase in the training
2007.—The purpose of this study was to determine the perfor- stresses results in a supercompensation effect. In other
mance and hormonal responses to a 15-week off-season training
program for American football. Nine skill position players from words, once the athlete is permitted a brief recovery from
a National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I-A tbe high training stresses, he or she rebounds and ends
football team participated as subjects in this study. Following 4 up with even greater performance capability. On the oth-
weeks of weight training (phase I), subjects performed weight er band, nonfunctional overreaching results when the
training concurrently with high-volume conditioning drills athlete suffers from short-term performance decrements
(phase II). Phase III consisted of 15 spring football practice ses- and can return only to baseline performances even after
sions executed over a 30-day period. Performance and hormonal reduced training.
changes were assessed prior to phase I, and following phases I,
II, and III, Maximal strength was significantly increased (p < The most obvious sign of a maladaptive response to
0,05) for all strength tests during phase I. Squat and power clean training is the previously noted decrement in perfor-
values decreased following phase II ip < 0.05}, with all values mance (7, 18). As such, it is critical that athletes and
returning to baseline upon completion of phase III, Sprinting coaches monitor key markers of performance during the
speed significantly worsened during phase I (p < 0.05), but then course of the training year. However, another potentially
returned to baseline during phase III. Vertical jump and agility beneficial indicator of maladaptation is the hormonal re-
improved during phase I (p < 0.051, with vertical jump remain- sponse to training, which has been documented as a valid
ing unchanged for the duration of the study and agility return-
ing to baseline following phase II. Testosterone levels decreased indicator of training status (6, 8, 10, 18). Specifically, the
during phase II {p < 0,05) prior to returning to baseline levels relationship between cortisol and testosterone has been
during phase III, Cortisol and the testosterone/cortisol ratio re- used as a marker of catabolic and anabolic activity during
mained unchanged during the course of the investigation. Even periods of elevated training volume-loading (1, 6, 18). As
though overtraining did not occur in the current investigation, tbe relative training stress increases, the testosterone/
a significant maladaptation in performance did occur subse- cortisol ratio decreases (6, 18). By closely monitoring per-
quent to phase II. For this particular athletic population, a formance variables, as well as the testosterone/cortisol ra-
strength and conditioning program utilizing a reduced training tio, the onset of overreaching and the potential for the
volume-load may prove more effective for improving perfor- development of the overtraining syndrome may be opti-
mance in the future.
mally assessed.
WORDS, overtraining, testosterone, cortisol, strength, speed, An athlete's performance status and training history
agility may determine his or her response to periods of increased
training volume-load. Due to relatively higher training
demands, advanced athletes with longer training histo-
INTRODUCTION ries may be more susceptible to developing the extreme,
common topic in the strength and condition- long-term symptoms of the overtraining syndrome. For
'"g community is overtraining. Specifically, the vast majority of athletes with shorter training histo-
the overtraining syndrome is a maladaptation ries, overreaching is the most likely cause of maladapta-
to an inappropriately high training volume- tion following highly stressful periods of training. This is
load, resulting in a long-term decrement in due to a relatively lower training volume-load that is re-
performance, poor motivation, or body-weight loss (7, 15, quired to stimulate increases in performance.
16, 18). Such symptoms of overtraining may be so persis- In addition to the duration of maladaptation, another
tent, the athlete may not return to a competitive level of clear distinction between overreaching and overtraining
performance for months (3-5, 15) or possibly longer. Al- is that overreaching is not always developed unintention-
though its development is well documented and relatively ally. Overreaching is often utilized as a means of improv-
severe (3, 11, 15, 17, 18), the true manifestation of the ing short-term performance (7, 16). Following a period of
overtraining syndrome in athletes is rare. "Overreach- acutely increased training volume-load, the training de-
ing", which often is perceived as overtraining, is defined mand is greatly reduced, or tapered (19), allowing a su-
as a short-term and far less severe maladaptation to an percompensation in performance to occur (19). For ad-
acutely increased training volume-load (7, 11, 15, 18), vanced athletes, periods of overreaching may be essential
Once the acutely increased training stimulus is reduced, for producing further improvements in performance fol-
there is a subsequent return to baseline of various mal- lowing years of sustained training. Moreover, this need
adaptive symptoms such as performance decrement. Re- for planned overreaching in more advanced athletes may

793
794 MOORE AND FRY
? 1
Phase 1 Phase II
(D
Weight Training Weight Training A Spring Footbaii
only and Mom ing
II•
(4 Weeks) 1 Conditioning
1 (5 Weeks)
t t
Test
Test
M
Tes
u
FIGURE 1. Study timeline.
be the likely cause of the elevated risk for developing the
overtraining syndrome, as previously discussed. Howev-
er, for less advanced athletes with relatively short train-
ing histories, such training strategies may be unneces-
sary or detrimental.
At this point, based upon the available literature, it is
uncertain as for which specific populations overreaching
may be an effective training strategy. In order to better
understand the overreaching response, the current study
was performed to assess how well a group of amateur
athletes react to a period of increased training volume-
load, followed hy a subsequent period of decreased train-
ing volume-load. More specifically, the purpose of the cur-
rent investigation was to determine the performance and
hormonal responses to a period of planned overreaching
within the context of an off-season training program for
American football.
The resistance exercise training program was de-
signed entirely by the football team's strength and con-
ditioning staff, whereas the conditioning program was de-
signed primarily by the sport-specific football coaching
staff. The role of the research team was simply to monitor
performance and the associated hormonal responses dur-
ing key phases of the training program as training vol-
ume-load was manipulated. It was the hypothesis of the
research team that planned overreaching as utilized by
the coaching staff in this particular instance, although
potentially effective in some highly trained populations,
may prove an ineffective training strategy given the rel-
atively short training history of the current population.
METHODS
Experimental Approach to the Problem
A quasi-experimental time-series design was used for this
study. In order to address the purpose of the current in-
vestigation, a 15-week off-season American football train-
ing program was utilized (Figure 1). The first 9 weeks of
training (phases I and II) consisted of a strength and con-
ditioning program designed by the team's strength and
conditioning staff. The football coaching staff was present
for all training sessions during phases I and II. The re-
search team served only to make observations as to the
efficacy of the training program. Phase III corresponded
with spring football practice and was executed by the
football coaching staff. Descriptive, performance, and hor-
monal data were collected prior to the start of phase I, as
well as upon the completion of phases I, II, and III. Dur-
ing phase I (4 weeks) only resistance training was per-
formed. During phase II (5 weeks), resistance training
was performed in conjunction with morning conditioning
8 drills. Upon completion of phase II, a 2-week unloading
period, consisting of 1 week of training abstinence and 1
week of only light conditioning, was allowed. Following
£ the unloading period, the final phase (III) of training was
Phase III
completed.
•
* Subjects
(4 Weeks)
Nine skill position players from a National Collegiate
Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I-A football team
1
served as subjects during this investigation. Skill position
in the current study may be defined operationally as
i those players at the running back, defensive back, free
safety, wide receiver, and quarterback positions. Of the
subjects, 2 were entering their sophomore season, 5 were
entering their junior season, and 2 were incoming seniors
on the squad. Five of the subjects were entering spring
practice as nonstarters, whereas 4 subjects were consid-
ered starters or "first string." All subjects participated in
this investigation subsequent to written informed consent
approved by University's Institutional Review Board.
It is appropriate to note that obtaining representative
data in a complex sport such as American football pre-
sents a host of logistical and compliance issues. Given the
circumstances of the current investigation and the quality
of the resulting data, the authors think that the 9 sub-
jects who completed the investigation represent a suffi-
cient sample size to accurately portray the performance
and physiological responses to training in these skill po-
sitions.
Weight Training Program During Phases I and II
The strength and conditioning staff monitored all train-
ing sessions and provided summarized weight training
data for each subject. Subjects performed 4 weight train-
ing sessions per week during phases I and II. In session
1, subjects performed the following exercises: back squat,
front squat, power clean, barbell lunge, crunches, and
back extensions. During session 2, subjects performed the
following exercises: bench press, push press, power shrug,
pull-ups, dips, and crunches. For session 3, subjects per-
formed the following exercises: power clean, back squat,
overhead squat, barbell lunge, crunches, and back exten-
sions. Finally, during session 4 subjects performed the
following exercises: incline bench press, power shrug,
close grip bench press, dumbbell military press, chin-ups,
dips, and crunches. Based upon the loading parameters
prescribed during each training session, the following
training variables were calculated: (a) mean intensity—
the average training load lifted during all repetitions dur-
ing the training week; (b) training volume-load—the ab-
solute training load multiplied by the number of repeti-
tions for each training week; and (c) coefficient of varia-
tion—this measure was modified from its original use
with endurance athletes (2). The coefficient of variation
in the current investigation refers to dividing the stan-
dard deviation of the volume-load by the mean volume-
load for each resistance-training phase.
Figures 2 and 3 illustrate the mean intensity and
training volume-load for the weight training program
during phases I and II, whereas Table 4 lists the coeffi-
cients of variation describing the variability of training
volume-load. These data illustrate a relatively simple pe-
riodization scheme featuring an inverted relationship be-
tween training volume-load and mean intensity; with
training volume-load peaking during week 1 of phase I.
During week 1, subjects performed an average of 5 sets
 NONFUNCTIONAL OVT-RREACHING DURING OFF-SHASON TRAINING FOR COLLEGIATE FOOTBALL PLAYERS
Mean Intensity
110
FIGURE 2. Mean interiHity for phases I and II (average load
lifted in kg; mean ± SD).
Volume Load
50000
45000
40000
35000
30000
25000
FIGURE 3. Volume-load for phases I and II (repetitions x
load; mean ± SD).
of 10 repetitions on all core exercises with an average
intensity of approximately 769f of 1 repetition maximum
(lRM). Average intensity was increased gradually over
the course of phases I and II until reaching approximately
92.5% of lRM by week 9, where following a progressive
warm-up, a final set of 2 repetitions was performed for
all core exercises.
Phase II Conditioning Program
At the onset of phase II, conditioning sessions were per-
formed 3 days per week (14 total sessions) for 1.25 hours
per session concurrent with the ongoing weight-training
program. The initial 15 minutes of each session consisted
of warm-up drills and preactivity stretching. Suhjects
then were divided into gi'oups that rotated through 7 dif-
ferent exercise stations. Each group spent 3 minutes at
each station hefore advancing to the next station. Once
all stations were completed, 8-10 repetitions of 75-yd
sprints were performed at full speed. The following is a
detailed representation of the conditioning session.
Warm-up
The following warm-up exercises were performed: fa) 1
minute of alternating arm swings; (b) 1 minute of alter-
nating arm swings with alternating high knee lifts; (c) 3-
point stance starts, 2 sets of 2 repetitions followed by a
795
third repetition where the subject followed with arm
swings and alternating high knee lifts; (d) form running
for 30 yds at various intensity levels, but never at full
speed, for 4 sets; and (e) various stretches were performed
for the lower back, hamstrings, quadriceps, and groin, in-
cluding standing straddle (right leg, left leg, and both
legs), standing squat, seated "V" (straddle; right leg, left
leg, and both legs), seated with legs straight (first grab-
bing ankles, then toes), seated butterfly stretch (drawing
the heels into the groin), lying hamstring stretch (supine
position, arching the foot toward the head), and forward
static lunge.
Conditioning Stations
All subjects completed the following tasks:
Hoop Drill. Two hoops approximately 8 ft in diameter
were placed in a figure 8 position. The subjects ran a fig-
ure 8 pattern while staying as low to the ground aw pos-
sible and accelerating as quickly as possible through the
finish.
Bag Jumps. Blocking bags approximately 1 ft high
were used for this drill. The subject had to complete as
many double foot jumps as possible laterally across the
bag within 15 seconds. After 15 seconds, the player
sprinted 5 yds around a cone, then return to the original
starting point.
Poifit Wave Drill. The subject began on all fours and
sprinted about 5 yds to complete agility work (i.e., moving
laterally on all fours, rolling either direction, as well as
falling flat on the ground). The subject popped up and
sprinted to the next coach about 5 yds away for footwork
drills, then was released and sprinted back to the starting
point.
Shuttle Run. The subjects ran sprints of 5, 10, and 15
yds, each time returning immediately to the starting
point.
5-Point Drill. The subject hopped across a mat with 5
dots. The arrangement of the dots was 2-1-2. The subject
had to hop on the first 2 dots with both feet, hop to the
single dot on 1 foot, then hop to the remaining 2 dots with
both feet. The subject completed 3 cycles: down, back, and
down. The player then turned laterally and completed
foot chops across a mat divided into 10-12 sections, en-
suring that each foot hit each section. The subject then
sprinted 5 yds to the next coach, who sent the subjects
back to the starting point.
Lateral Bag Drill. Seven blocking bags were set aside,
3 ft apart. The subject performed various agility drills
consisting of laterally moving over the hags, while stajang
as low as possible to the ground, weaving in and out
around the bags, or doing alternate leg bounds through
the bags (running straight and at maximal speed).
2-Point Wave Drill. This drill is like the 4-point wave
drill, except the subject began on two feet instead of on
all fours.
Sprints. Upon completion of the conditioning drills,
full-speed 75-yd sprints were performed with 1-minute
rest intervals.
Phase III Spring Football Practice
Following 1 week of training cessation in the form of
spring break, in addition to 1 week of training that con-
sisted of only light calisthenics, phase III of the off-season
program began. In accordance with NCAA regulations at
the time of data collection, 15 practice sessions were per-
formed during a 30-day period. Specific detail regarding
these practice sessions may be found in Tables 2 and 3.
796 MooKK AND F R Y

Performance Testing TABLE 1. Volume of work performed during winter condi-

tioning sessions.
The performance tests utilized in the current investiga-
tion were considered to be routine markers of perfor- Drill Sets per subject per session
mance commonly employed by strength and conditioning Hoop drill 3.1
professionals in the sport of American football. Perfor- Bag jumps 3.4 (21-ft. contacts per set)
mance was assessed during multiple tests located at the 4-pt. wave drill 3.1
beginning of phase I, as well as at the end of phases I, II, Shuttle run 3.2
and III. The following tests were performed: 5-pt. dot drill 5.4
Physical Measures. Body weight and body composition Lateral hag drill 4.5
were assessed at the beginning and end of the study only. 2-pt. wave drill 4.0
75-yd sprints 8-10
Body composition was estimated using a Skyndex com- Total drills per session 34.7-36.7
puterized 3-site skinfold caliper (Caldwell, Justiss & Co.,
Fayetteville, AR) using the Jackson-Pollouk formula (9).
Muscular Strength. Maximal strength for lRM was
determined for the bench press, parallel back squat, and TABLE 2. Practice time per week during spring football.
the power clean exercises. Week Time (hr:min) Notes
Sprinting Speed. Forty-yard sprints were measured 1 + 18 play scrimmage
with an electronic timing system. All sprints were per- 9:24
2 4:25 4- First full scrimmage
formed indoors on artificial turf The better of 2 trials was 3 5:45 + 20 play and second ful! scrimmage
recorded and was used during data analysis. Results are 4 3:25 + Spring scrimmage (spring game)
reported to the nearest 0.01 second. Total 22:59
Vertical Jump Height. Jump height was measured us-
ing a Vertec vertical jump-testing device (Sports Perfor-
mance, Inc., Columbus, OH). A countermovement jump Analysis of the Training Program
was performed using no approach steps. The best of 3
trials was recorded and was used during data analysis. Relationships between changes in lRM strength and
Agility. A 20-yd pro-agility run was performed using changes in performance measures (i.e., sprints, jumps,
an electronic timing system (13). The test began with the agility, foot quickness) were calculated for phases I and
subject in the power position or 3-point stance. When II. Result gain scores (19) were calculated for each train-
cued, the subject sprinted laterally 5 yds, and then quick- ing variable as follows:
ly reversed direction for a 10-yd sprint. After the 10-yd Gain in performance
sprint, the subject quickly reversed direction again before Result gain ^
sprinting back to the original starting point. The better SD for the entire group
of 2 trials was recorded and was used during data anal- The transfer of improvements from one training exercise
ysis. Results are reported to the nearest 0.01 second. to a performance measure was determined using a so-
called transfer index (TI) (19) and was calculated as fol-
Serum Hormones lows:
Resting concentrations of total testosterone and cortisol Result gain in nontrained exercise
were determined from serum samples collected from a su- TI =
Result gain in trained exercise
perficial antecubital vein. Prior to resting sampling, all
subjects had access to fiuid intake ad libitum to ensure The TI permits one to analyze the effectiveness of certain
sufficient hydration. Samples were collected at the same exercises as they relate to sport-specific measures (i.e.,
time of day to avoid diurnal variations in hormone levels. 40-yd sprint, vertical jump).
In addition, samples remained frozen at - 8 0 " C until an-
alyzed, when they were thawed only once to prevent Statistical Analyses
freeze-thaw damage. Hormonal concentrations were de- In addition to previously mentioned analysis procedures
termined with enzyme immunoassays. The testosterone such as coefficient of variation, 1-way repeated measures
assay (DSL-10-4000; Diagnostic Systems Laboratories, analyses of variance were used to compare mean data val-
Webster, TX) had a sensitivity of 0.1388 nmolL ', where- ues. Fisher's least significant difference post hoc analyses
as the cortisol assay had a sensitivity of 2.76 nmol-L'. were performed when a significant mean difference was
All samples for each hormone were analyzed in duplicate found. Significance was set at p ^ 0.05.
during the same assay, thereby avoiding any interassay
variance. Intra-assay variance for duplicate samples was RESULTS
2.3% for testosterone and 0.9% for cortisol. Resulting con- As previously mentioned, mean intensity and training
centrations were determined from quartic regression volume-load data from phases I and II for the weight
analyses using Log-Lin axes (testosterone, r'^ ^ 0.999; cor- training program may be found in Figures 2 and 3, re-
tisol, r^ ^ 0.999). spectively, whereas coefficient of variation data describ-
In addition to absolute concentrations of testosterone ing the variation in training volume-load may be found
and cortisol, the testosterone/cortisol ratio (T/C) was cal- in Table 4. Table 1 reports the average volume of work
culated. It has been proposed that this measure is indic- performed during the conditioning sessions. A relatively
ative of total anabolic/catabolic activity (1, 6, 18), making large volume of work was performed in a relatively short
it a useful marker of training stress. Values of <0.035 period of time (ranging from 34.7-36.7 sets per hour). Ta-
and decreases of >30'?f (1) have heen suggested as indic- bles 2 and 3 report the amount of time spent on various
ative of an overtrained state in endurance athletes (12) aspects of spring football practice. The low average values
and some strength athletes (8), but have not always been for CV indicate low levels of variability throughout phas-
apparent for all strength athletes (5). es I and II (see Table 4). Table 5 lists the TIs for the lower
 NONFUNCTIONAL OVERREACHING DURING OFF-SEASON TRAINING FOR COLLEGIATE FCXITBALL PLAYERS 797

TABLE 3. Distribution of practice during spring football. Squat

Type of practice Time (hr:minl 240

Helmets and shorts only 4:23
Full pads 14:04
Half pads 3:35
'•''• Plus scrimmage.

TABLE 4. Coefficient of variation (SD/mean) for volume-load

for weight training.
Subject Pbase I Pbase II
1 8.4
2 11.1 10.9
3 11.7 12.0
4 8.7 9.5
5 7.7 8.3
6 11.8 12.2 FIGURE 5. Squat 1 repetition maximum (kg; mean ± SD);
7 11.1 23.7 * Significantly greater than test 1, p < 0.05; + Significantly
8 25.3 23.5 lower tban test 2, p < 0.05; • Significantly lower than test 3,
9 7.3 7.7 p < 0.05,
Average 11.4 12.9

5. Average transference index values for all subjects

during pbases I and IL Only tbe squat and power clean exercises Power Clean
were used.
140
Training Testing
exercise Phase I Phase II
Squat 40-yd sprint -0.85 -0.34
Vertical jump + 1.57 +0.16
Agility + 1.32 +0.65
Power clean 40-yd sprint -0.63 -0.20
Vertical jump + 1.15 +0.10
Agility + 0.96 +0.38

90
Bench Press
80 i -

Test
FIGURE 6. Power clean 1 repetition maximum (kg; mean ±
SO); * Significantly greater than test 1, p < 0.05; + Signifi-
cantly lower tban test 2, p < 0.05.

40 • Yard Dash

75

Test
FIGURE 4. Bench press 1 repetition maximum (kg; mean :
SD). "^ Significantly greater tban test 1, p < 0.05; + Signifi-
cantly lower than test 2,p< 0.05.

4.8
body resistance training exercises vs. the performance
measures. Figures 4-6 illustrate lRM strength changes. 4.7
In general, muscular strength increased in phase I, and 4.6
either decreased or hegan to decrease in phase II.
4.5
Strength had returned to baseline levels by the end of
phase III. Sprint speed increased during phase I, showed
no improvement during phase II, and returned to base- Test
line levels by the end of phase III (Figure 7). Vertical FIGURE 7. 40-yd dasb (seconds; mean ± SD); * Significantly
jump height improved during phase I and remained the greater tban test 1, p < 0.05.
798 MOORE AND FRY

Vertical Jump Testosterone

100

Test
FIGURE 8. Vertical jump height (cm; mean ± SD); * Signifi- FIGURE 10. Serum testosterone (nmoIL '; mean ± SD);
cantly greater than test 1, p < 0.05. * Significantly lower than tests 1, 2, and 4, p < -0.05.

Agility Cortisol

4.6 700

4.5 I 600

4.4

• 1 * 1[ 500

idad
4.3

4.2

4.1

Test
Test
FIGURE 9. Agility time (seconds; mean ± SD); * Significantly FIGURE 11. Serum cortisol (nmol-L'; mean ± SD).
less than test 1, p < 0.05.
T / C Ratio
same during the rest of the investigation (Figure 8). Agil-
ity improved during phase I, and returned to baseline lev-
els during phase II (Figure 9).
Testosterone concentrations were within normal lev-
els for mature, healthy men and did not change during
phase I. However, a significant decrease was ohserved
during phase 11, after which it returned to baseline values
following phase III (Figure 10). Cortisol concentrations
were also within normal levels and did not change during
the course of the study (Figure 11). The T/C ratio did not
change during any phase of the study and was actually
relatively high for the group as a whole (Figure 12).
DISCUSSION
The results of this investigation present several interest- Test
ing and relevant findings for the strength and condition-
ing professional. It appears, as could be expected due to FIGURE 12. Testosterone/cortisol ratio (mean ± SD).
the relatively short duration, that true overtraining did
not occur during the off-season training program. This is ing to baseline following the completion of spring football
evident hy the observed recovery in performance vari- practice. Considering these data, it would appear that the
ables following cessation of overreaching during phase II. overreaching strategy used in this particular program
Muscular strength and power increased significantly dur- was not successful at increasing and maintaining perfor-
ing phase I. This appeared to positively influence agility mance during the course of spring football practice. As a
performance, potentially via an improved capacity for ver- result, we propose that nonfunctional overreaching oc-
tical force production (14). During phase II, strength and curred, due to the lack of positive training adaptation oc-
power were not maintained, but rather decreased, return- curring after phase II training.
 NONFUNCTIONAL OVERREACHING DURING OFF-SEASON TRAINING FOR COLLEGIATE FOOTBALL PLAYI-RS 799
As previously mentioned, another indicator of over-
training, or potential maladaptation, is the T/C ratio. Al-
though testosterone did decrease during phase II, the T/
C ratio did not change significantly. Furthermore, al-
though not statistically significant, the T/C ratio ap-
peared to increase during phase III in conjunction with
the performance data, suggesting further that the stress-
es of spring practice did not lead to overtraining. Decreas-
es of >30% in the T/C ratio, or values of <0.035, both
have been suggested as indicative of overtraining (1). Av-
erage values for the suhjects in the current investigation
did not exhibit either of these responses. In fact, the T/C
ratios observed for the entire group could be considered
very anabolic, especially during phase III. This suggests
that, in general, the subjects were recovering adequately
from tbe training.
Individual T/C ratio and result gain values for each
measured variable were compared to determine if some
individuals may he experiencing overtraining, even
though the group as a whole was not. Six athletes exhib-
ited decreases of >30% in T/C ratio or values of <0.035
at some point during the study. When the result gain val-
ues for the performance measures were compared with
those of the participants not exhibiting these hormonal
fluctuations, no difference was found. However, it should
be noted tbat differences in decreases in squat strength
during phase II approached statistical significance {p =
0.06), as did the total result gain scores Ip = 0.10). This
suggests that if phase II had been continued for a longer
period of time, overtraining may have resulted for some
individuals. By comparing those suhjects who were soph-
omores vs. those who were junior and seniors, the role of
training experience was monitored. No difference was ob-
served during this comparison. It is likely that the eligi-
bility status of the subjects in the current investigation
was not a valid indicator of training status or training
experience.
The weight training performed during phase I ap-
peared to be an effective program, as evident by the in-
crease in bench press, squat, and power clean lRM
strength. Considering the vertical force component of
both agility (14) and vertical jump tasks, improved force
production during the squat and power clean exercises
subsequent to phase II may be responsible for the im-
proved performance during these tests. The TI scores in-
dicated that improvements in squat and power clean per-
formance transferred well to agility and vertical jump im-
provements. This relationship was supported further by
correlation coefficients that indicated relatively strong re-
lationships between increased squat lRM (r - 0.69) and
power clean lRM (r = 0.68) vs. improvements in agihty
improvements.
Close inspection of the TI values show that the squat
exercise bad slightly greater values than the power clean.
These data suggest that improvements in maximal force
production (i.e., maximal strength) transfers more readily
to other performance measures in athletes with relatively
short training histories. Although all subjects in the cur-
rent study were NCAA Division I-A atbletes, they were
still relative novices in tbe weight room. It is possible that
with further weight training experience, the transfer of
maximal force to other performance measures may de-
crease, making more specific training methods, such as
ballistic training, more necessary. It is also likely that the
subject's tolerance for higher training volume loads would
increase with training experience.
The loss of sprint speed during phase I, while leg
strength was increasing, is of concern for the sport of
American football. It is possible that including a small
volume of sprint work and form running, along witb more
frequent unloading periods for the weight training, may
help to alleviate the decreased sprinting speed during
this phase of training.
The results from phase II of the training program in-
dicate that this overreaching phase, which included
weight training and high-volume conditioning, was not
optimal for improving or maintaining a significant
strength adaptation. Furthermore, sprint speed, vertical
jump height, and agility were either unchanged or wors-
ened. It is important to note tbat the coaches included
several stations in their conditioning program specifically
designed to improve these performance variahles. The
amount of work performed during each conditioning ses-
sion was extremely large. It is likely that this protocol
may have improved the ability of the subjects to tolerate
a high lactic acid load. However, this quality means little
when coupled with significant decrements in the critical
sport-speciflc performance variables such as agility or
sprint time.
The data suggest that the training program during
phase 11 needs to he modified to accommodate the cu-
mulative training stresses. Although overtraining did not
occur during this phase, it appears that the training pro-
gram compromised the desired pre-spring practice goal
of increased performance during phase III. Whether the
weight training program, the conditioning sessions, or
hoth should be modified is most likely an administrative
decision over wbich the strength and conditioning coor-
dinator may not have complete control.
In the event that only the weight training program
can be readily altered, there are several suggestions. The
total training volume load may be decreased and or the
variability in loading may be increased. Tbe coefficient of
variation of tbe volume-load was calculated and deter-
mined to be relatively low (Table 4). Although Figure 3
indicates that the weight training volume-load changed
each week, the changes were relatively small. One pos-
sible approach would be to incorporate more variation by
allowing periodical unloading periods of reduced training
volume load, and or intensity, during phase II. This would
negate monotony, as well as continually change the phys-
iological training stress. Even if the conditioning sessions
were not altered from their current format, simply pro-
viding greater variety in the volume-load for the weight
training may be adequate to avoid the loss or stagnation
of performance observed during phase II.
Spring football practice appeared to allow the athletes
to recover well, as indicated by their hormone levels. This
is likely due to the fact that practice was limited to 15
sessions during a 30-day period, complying with NCAA
regulations at the time of data collection. Furthermore,
the period of on-field time and the nature of tbe practices
were not extreme or unusual (see Tables 2 and 3).
Strength continued to change during this time, which was
expected, considering the reduced volume of weight train-
ing. Vertical jump was not adversely affected during this
time, although sprint speed returned to initial levels and
agility was maintained at initial levels. It is likely that
changes in the training period immediately preceding
spring practice may influence performance during spring
practice.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Off-season training programs utilizing relatively high vol-
umes of weight training and conditioning exercises con-
800 MOORE AND FRY
currently are relatively cominon in American football.
Moreover, such planned periods of overreaching, such as
the one used during phase II of this particular program,
often are perceived by coaches as useful tools for improv-
ing performance in a relatively short period of time. How-
ever, the results of this study do not support such train-
ing methods within this particular population. The objec-
tive of such a program should be to maximize perfor-
mance as practice begins and to reasonably maintain this
adaptation over the course of the competitive season. A
strength and conditioning program utilizing a reduced
training volume-load with greater variation in intensity
may prove more effective at stimulating and securing the
training adaptation during the course of competition. It
must be noted that the results of this study are most rel-
evant to skill position players. Further study is warrant-
ed for offensive and defensive linemen. It is likely that
the training capacity for these players who are physically
larger may differ from the skill position players reported
here. In summary, not all phases of high stress training
are productive, as evidenced by the nonfunctional over-
reaching apparent in the present study.
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Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Todd Stroud and Jeff Reinardy
for their invaluable assistance during the course of this inves-
tigation. Additionally, we would like to thank Matthew P. Har-
ber, Ph.D., J. Chadwick Smith, Ph.D., R. Martyn Ruhin, Ph.D.,
Jeffrey Hennen, and Edwin Cantler for their assistance with the
data collection.
Address correspondence to Dr. Andrew C. Fry, afry@
memphis.edu.