Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
Water, which occurs in different forms such as rivers, is a natural resource that
is very essential for human and animal life. It serves as habitat to some plants
and other animals, and all fishes. It is utilized by humans: as drinking water,
for household use, for vegetation, and for irrigation of lands and industries.
Although almost 70 % of the earth’s surface is covered with bodies of water, lack
of water is experienced by some countries today. Requirement of water has increased
along with domestic purpose because of population increase, industrialization, and
development in all countries. As a result, water scarcity became a problem to
several places and is still a problem until today. Climate change on the other
hand has a significant role in this problem. It is altering and affecting the
weather and water cycle. Some water systems are now being exploited, others have
already been and are drying up, and several are being polluted. Effects of
polluted water system include poor sanitation, emergence of water-borne diseases
such as cholera and typhoid fever, and even death.
Today, it is important to consider the issue of water pollution and lack of water
that greatly affect human welfare. Some polluted water systems may be small, but
their impact are severe and damaging. Understanding the sources, interactions, and
effects of water pollutant is essential for controlling pollutants in an
environmentally safe and economically acceptable manner (Wakuma, 2015). Water
quality control on water systems should be given attention especially to those
rivers that are located near urban and community areas. The quality of water,
whether it is used for drinking, irrigation or recreational purposes, is
significant for health. It can be described by its physical, chemical and
microbial characteristics which make it possible to identify and classify the water
according to utilization.
This project focuses on the water qualities of a river system since river pollution
can be especially harmful to the health of humans and animals because most of the
people use rivers as primary sources of potable water. In fact, most rivers that
are situated near urban areas have increasingly become polluted with municipal
sewage, industrial waste, industrial toxics, heavy metals, fertilizers, chemicals,
radioactive substances, land sediment, and so on. This project summarizes all the
water quality parameters that were experimented and at the same time shows the
present state of the river of study.
The river of study is the Asin-Galiano River. It is situated between the mountain
ranges of Benguet from the northern part, running through Baguio City, going down
to the south, and exiting out to the provinces of La Union and Pangasinan. There
were 12 sampling points considered and from these sampling points all water quality
parameters were tested. The different water quality parameters considered in this
project include physical, chemical and biological parameters. Some were tested on
site and the rest were done inside the Environmental Laboratory of Saint Louis
University by the students.
PHYSICAL WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
The physical water quality parameters that are considered include: conductivity,
total dissolved solids (TDS), pH, and turbidity. Conductivity is a measure of
water’s ability to conduct electricity or pass electrical flow. It measures the
conductive ions present in water that come from dissolved salts and inorganic
materials such as alkalis, chlorides, sulphides, and carbonate compounds. In many
cases, conductivity is directly linked to the TDS. TDS is a measure of the total
ions in the water sample. It includes all particles and ions present that
contribute to the salinity of the sample, as well as the dissolved solids. In
“clean” waters, TDS is approximately equal to salinity. In wastewater or polluted
areas, TDS can include organic solutes (such as hydrocarbons and urea) in addition
to the salt ions. TDS can affect water taste, and often indicates a high
alkalinity or hardness. Hardness of water affects the measurement of pH. Hard water
has high pH value. The minerals in hard water usually act as buffer which reduces
the amount of acid in the water. The pH of water is a measure of how acidic/basic
it is in terms of the relative amount of free hydrogen and hydroxyl ions. This pH
affects the solubility and biological availability of chemical constituents such as
nutrients and heavy metals.
The last physical water quality parameter considered is turbidity. It is the
measure of relative clarity of the water expressed as the amount of light that is
scattered in the water when a light is shined through it. The higher the intensity
of scattered light, the higher the turbidity. Material that causes water to be
turbid include clay, silt, finely divided inorganic and organic matter, algae,
soluble colored organic compounds, and plankton and other microscopic organisms.
These physical parameters were tested on site using digital laboratory equipment
designed for the measurement of specific parameter and grab sampling method was
used to obtain the water samples subjected to these physical tests and also for the
rest of the tests. Grab sampling, also known as catch sampling or individual
sampling, is a technique which is a single sample or measurement taken at a
specific time or over a short period of time. It provides an immediate sample that
is collected in a one-time basis without considering the water flow rate and time.

CHEMICAL WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS

Aside from these physical parameters, there were chemical water quality parameters
considered in this project. These include the chloride, calcium, iron, nitrates,
phosphates, ammonia, and sulphate content of the water. Specific methods of
obtaining these parameters were used.
1. Chloride Content
Chloride concentrations typically depend on the mineral content of the soil in the
nearby area. In small amounts they are not significant but in large concentrations,
they present problems. Usually chloride concentrations of water in river systems
and other bodies of water due to natural sources are low unless there are other
factors and sources that contribute to its increase. For drinking water, low to
moderate concentrations of chloride ions add palatability to water. They contribute
to the salty taste of water. However, excessive concentration will not make the
water pleasant to drink. This causes a brackish, briny taste that definitely is
undesirable. Although chlorides are extremely soluble, they possess marked
stability. High concentrations of chloride ions add to the electrical conductivity
of water. The chlorides content of the river were determined using potentiometric
method.
2. Hardness
Water hardness is defined as the calcium and magnesium ion content of water or its
capacity to precipitate soap. Ca2+ and Mg2+ form insoluble salts with soaps causing
precipitation of the soap scum. Another effect of hard water is “boiler scale”.
When hard water comes into contact with dissolved carbonates, a precipitate of
insoluble calcium carbonate forms (scaling). This can build up inside water pipes
to a degree that the pipes become almost completely blocked. There are two types of
hardness: temporary and permanent hardness. Temporary hardness is due to the
bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium which is easily removed by boiling. On the
other hand, permanent hardness is due to the presence of chlorides and sulphates of
calcium and magnesium that cannot be removed by boiling.
3. Iron Content
Iron is abundant element in the earth’s crust but is normally present in low
concentrations (< 1.0 mg/L). In groundwater, however, particularly those in
contact with iron bearing minerals, higher concentrations (up to 10 mg/L or more)
are found. In some bodies of water, iron concentrations may be high or low
depending on the different factors. Aside from the iron coming from the natural
iron bearing minerals, some iron may come from stream runoffs, irrigations,
agricultural wastes, domestic wastes, and industrial wastes, acid mine, etc.
Specific sources of iron include sewage from metallurgical, dyeing and galvanizing
plants, and due to corrosion of pipelines and steel constructions. Elevated
concentrations of iron can be problematic in drinking water for three principal
reasons: staining of laundry and other items can occur due to the precipitation of
hydrated ferric oxide; colloidal suspensions of the precipitate can also mean that
the water looks unpleasant; iron can also impart an unpleasant taste to the water
which some people can detect at levels above 1.0 mg/L.
4. Nitrates
Nitrate in water is undetectable without testing because it is colorless, odorless,
and tasteless. A water test for nitrate is highly recommended for households with
infants, pregnant women, nursing mothers, or elderly people. Nitrate-nitrogen
occurs naturally in groundwater, usually at concentrations far below a level of
concern for drinking water safety. An initial test of a new water supply is needed
to determine the baseline nitrate concentration (Sorensen, 2013). Therefore, if
the water supply has never been tested for nitrate, it should be tested. The
concentration of nitrate is usually expressed in units of mg/L or simply parts per
million (ppm) NO3-N. The unit, NO3 –N, means simply “nitrogen that is in the form
of nitrate.” The nitrate level in freshwater is usually found in the range of 0.1
to 4 mg/L NO3 –N. Unpolluted waters generally have nitrate levels below 1 mg/L.
The effluent of some sewage treatment plants may have levels in excess of 20 mg/L.
The method used to determine the nitrate content is colorimetric method.
5. Phosphates
Phosphorous is a key element in many physiological and biochemical processes. It is
indispensable and cannot be replaced by any other element, as it is a component of
every cell in all living organisms. It occurs in complex DNA and RNA structures
which hold and translate genetic information and so control all living processes in
organisms (Johnston A, et al. 2000). Increased phosphate concentrations are linked
with increasing rates of plant growth. More specific functions aided by phosphorous
in plants include energy transfer, photosynthesis, transformation of sugars and
starches, nutrient movement within the plant and transfer of genetic
characteristics from one generation to the next (Better Crops, 1999).Phosphorus
gets into water in both urban and agricultural settings through natural or
human/animal means. It can also migrate with groundwater flows. Since groundwater
often discharges into surface water, there is a concern about phosphorus
concentrations in groundwater affecting the water quality of surface water.
(Perlman H. 2016)
In addition, detergents are among the greatest contributors to phosphate content in
waters because phosphate containing compounds are used in detergent formulation as
water softeners. Phosphate is therefore known as a “soap/detergent builder.” It
enhances the washing performance and reduces the amount of detergent or soap needed
to clean something (Quantitative Analysis-Phosphates in Water, 2005). Too much
exposure of phosphates through soaps/detergents can be harmful to the body.
Digestive problems could occur from extremely high levels of phosphate.
Phosphates exist in three forms: orthophosphate, metaphosphate (or polyphosphate)
and organically bound phosphate. Orthophosphate forms are produced by natural
processes but major man-influenced sources include: partially treated and untreated
sewage, run-offs and agricultural sites, and application of some lawn fertilizers.
Organic phosphates are typically estimated by testing for total phosphate. The
organic phosphate is the phosphate that is bound or tied up in plant tissue, waste
solids, or other organic material. After decomposition, this phosphate can be
converted to orthophosphate. (Oram B, 2014)
6. Ammonia
Ammonia is a nutrient that contains nitrogen and hydrogen. Its chemical formula is
NH3 in the un-ionized state and NH4+ in the ionized form. Ammonia is the preferred
nitrogen-containing nutrient for plant growth. It is excreted by animals and
produced during decomposition of plants and animals, thus returning nitrogen to the
aquatic system. The neutral, unionized form (NH3) is highly toxic to fish and other
aquatic life. (Pure Water Gazette Water Treatment Issues, n.d.)
Ammonium is predominant when the pH is below 8.75 and above 9.75. It gets into
water supplies most frequently as runoff in agricultural areas where it is applied
as fertilizer and it easily finds its way into underground aquifers from animal
feedlot runoff. It can be very corrosive to some copper plumbing systems. Its
toxicity varies with the pH of the water. Although ammonia is an irritant to the
respiratory tract, the limited numbers of studies that have been conducted show no
long-term ill effects. There is no evidence, for example, that ammonia can cause
cancer. The presence ammonia of at high concentrations in a stream or a lake can
contribute to eutrophication. Therefore, many countries
regulate ammonia concentration of surface water and wastewater. (Jeong H, et al.
2013)
7. Sulfates
Sulfate ion occurs naturally in numerous minerals, including barite (BaSO4), sodium
sulphate (Glauber’s salt), epsomite (MgSO4·7H2O) and calcium sulphate/ gypsum
(CaSO4·2H2O) (Minnesota Dep’t of Health, n.d.). These dissolved minerals contribute
to the mineral content of water in river systems. Aside from the natural occurrence
of sulphur in the form of sulfates, there are other possible sources which include:
acid rain, dry deposition, sea spray, surface runoff, agricultural and mine
drainage, urban runoff, industrial runoff, saltwater intrusion/sea level rise,
groundwater, and fire and drought. Decaying plant and animal matters may release
sulphate into water. Numerous chemical products including ammonium sulphate
fertilizers contain sulphate in a variety of forms. The treatment of water with
aluminum sulphate (alum) or copper sulphate also introduces sulphate into a water
supply. Human activities such as the combustion of fossil fuels and sour gas
processing release sulphur oxides to the atmosphere, some of which is converted to
sulphate. Such sources are present mainly because of the uses of sulfates or
sulphuric acid.
While sulphur is contained in waters, there are impacts effects of these to the
environment. Sulfate promotes methylation of mercury to its most toxic and
bioaccumulative form: methylmercury. This methylmercury is a hazardous substance
that is of interest with regard to environmental health, as inorganic mercury
circulating in the general environment is dissolved into freshwater and seawater,
condensed through the food chain, ingested by humans, and consequently affects
human health. Also, sulfide is toxic to plants and animals. Animals are sensitive
to high levels of sulphate where in the effect is mostly observed in the young
ones. Severe, chronic diarrhea, and even death can be observed. As with humans,
animals tend to become accustomed to sulfate over time.
High levels of sulfate (above 250 ppm) may have a laxative effect, cause
dehydration and be especially detrimental to the health of infants and young
animals. Sulfate levels in excess of 250 parts per million require treatment of
drinking water before use. (Vendrell P. Atiles J. 2014)
The nitrates, phosphates, ammonia, and sulfates utilized the same methods to
determine the amount in the river. The spectrophotometric technique was utilized
in determining the chemical parameters.
BIOLOGICAL WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
The biological water quality parameters presented in this project include the
microbial content of water in terms of its coliform content. Aside from that, the
biological oxygen demand and chemical oxygen demand of water were also tested and
summarized here.
1. Microbes
Human and animal wastes are primary sources of bacteria in water usually from
runoff from feedlots, pastures, and other land areas where animal wastes are
deposited. Additional sources include seepage or discharge from septic tanks,
sewage treatment facilities, and natural soil/plant bacteria. Bacteria from these
sources can enter wells that are either open at the land surface or do not have
water-tight casings or caps. Another way bacteria can enter a water supply is
through infiltration by flood waters or by surface runoff.
Among the pathogens disseminated in water sources, enteric pathogens are the ones
most frequently encountered. As a consequence, sources of fecal pollution in waters
devoted to human activity must be strictly controlled. Entero-pathogens, such as
Escherischia coli, are generally present at very low concentrations in
environmental waters within a diversified microflora.
COLIFORM BACTERIA
Coliform bacteria are present in the environment and feces of all warm-blooded
animals and humans. These are unlikely to cause illness. However, their presence in
drinking water indicates that disease-causing organisms could be in the water
system. Most pathogens that can contaminate water supplies come from feces. There
are three groups of coliform bacteria. Each is an indicator of drinking water
quality and has a different level of risk. Total coliform is a large collection of
different kinds of bacteria. Total coliform bacteria are common in the environment
and are generally harmless. If a laboratory detects only total coliform bacteria in
drinking water, the source is probably environmental. Fecal coliform are types of
total coliform. Escherichia coli is a subgroup of the fecal coliform group. Most E.
coli bacteria are harmless that usually exist in the intestines of people and warm-
blooded animals. However, some strains can cause illness. The presence of E. coli
in a drinking water sample usually indicates recent fecal contamination. That means
there is a greater risk that pathogens are present.
2. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is the amount of dissolved oxygen utilized by
aerobic biological organisms in a body of water in biological process that break
down organic material present in a given water sample at certain temperature over a
specific period of time (The Importance of Biological…2015). It is a measure of
organic pollutant load. If there is a large amount of organic wastes in the water
supply, then there will also be a lot of bacteria present in order to decompose
these wastes. As a result, the demand for oxygen will increase thus, BOD level will
increase as well. The BOD levels declines when the wastes are consumed throughout
the water. Therefore, the strength of waste water is expressed in terms of BOD. The
BOD value is most commonly expressed in milligrams of oxygen consumed per liter of
sample during 5 days of incubation at 20oC and is often used as a replacement of
the degree of organic pollution of water.
The so-called 5-day BOD measures the amount of oxygen consumed by biochemical
oxidation of waste contaminants in a 5-day period. The total amount of oxygen
consumed when the biochemical reaction is allowed to proceed to completion is
called the Ultimate BOD. Carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand or CBOD is a method
defined test measured by the depletion of dissolved oxygen by biological organisms
in a body of water in which the contribution from nitrogenous bacteria has been
suppressed. Nitrogenous oxygen demand on the other hand is the result of the
breakdown of proteins containing sugars linked to nitrogen.
3. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Chemical Oxygen Demand or COD is the measure of the amount of oxygen needed to
oxidize soluble and particulate organic matter in water. It represents the oxygen
necessary for the aerobic biological oxidation of the organics since they represent
the amount of oxygen necessary for the aerobic biological oxidation of the organics
in a water sample to carbon dioxide (CO2) and water if it is assumed the organics
are biodegradable. Just like the significance of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of
water, COD provides an index to assess the effect of discharged wastewater on the
water of the river system. Only, COD has a greater value than BOD (Appendix B:
Description of… n.d.).