1. What is a healthy organism?

Discuss the difficulties of defining the terms ‘health’ and ‘disease’

Health

Health (as defined by the WHO) is: a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing, and
not merely the absence of disease or infirmity

 Physical health refers to the physical state of the body (including our level of fitness, body
weight and the proper functioning of systems within our body)
 Mental health is related to our ability to function effectively in society and to cope with
situations occurring in our lives
 Social health is our ability to interact, communicate and socialise effectively

One major problem with the WHO definition of health is that it is extremely broad, and if taken
literally, it would be very difficult to achieve a healthy status (as it is unlikely for anyone to be in a
complete state of physical, mental and social wellbeing at any one time)

Furthermore, the concept for health is very subjective, and depends on an individual’s life
circumstances. What one person regards as healthy may not be regarded by another the same way.
For example, a person with a disability may describe themselves healthy because they have adapted
and learnt to cope with this disability in their life. Overall, health is a constantly changing state and is
relative to others and ourselves over a period of time.

Disease

Disease can be defined as: any condition that adversely affects the normal functioning of any part of
a living thing

The main problem with most definitions of disease is that they are quite broad and imprecise. For
example, if the above definition were to be taken literally, a broken arm and even pregnancy would
be considered a disease. The ‘normal functioning’ referred to in the above definition may apply
differently depending on the person (e.g. absent-mindedness and physical deterioration may be
normal for the elderly, but could be a form of disease in the young)

Outline how the function of genes, mitosis, cell differentiation and specialisation assist in the
maintenance of health

Use available evidence to analyse the links between gene expression and maintenance and repair
of body tissues

Cell differentiation: the process where cells mature and taken on different structural features, so
that become suited to perform a specific function in the body

Cell specialisation: specific genes in a cell are ‘switched on’ in order to perform a particular function
in the body
Differentiation and specialisation allow cells to work together in a healthy body to carry out complex
functions in a coordinated and controlled way to maintain and repair tissues. For example,
lymphocytes are specialised cells that are produced to fight an infection and maintain health.

If the differentiation and specialisation of cells did not occur, the body would not be able to function
effectively and a healthy state couldn’t be maintained.

Mitosis is the process of cell division by which identical body cells are produced to allow for:

 Growth
 Repair of damaged tissue/replacement of worn out cells
 Genetic stability so that there is a precise and equal distribution of chromosomes to each
daughter nucleus.

Mitosis allows all cells to function normally and tissues to be repaired and maintained. If cells are
damaged through injury or disease, they are replaced by the division of healthy cells close to the
injury or disease site.

A gene is a hereditary unit that codes for proteins, which are responsible for the regulation of the
cell cycle/mitosis in order to ensure normal cell functioning, growth and repair.

Gene expression involves the ‘switching on’ of genes so that the relevant proteins that they code for
are produced. Many genes code for proteins that are responsible for the control of the maintenance
and repair of body tissues. For example, below are examples of genes responsible for regulating the
cell cycle and mitosis:

 DNA repair genes- these code for proteins which stop the cell cycle whilst other proteins
remove damaged regions of DNA and replace them. If these genes do not function correctly,
DNA will not be repaired and the damaged DNA is replicated instead. The correct proteins
and enzymes necessary for normal functioning will not be produced, and a disease will occur
 Proto-oncogenes – these code for proteins that stimulate cell growth and mitosis
 Tumour suppressor genes – these code for proteins that slow down or stop cell
growth/mitosis. Mutations to these genes could prevent cells from differentiating (and thus
perform specialised functions) and could also cause the formation of tumours/cancer.

2. Over 3000 years ago the Chinese and Hebrews were advocating cleanliness in food, water
and personal hygiene

Distinguish between infectious and non-infectious disease

An infectious disease is a disease that is cause by an organism or infective agent. These

causative agents are known as pathogens.

A non-infectious disease is a disease that is not cause by a pathogen, and cannot be passed from
one person to another (with the exception of inherited diseases).
 Explain why cleanliness in food, water and personal hygiene practices assist in control of
disease

Cleanliness in food, water and hygiene practices all help to prevent the growth and transmission
of pathogens and therefore help to control disease.

 Personal hygiene involves keep our bodies and any openings on them clean to reduce
the risk of pathogens entering or being transmitted by our bodies. Personal hygiene
practices include:
- Washing hands with soap/water before eating food to avoid ingesting any
pathogens on your hands
- Regularly washing body and hair to prevent any potential build-up of pathogens in
large numbers
- Always coughing or sneezing into a handkerchief
 Cleanliness in food is also important because pathogens can be transferred from food to
a person. Bacteria will multiply quickly in food given the conditions are right (available
nutrients, correct temperature and moisture) For example, salmonellosis is a disease
cause by Salmonella bacteria, and is transmitted in undercooked food. In order to
control transmission of diseases from food sources, mandatory guidelines have been
introduced to food handlers:
- Hands should always be washed with soap before/during preparation of different
foods to avoid pathogens being transmitted from hands to the food.
- Hair should be tied back/covered so it doesn’t come into contact with the food
- All utensils to be used should be washed in hot, soapy water and rewashed for
different foods; avoiding cross-contamination/transmission of pathogens
 Cleanliness in water – it is important that water quality is maintained in order to
minimise the risk of pathogens being transmitted in contaminated water. In Australia,
domestic water quality must comply with strict standards and guidelines, and the water
is tested daily to ensure these standards are met.
- The treatment of water to destroy pathogens and prevent their further
multiplication is very important in the successful control of disease.

Identify the conditions under which an organism is defined as a pathogen

A pathogen is defined as any organism/infective agent that lives in or on another living organism,
and causes a disease.

In order to cause disease, the pathogen needs to:

 Be present in sufficient numbers (i.e. have enough virulence)

 Be able to enter the host/survive on the body without being destroyed by the body’s
natural defences
 Be able to escape from one host to another, and survive the transmission process
Identify data sources, plan and choose equipment or resources to perform a first-hand
investigation to identify microbes in food or in water

Aim: To grow and identify microbes in water

Equipment:

 6 nutrient agar in sterilised petri dishes

 4 sterile plastic syringes (3mL)
 70% alcohol wash
 Sticky tape
 Incubator (at 30oC)
 5 specimens
- Tap water
- School drinking fountain
- Scarbourough Park (freshwater stream)
- Brighton-le-sands (sea water)
- 0.9% saline

Control:

 Sterile saline (two plates, control for technique), closed plate (sterility of agar and plate).

Variables:

 Independent variable: different water sources

 Dependent variable: the number and types of colonies grown
 Controlled variable: the temperature of the incubator (30oC – for safety as it is good for
fungi/bacteria but not human pathogens which would grow at 37oC), time of incubation,
volume of sample, nutrient agar

Risk assessment:

Identify the hazard Assess the risk Control the risk

Sample water source of
microbial contamination
The microbe colonies that
developed during the
experiment.
Disposal of contaminated agar
plates
Sample water could contain
pathogenic microbe organisms
which could pose health risk to
humans if allowed to enter the
body
These colonies could have the
potential to be harmful if
released into the air; unsure of
whether the colonies were
pathogens or not.
If the plates are not properly
disposed then a biohazard
Wear gloves, safety googles
and wash hands with anti-
bacterial hand wash
Wear gloves when observing
the colonies. Sterilise the
workbench with alcohol after
observation. Wear safety
googles. Never open the agar
plate after experiment has
been setup.
Place all used equipment in
containers of disinfectant
 could occur. This could expose
the air to harmful pathogens.
provided. Reusable items will
be disinfected or autoclaved
(sterilised in a pressure cooker)
before being washed and
reused. Plastic equipment,
including used agar plates, will
be disinfected and autoclaved
before disposal.

Method

1. Before work commenced, the laboratory bench was wiped over with 70% alcohol wash
2. Obtain 5 sterilised Petri dishes with agar inside, and label accordingly
3. Obtain 5 samples in sterilised specimen containers (tap water, freshwater from Scarborough,
sea water from Brighton-le-sands, water from school drinking fountain and 0.9% sterile
saline solution)
4. Collect 0.5mL of the first water sample in a syringe and carefully transfer it into an agar dish
(the lid was opened as little as possible to avoid contamination from microbes in the
surrounding air).
5. Seal the lid with sticky tape at 3 places around the circumference of the dish
6. Swirl the plate slowly to spread the solution evenly over the plate
7. Repeat steps 4-6 with the remaining water samples; using a new syringe for each
8. The last agar dish was not opened and sealed with sticky tape the same way the others were
sealed. It was labelled as a closed sample and was the second control.
9. Incubate for 3 days at 30oC
10. Observe for bacterial growth

Results:

Water Sample Level of microbe colonies

Closed sample Almost no microbe colonies
Sterile saline water Almost no microbe colonies
Tap water Minimal growth of microbe colonies
Scarborough Park Large growth of microbe colonies
Brighton Le-Sands Medium growth of microbe colonies
School drinking fountain Minimal growth of microbe colonies

Discussion

The controls are the closed plates and the sterile saline plates. The control showed the air was not
source of microbes; however there was contamination during the preparation of the agar dishes.
Compared to most water samples, the closed plate contained considerably less microbial colonies.

The water sample with the largest number of microbial colonies is Scarborough Park. The tap water
and school bubbler had the least. Since agar plates were contaminated beforehand, the microbial
colonies in the tap water and school bubbler could be just the result of that.
The control was contaminated beforehand during preparation hence the small amount of microbial
colonies. Tap water and school fountain water are treated and sanitised, hence the amount
microbial colonies is relatively low and could be a result of contamination to the agar plates.
Whereas the water from Brighton Le-Sands and Scarborough are not treated and sanitised hence
contain many microbes as shown by the results.

The experiment was not entirely valid since our agar plates were not sterilised properly leading to
contamination. Also the methodology of putting the sample water into the agar plates left the plates
exposed to the air meaning that there was a chance of microbial contamination from the air. In
addition when we swirled the plates around, we did not know if all the sample water had come in
contact with the agar. The results of the experiment were reliable as the results were consistent
across the 4 plates for each water sample. The experiment was accurate as we used the correct
apparatus and the results showed we did successfully managed to grow microbial colonies.

Conclusion: The experiment clearly shows that microbes can form in water sources that are not
sterilised.

Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to describe ways in which
drinking water can be treated and use available evidence to explain how these methods reduce
the risk of infection from pathogens

Typically, the processes involved in the treatment of water to make it safe for drinking are:

 Coagulation, Flocculation, Sedimentation – In still water, some particles will settle out
through sedimentation. When particles are too slow to settle/won’t settle, a coagulant is
added, causing the particles to stick together and form larger particles called floc. This
process is called flocculation. The floc will either sink and be removed as sludge, or float and
be skimmed off the top.
 Filtration – In Australia, the most widely used method of filtration is membrane filtration –
where the water is passed at pressure through membranes with a small pore size. This
process removes whatever particles are left in the water from the first process.
 Disinfection – After all the particulate matter is removed from the water, it is disinfected.
This is usually achieved by adding chlorine. Enough chlorine is added to ensure the water
remains free of micro-organisms on its journey to consumers. Other chemicals, such as
fluoride (which helps maintain dental health) may be added also.

Sedimentation, coagulation and flocculation are extremely effective at removing fine suspended
particles which attract and hold bacteria/viruses to their surface. These processes remove up to 99.9%
of bacteria, and 99% of viruses from water supplies – reducing risk of infection from pathogens. This
risk is further reduced through filtration (which removes some of the larger micro-organisms from
the water), and then disinfection (which kills any remaining pathogens in the water).
 3. During the second half of the nineteenth century, the work of Pasteur and Koch and other
scientists stimulated the search for microbes as causes of disease

Describe the contribution of Pasteur and Koch to our understanding of infectious diseases

Up until the mid-19th century, it was widely believed that living things were produced by
spontaneous generation (came into existence from non-living matter)

Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) demonstrated that spontaneous generation did not occur, and that
infectious diseases were caused by micro-organisms.

Pasteur sought to disprove the theory of spontaneous generation, and proposed his ‘germ theory of
disease’. He carried out his famous ‘swan necked flask’ experiments to gain evidence to support this
theory

 These experiments involved using flasks that had long-drawn-out necks that were not sealed.
Meat broth was then boiled in the flasks (to kill off all microbes)
 No bacterial or fungal growth was observed in these flasks; however, if the neck was broken
off and the flask’s contents exposed to the air, bacterial growth did occur.
 This proved that the organisms carried in the air had contaminated the broth and were not
spontaneously generated.

Pasteur also uncovered the relationship between micro-organisms and disease, associating specific
bacteria with specific diseases. He investigated the cause of anthrax (a disease that affects both
sheep and humans), and managed to develop a vaccine for the disease.

 In a public test of his vaccine, all the animals that were given the vaccine before being
exposed to anthrax survived, whilst those that didn’t died.
 Pasteur had established the principle of immunity and provided an effective way of
preventing an infectious disease.

Pasteur developed methods of treating wine to avoid spoilage (by heating it long enough to kill the
contaminating bacteria present after fermentation). This method, now known as pasteurisation, is
widely used today to ensure products such as milk are free of disease-causing micro-organisms. It
has also been adapted for sterilisation techniques used to prevent the spread of infectious diseases.

Robert Koch (1843-1910) developed a technique (now known as Koch’s postulates) that could
identify a micro-organism and determine whether it was responsible for a particular disease:

 Firstly, the same micro-organism had to be present in every diseased host

 The micro-organism then had to be isolated and cultured in the laboratory
 A sample of the pure culture was then inoculated into a healthy host, and this host needed
to develop the same symptoms as the original host.
 The micro-organism then had to be isolated from the second host and cultured and
identified as the original species.

Koch’s studies helped Pasteur determine the cause of anthrax.

Together, Pasteur and Koch have contributed significantly to our understanding on the cause of
infectious diseases enabling the development of many of the practices used in identifying and
treating diseases today, including the ability to isolate the causative agent of a disease in order to
develop a treatment/vaccine.

Distinguish between: prions, viruses, bacteria, protozoans, fungi, macro-parasites and name one
example of a disease caused by each type of pathogen

Prions

Prions are proteins that are capable of causing disease (they do not
contain DNA or RNA). An example of a prion disease is kuru –symptoms
including uncontrollable shaking, trembling and grimacing of the face.

 They are smaller than all other pathogens.

 Normal prion proteins are coded for by genes in organisms;
however, their function is unclear. They are mainly present in
the nerve cells of the brain. These normal prions do not cause
disease. A mutation to the gene that codes for these prions cause the formation of a
different form of the prion protein. This mutated prion is resistant to most normal methods
used to break down proteins (e.g. heat and chemicals).
 Infectious prions multiply when they come into contact with normal prions, altering their
structure and changing them into infectious prions.

Viruses

Viruses are non-cellular pathogens that have both living, and non-living
characteristics. They contain genetic material, and are able to pass on
hereditary information (living). However, they are not composed or cells and
can be crystallised (non-living). An example of a viral disease is influenza.

 They are larger than prions, but smaller than bacteria.

 They are made up of a protective protein coat enclosing the genetic
material (either DNA or RNA).
 Viruses are unable to reproduce on their own, and can only replicate
inside host cells. When a virus enters a cell, it takes over its
reproductive mechanisms to make copies of itself. Once the cell becomes so full of these
copies, it dies and bursts - releasing new viruses that repeat the
process with other host cells

Bacteria

Bacteria are single-celled prokaryotic organisms (have a cell wall, but no

membrane-bound nucleus or membrane-bound organelles). Their genetic
material is a single large chromosome (circular thread of DNA). Many
bacteria are beneficial and essential to organisms. An example of a
bacterial disease is tetanus – symptoms include muscle spasms.
  They are larger than viruses but smaller than protozoans
 They come in many different shapes (spherical, rod, spiral etc.)
 They reproduce by asexual reproduction using the process of
binary fission (dividing in two)

Protozoans

Protozoans are single-celled eukaryotic organisms (no cell wall, but has a
membrane-bound nucleus, and membrane-bound organelles). Many
protozoans are free-living and do not cause disease. An example of a
disease caused by protozoans is malaria

 They are mostly larger than bacteria.

 Some protozoan reproduce asexually (e.g. binary fission), whilst
others reproduce sexually.

Fungi

Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that possess a cell wall (although its
composition is different to that of plant cell walls). Most fungi act as
decomposers in ecosystems. An example of a fungal disease is
thrush (candidiasis)

 Fungi can be unicellular (e.g. yeasts) or multicellular (e.g.

mushrooms)
 Some fungi, like yeasts, reproduce asexually – whilst others
reproduce using bot h sexual and asexual reproduction.

Macro-parasites

Macro-parasites are parasites that are visible to the naked eye. They are multicellular organisms
that vary in size. Examples of disease caused by macro-parasites include elephantiasis (where a part
of the body swells to massive proportions caused by a filarial worm)

 They are larger than the other pathogens.

 Some macro-parasites cause disease directly, whilst
others will act as vectors in the transmission of a disease
 There are two groups of macro-parasites: endoparasites
and ectoparasites.
- Endoparasites live inside the host’s body (includes
flatworms)
- Ectoparasites live outside of the body (includes
mosquitoes)
Identify the role of antibiotics in the management of infectious disease

Antibiotics play an extremely important role in the management of infectious disease caused by
bacteria. They are chemicals that can destroy or inhibit the growth of bacteria that cause disease.
They are chemicals that target the bacteria without destroying the host, and are ineffective against
viruses.

The first antibiotic was discovered in 1928 by Alexander Fleming. Many infectious diseases once
considered serious/fatal were able to be successfully treated with penicillin. This was a revolutionary
breakthrough in the treatment of diseases caused by bacteria.

Broad-spectrum antibiotics act on a wide range of bacteria, narrow-spectrum antibiotics act on

only one or two types of bacteria.

Perform an investigation to model Pasteur’s experiment to identify the role of microbes in decay

Aim: To model Pasteur’s experiment to identify the role of microbes in decay.

Hypothesis: The flask that has the S-shaped glass will not show signs of microbial growth. The flask
with straight glass tubing that is open to the air will show signs of microbial growth.

Variables:

 Independent: Shape of the flask neck

 Dependent: The growth of microbe colonies
 Controlled: same beef broth, same environment conditions, same amount of beef broth,
same type of flasks, same sterilisation technique

Equipment:

 Beef broth
 2 conical flasks, each with a single-hole stopper to fit
 Glass tubing bent into an S-shape fitted into one of the stoppers
 Straight glass tubing fitted into their other stopper
 Bunsen burner
 Gauze mat
 Tripod
 Heat mat

Risk Assessment:

Identify the hazard Assess the risk Control the risk

Shattered glass equipment can
occur by overheating the
conical flaks or accidentally
dropping it.
Ingestion of broth
The shattered glass could cause
bodily harm to the students if
not properly disposed of.
The broth could be
contaminated with pathogens
Handle the glass with care and
wear safety googles. Clean
thoroughly if shattered.
Advise students to not ingest
the experimental setup.
Method

1. Add the filtered beef broth to each of the flasks until they are approximately one-third full.
2. Fit the stoppers, one with the straight tubing and the other with the S-shaped tubing, to the
flasks.
3. Heat each flask so that it boils gently for 15 minutes. Ensure that after boiling there is a small
amount of water trapped in the S-bend.
4. Leave both flasks in a warm position out of direct sunlight for several weeks.
5. Every 2 or 3 days, observe the contents of each flask. Look for cloudiness, scum, bubbles and
fungal colonies. Record my changes.

Results: The conical flaks with the S-shaped neck did not show signs of microbial growth, the colour
of the beef broth remained the same. The flask with the straight glass tubing showed signs of
microbial growth and the colour of the broth changed colours from dark brown to light browm

Discussion:

The S-shaped neck flask had not microbial growth due the S-shaped bend trapping and preventing
microbes from entering the flask with the beef broth, hence no microbial colonies and no changes to
the beef broth. However the flask with the straight glass tubing showed signs of microbial growth
since the microbes had a straight passage into the beef broth, hence a layer of microbes was formed
on the top of the beef broth and the colour of the changed from dark broth to light brown.

The experiment was valid because correct methodology was used and similar results to Pasteur’s
experiment were obtained. Hence the experiment was also accurate and reliable.

Conclusion: Microbes from the air caused the broth with the straight piece of glass tubing to decay.
This show that microbes do not grow spontaneously. Hence it modelled Pasteur’s experiment.

Gather and process information to trace the historical development of our understanding of the
cause and prevention of malaria

Date Development in the understanding of cause/prevention of malaria

2000 years The Greeks described symptoms of the disease and called it malaria
ago
2000 years Greeks and Romans built drains to take away stagnant (still) water
ago
1600’s Quinine, extracted from the cinchona tree, was used to treat malaria in Europe
1880 Charles Laveran discovered the pathogen that causes malaria. He observed them in
fresh blood from malarial patients and suggested that malaria was caused by these
micro-organisms.
1886 Camillo Golgi established that there were at least two forms of the disease
1887-1889 Ronald Ross identified the Anopheles claviger mosquito as the vector (organism which
transmits a disease from one animal to another)
1940’s Synthetic quinine is developed
Chloroquine (drug used for treatment of malaria) is developed
2000- Combination drug therapy now used.
present Netting treated with long-lasting insecticide and other protective measures in place.
Identify data sources, gather process and analyse information from secondary sources to describe
one named infectious disease in terms of: cause, transmission, host response, major symptoms,
treatment, prevention and control

Disease Influenza
Cause Caused by infection with the influenza virus. Influenza A and influenza B virus are the
two main types of influenza viruses which infect humans.
Transmission There are numerous ways that the influenza virus is transmitted:
 Viral particles are inhaled through the nose and mouth in droplets that have
been exhaled by an infected person when they cough or sneeze.
 The infected person touches an object (e.g. a handrail). A second person
touches the handrail soon afterwards and places their hand on their
nose/mouth.
 Direct personal contact with the infected person’s secretions (e.g. through
handshakes or kissing)
Host The presence of the virus in the body triggers an immune response. This involves the
response production of antibodies/other immune response cells that are specific to the
particular strain of influenza virus that has affected the body. The immune response
then destroys the viral particles that have invaded the body
Major  Fever
symptoms  Headache
 Fatigue/weakness
 Sore throat
 Coughing/sneezing
 Muscle aches
Treatment The main method of treatment is to get plenty of bed rest, drink extra fluids and, if
necessary, take medication to relieve specific symptoms (e.g. cough-suppressants).
Giving the body rest with a steady intake of fluids allows it to fight the disease and
then recover.
Antibiotics are not effective against viral infections like the flu (although they can be
prescribed for secondary bacterial infections)
Prevention The main method in preventing influenza involves the use of influenza vaccines. New
vaccines are produced each year (test labs predict which flu strain is most likely to
predominate and design the year’s vaccine accordingly)
Also, once a person has been infected by a particular flu strain, their body contains
the antibodies used to destroy it, which can help prevent subsequent infections.
Control In order to reduce/control the transmission of influenza, numerous strategies have
been implemented:
- Immunisation programs/education programs which encourage at-risk
individuals to be vaccinated
- The isolation of infected individuals to reduce spread of influenza (e.g.
infected individuals remaining at home)
For individuals, good personal health and hygiene habits (such as frequent hand
washing, covering coughs and sneezes) can also help reduce the transmission of
influenza
Process information from secondary sources to discuss problems relating to antibiotic resistance

When antibiotics were first introduced, they were extremely effective. However, gradually, bacteria
began to develop a resistance to these first antibiotics. Nowadays, strains of bacteria that are
resistant to many of the antibiotics have developed.

 The resistance of bacteria to common antibiotics may lead to diseases becoming more
severe and taking longer to cure. As a result there is a greater chance of them spreading
throughout the community
 In order to destroy the bacteria, more toxic/expensive antibiotics needs to be used. Certain
individuals and countries may not be able to afford this expensive cure; thus the disease will
also spread throughout the population.

Factors causing the increasing development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria are:

 Overuse of antibiotics
 Not completing the course of antibiotics when prescribed
 Feeding antibiotics to food-producing animals to enhance growth
 Use of cleaning products containing antibacterial substances

Examples:

A multi-resistant strain of bacteria that causes tuberculosis is difficult to treat and many countries
cannot afford the antibiotics to cure this disease. This leads to a large increase in the incidence of
the resistant strain of this disease

Several infectious bacteria have developed to be resistant to vancomycin, one of the strongest
antibiotics available.

4. Often we recognise an infection by the symptoms it causes. The immune response is not
so obvious, until we recover

Identify defence barriers to prevent entry of pathogens in humans: skin, mucous membranes, cilia,
chemical barriers, other body secretions

First line of defence:

The first line of defence tries to prevent the entry of foreign organisms into the body. It is non-
specific, and uses both physical and chemical barriers to try to prevent the entry of pathogens into
the blood and tissues. It is present from birth, and covers the openings on our body, which are most
vulnerable to the entry of pathogens (e.g. nose and mouth).

Barrier Description
Skin The skin forms a tough outer barrier that covers the body and prevents penetration by
microbes. It is fairly dry, and contains its own population of harmless bacteria which help
prevent the growth/multiplication of invading microbes. Oil and sweat glands also
produce antifungal substances that further inhibit growth of pathogens.
The outer layers contain keratin (structural protein), which microbes can’t penetrate
unless the skin is broken or cut. If the skin is cut, the blood clots to produce a temporary
patch that maintains the barrier until new skin forms
Mucous The respiratory, digestive, reproductive and urinary tracts are covered with membranes
membranes that produce a thick layer of mucus which traps the entering pathogens.
The pathogens are held in the mucus until they are removed by processes such as
coughing or sneezing.
The mucus may also contain an antibody that prevents bacteria and viruses from
attaching to the surface, whilst also providing a moist, nutritious layer in which harmless
microbes live and produce substances that inhibit the growth and entry of pathogens.
Cilia Cilia are tiny ‘hairs’ that line the respiratory surfaces of the trachea and bronchial tubes.
They are constantly beating in an upwards direction to move the mucus containing the
trapped pathogens towards the throat, where they are removed by coughing, sneezing or
swallowing.
Chemical Different types of chemicals are secreted in different parts of the body to prevent entry of
barriers pathogens:
 Pathogens entering with food/drink is destroyed by the digestive system; either
by the highly acidic environment of the stomach, or the alkaline environment of
the intestines.
 The urinary/ vaginal openings and the surface of the skin are acidic to inhibit
growth of pathogens.
Other Urine is sterile and slightly acidic, thus flushing and cleaning the ureters, bladder and
secretions urethra- preventing the growth of micro-organisms.
Tears contain lysozymes that destroy the cell walls of some bacteria. As the tears are
produced and the eyelid blinks, the surface of the eye is cleaned and the pathogens are
washed away.
Saliva also contains lysozmyes and washes micro-organisms from the teeth and the lining
of the mouth.

Identify antigens as molecules that trigger the immune response

An antigen is any molecule the body recognises as foreign and that triggers the immune response.
(Antigen -> ANTIbody-GENerating substance)

On the surface of cells in the body, there are ‘marker’ molecules identifying it as ‘self’. When
pathogens enter the body they have chemical markers called antigens on their surface; the immune
system recognises them as ‘non-self’. As a result, the immune response is activated (T cells, B cells,
antibodies) to destroy the foreign organisms/cells.

Explain why organ transplants should trigger an immune response

All an individual’s cells are recognised by the immune system as belonging to the body – the body
recognises it as ‘self’. Any other substances are recognised as ‘non-self’ (i.e. foreign).

When a person has an organ transplant, the new organ has antigens that are different to the
antigens on their own cells. The transplanted organ is therefore identified as foreign and the
immune response is activated (antibodies and other substances) to attack the organ (possibly
destroying it) in order to defend the body.
Identify defence adaptations, including: inflammation response, phagocytosis, lymph system, cell
death to seal off pathogen

Second Line of Defence:

When pathogens are successful in penetrating the barriers (first line of defence), a non-specific
response called the ‘second line of defence’ is activated to destroy the invaders to protect the body.
This means that it will recognise any antigen and make no distinction between them (response will
always be the same. Theses defence adaptations include: the inflammation response, phagocytosis,
the lymph system, and cell death.

Response Description
Inflammation The inflammation response is a non-specific defence mechanism and occurs at the site of
response infection. When cells are infected or injured, they release chemical alarm signals such as
histamines and prostaglandins. These chemicals cause blood vessels to dilate (increasing
blood flow to site of infection), causing the area to become red, hot and swollen. The
increased heat helps inhibit the growth of pathogens, as well as inactivate some enzymes and
toxins made by them.

These chemicals also increase the permeability of the blood vessels, allowing for the
movement of phagocytes from the blood into the tissue to attack the invading pathogens. As
plasma moves into the tissue, it brings more phagocytes and produces swelling at the
infection – forcing tissue fluid into the lymph (taking debris and pathogens with it). When the
pathogens are destroyed, they are removed along with any toxins and the tissues are
repaired.

Phagocytosis Phagocytes are specialised white blood cells. Phagocytosis is the process by which
phagocytes change their shape so that they can surround foreign particles and completely
enclose it within their cell. Once it is inside, enzymes are released to destroy the foreign
material. There are two main types of phagocytes:
 Neutrophils – these are the first to be called upon and move to the infection site,
inactivating pathogens. They are short-acting and then self-destruct after a few days,
used by body to fight short and severe infections.
 Macrophages – these are long-lasting phagocytes that either stay in the tissues or
travel from blood vessels into infected tissues. After foreign particle has been
destroyed, parts of the antigen is moved to the surface of the macrophage.
 Note that phagocytosis is not always successful, as pathogens can sometimes repel the
phagocytes or may escape before being completely destroyed.

Lymph As blood circulates around the body, some of the plasma moves out of the capillaries and into
system the tissues, becoming part of the tissue fluid. This tissue fluid then moves into a system of
vessels known as the lymphatic system. This system consists of lymph (milky fluid; blood
without RBC’s, platelets and large plasma proteins), lymph nodes, vessels, thymus, spleen,
tonsils and adenoids. It runs along all parts of the body, forming a one way drainage system
that reaches veins near the heart, where the cleansed lymph fluid is drained back into the
blood.
The lymph nodes are at different points along the lymph vessels, and are storage sites for
macrophages. If there is an infection in the tissues, the foreign particles (along with dead cells
and other debris), move into the lymph vessels and when they get to the lymph nodes, the
waste particles are filtered off and any foreign particles are destroyed by the macrophages.
Swollen lymph nodes (glands) are a good indicator of infection. Furthermore, lymph nodes
play an important role in the third line of defence.
Cell death to Sometimes cells die to seal off an area of tissue that is infected, and is not being successfully
seal off defended by the body. By surrounding the infected cells with a wall of dead cells, it prevents
pathogen the infection from spreading to other areas. This wall of dead cells forms a capsule, known as
a granuloma or cyst.

The cells inside will die, causing the destruction of the pathogens infecting them. The debris
inside the cyst will be destroyed by the macrophages that had surrounded the walled-off
area.

Gather, process and present information from secondary sources to show how a named disease
results from an imbalance of microflora in humans

Micro flora are micro-organisms which live on or inside the body.

Candidiasis (thrush) is a disease caused by an imbalance in the numbers of the fungus: ‘Candida
albicans’. Normally, numbers of Candida albicans are kept in check by other competing micro-
organisms; however, certain medications (such as antibiotics or contraceptive pills) may upset the
balance of micro flora. This could lead to an increase in the number of Candida albicans and
consequently the disease thrush. Thrush can happen in the mouth, the respiratory tract, and in the
vagina.
 5. MacFarlane Burnet’s work in the middle of the twentieth century contributed to a better
understanding of the immune response and the effectiveness of immunisation programs

Identify the components of the immune response: antibodies, T cells, B cells

If foreign particles are successful in penetrating the barriers of the first line of defence, and then
survive the nonspecific response of the second line of defence, our body will trigger the third line of
defence – also known as the immune response.

The immune response is:

 Acquired (gained through exposure to infection)

 Specific (only acts against certain antigens)
 Has a memory (i.e. cells can recognise antigens from previous infections, acting faster/more
efficiently during the second exposure)

B cells B cells are lymphocytes (white blood cells that act only against specific antigens) that are
produced by, and mature in the bone marrow (B-cellBone marrow) After they have
matured, B cells are released into the blood, lymph nodes, spleen and tonsils. Each mature B
cell has a different antibody on its surface (which only responds to a specific antigen). B cells
are activated by the presence of the specific antigen. Upon activation, the B cell makes many
copies of itself. Each of these cells form either:
o Plasma B-cells that produce the antibodies. These die off after infection is destroyed
o Memory B-cells that are formed in the original infection, but don’t die off. They stay
behind to recognise the antigen if it appears again

B cells control the antibody-mediated (humoral) immunity, which defends the body against:
o Bacteria and viruses outside cells
o Toxins produced by bacteria.
T cells T cells are also lymphocytes (T and B cells are the only lymphocytes) that are produced in the
bone marrow, but mature in the thymus gland (T-CellThymus gland). After they mature, T
cells are released into the blood, lymph nodes, spleen and tonsils. T cells are similar to B cells
in that they recognise a specific antigen (though T cells don’t contain antibodies), and are only
activated upon encountering that antigen. Upon activation, the T cells produce many clones
of the killer (cytotoxic) T cells, which move to the site of infection to destroy the infected cell.

T cells control cell-mediated immunity, which defends the body against:

o Bacteria and viruses inside the cells
o Protozoa, fungi, flat/roundworms
o Cancerous cells, transplanted foreign tissue
Antibodies Antibodies are proteins called immunoglobulins, produced in response to the presence of an
antigen in the body. When B cells are activated, they form plasma B-cells, which form
antibodies (antigen-binding sites). These antibodies then seek out the antigen and bind to it,
forming the antigen-antibody complex – causing the deactivation of the antigen. Antibodies
inactivate/destroy antigens in many different ways, including:
o Immobilising it,
o Blocking and neutralising the binding site of the antigen
o Causing the antigen-antibody complex to clump together, which is then engulfed by
phagocytes.
Describe and explain the immune response in the human body in terms of: interaction between B
and T lymphocytes, the mechanisms that allow interaction between B and T lymphocytes, the
range of T lymphocyte types and the difference in their roles

Types of T lymphocyte types and difference in their roles

There are four main types of T cells:

 Helper T cells (Th cells) – each one of these cells has a receptor protein on its surface that
recognises one type of antigen. When the Th cell is activated, it releases a cytokine chemical
that activates the B cells (differentiating into plasma cells that release antibodies), as well as
the growth of cytotoxic T cells
 Cytotoxic T cells (Tc cells) – when activated, these cells are stimulated to produce many
clones of themselves. The resultant army of identical Tc cells move to the site of infection,
bind with infected cells and release chemicals that destroy the infected cell.
 Memory T cells – these cells are produced at the same time as cytotoxic T cells, and remain
in the lymph nodes so that it can respond more quickly to future invasions by the same
antigen.
 Suppressor T cells – these cells stop the immune response when the infection has been
defeated

Interaction between B and T lymphocytes

B cells and T cells are the only lymphocytes (white blood cells specific to a particular antigen). The
two lymphocytes constantly interact with each other in order to function. Helper T-cells stimulate B
cells to divide and produce clones.

 When a macrophage encounters a foreign particle carrying an antigen on its surface, it

surrounds and engulfs it through phagocytosis. In the process, the antigen present is moved
to the surface of the macrophage which then transports it to the lymph nodes. The
macrophage then acts as an antigen-presenting cell, presenting itself to the specific helper T
cell (that responds to that antigen).
 Alternatively, the helper T cell can be activated by B cells. If a B cell encountered its
corresponding antigen, it binds its surface antibodies to the antigen. It then processes the
antigen, attaches it to its surface molecules, and presents this to the helper T cell.
Either of the above two processes then activates the helper T cell. Cytokines (chemical signals) are
then secreted by the helper T cell to activate more of the same helper T cells and also macrophages.
A specific cytokine (interleukin-2) produced by the T cell stimulates the differentiation and cloning
of the B cells, and the production/cloning of cytotoxic T cells that are specific to the antigen. Once
the immune response has defeated the infection, suppressor T cells are responsible for suppressing
the activity of the B cells and cytotoxic T cells.
Note: B and T-cells can also be activated directly by antigens (and not by helper T-cells). Both
processes have the same result.

 T cells can be activated by infected cells displaying the antigens.

 B cells can be activated by free antigens in the blood.

The mechanisms that allow interaction between B and T lymphocytes

Mechanism Explanation
MHC To help the B and T cells interact effectively, there is a system that allows them to identify
molecules each other as ‘belonging to the body’ (hence preventing them from attacking one
another). On the surface of cells are glycoprotein molecules, called MHC molecules. These
allow the recognition of cells from the body. These molecules also allow for identification
of foreign cells, as these will have different MHC molecules on their surface. There are two
types of MHC molecules:
 MHCI molecules (present on all cells that have a nucleus). These are involved in
the recognition of antigens by T cells. Infected cells hold the antigen on its surface
MHCI molecule, hence allowing T cells to recognise and destroy it.
 MHCII molecules (present only on B cells and macrophages). These are involved
in recognition of antigens on macrophages by helper T cells, and the recognition
of antigens by B cells. The macrophage holds the antigen on its surface MHCII
molecule, which is recognised by the helper T cell. The helper T cell then activates
the corresponding B and T cells.

Clonal This is the work of Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet.

selection Before Burnett, Niels Jerne proposed that many types of lymphocytes existed in the body
prior to an antigen entering. The entry of the antigen causes the selection of one of the
types of lymphocyte (the one that has the binding sight matching the antigen). Following
this, the lymphocyte would clone itself extensively, producing antibodies to destroy the
antigens.
Burnet improved this model and called it the clonal selection theory. The theory explained
immunological memory (immune system responds faster on second exposure) and
immunological tolerance (some organisms tolerate foreign cells if they are introduced
during the organisms early development).
 Burnet explained immunological memory as the result of production of two
different types of the specific lymphocyte. Whilst one clone would act
immediately, the other remained in the immune system for some time (memory
cells). It was found that these memory cells provide immunity, being ‘ready and
waiting’ for a second exposure to the same antigen.
 He studied and found evidence to support immunological tolerance. It was found
that if ‘non-self’ cells appeared in an organism at a very early stage of
development, they would be included as self-cells, and the developing
lymphocytes would recognise them as self. Hence, under these circumstances,
foreign tissue from one organism could be transplanted into another organism.
Cytokines Cytokines are a group of signalling compounds made of proteins/polysaccharides that are
used for communication between cells. They co-ordinate the function of the cells so they
can act together as a whole in the immune response. For example, Interleukins are a type
of cytokine secreted by helper T cells and macrophages. The interleukins signal or
stimulate the other cells to differentiate in response to an antigen.
 Cytokines are the main mechanism used for intercellular interaction between T and B
cells.
*insert diagrams before this page

Outline the way in which vaccinations prevent infection

When an antigen is first encountered by body, the immune response generated is known as the
primary response. Generally, the time taken to fight the infection is quite long, as the appropriate T
cells and B cells firstly need to become activated, and then gradually cloned. Time is also needed for
the cytotoxic T cells to kill infected cells, and for the B cells to produce plasma cells that secret
antibodies which neutralise the antigen. During this whole process, memory T cells and memory B
cells specific to the antigen are produced and remain within the body.

The secondary response occurs if the same antigen were to re-enter the body. Firstly, existing
memory cells will activate the production of cytotoxic T cells and the B cells. A very large number of
B cells will then form plasma cells, which secret a much larger amount of antibodies than in the
primary response. A similar trend occurs with the cytotoxic T cells. Overall, this creates the effect of
destroying the invading antigens before numbers are large enough to cause symptoms.

The secondary response is:

 More rapid, and requires less

antigen to initiate it
 Produces a greater quantity of
antibodies
 Lasts for a much longer period of
time (see right)

This type of immunity resulting from

production of memory cells during the
immune response is called active
acquired immunity.

Vaccination is essentially the administration of antigenic material to stimulate the body’s immune
system, creating active acquired immunity. It results in memory cells being produced without the
body actually experiencing any symptoms. Vaccines contain cultures of micro-organisms, which are
either:

 Living but weakened and therefore harmless (rabies, measles)

 Dead (typhoid, whooping cough)

All vaccines are harmless to the body and will not cause the disease they are specific for. However,
because they still contain the antigens, the body will undergo an immune response and produce
memory cells for that particular antigen. If the body is exposed to that antigen in the future, the
secondary response will be activated and the antigen will be destroyed before any symptoms arise.
For a vaccine to be effective, a series of vaccinations are usually given over a number of years. Each
time the vaccine is utilised, a small response is produced. Eventually, the number of memory cells
produced will be substantial to provide long term immunity. In certain cases, the numbers of
memory cells decrease over time and booster injections are required to maintain immunity.

Another way of acquiring immunity is through passive acquired immunity, involving the
introduction of antibodies (rather than the antigens). These antibodies have been produced by
another organism suffering the disease. However, this immunity only lasts short term (a few
months), as no memory cells have been produced.

Outline the reasons for the suppression of the immune response in organ transplant patients

When a patient receives a donor organ, this organ will have ‘marker’ molecules that are different to
the ‘marker’ molecules in the recipient’s body. Hence, the organ will be identified as foreign material,
and the immune response is initiated – causing the rejection of the transplanted organ.

 Drugs, such as cyclosporine are given in order to supress the immune system and minimise
risk of rejection. These drugs reduce the activity of the Tc cells that attack the organ. Whilst
the whole immune system is not suppressed (B cells/antibodies still function), it will be less
effective, as normal interactions between B and T cells do not occur– and the recipient will
be at a greater risk of other infections.
 Furthermore, the tissue of the donor and recipient are matched as closely as possible to
further reduce risk of rejection.

Process, analyse and present information from secondary sources to evaluate the effectiveness of
vaccination programs in preventing the spread and occurrence of once common diseases,
including smallpox, diphtheria and polio

Vaccination programs have been one of the most successful methods used in preventing the spread
and occurrence of diseases such as smallpox, diphtheria and polio. Mass immunisation programs,
such as the Expanded Program on Immunisation launched by the WHO in 1974, are not only
effective in reducing the occurrence of disease in individuals, but have also decrease the spread of
disease through the population.

Smallpox

 Caused by smallpox virus; symptoms include: vesicles on skin, headaches, fever

 Vaccination programs have been extremely effective in preventing the spread/occurrence of
smallpox – to the extent that it has totally eradicated the disease from the world.
 A vaccine for smallpox was first developed by Edward Jenner in 1796, but it was not widely
used. In 1967, the WHO carried out a worldwide immunisation program involving mass
immunisation, and by 1979, WHO declared that it had eliminated the virus from the world
population.
 Since the vaccination programs resulted in the complete eradication of the disease from the
planet, it can be said that the programs were extremely effective
Diphtheria

 Cause by bacterial infection; gives throat infections resulting in breathing difficulties and
then death
 In 1974, the WHO introduced the EPI (Expanded program on immunisation). At that time,
only 5% of children in the world were immunised to the disease, but by 19980, that
percentage had increased to 80%. At the same time, there has been a greatly decreased
mortality rate worldwide
 The vaccination program has been fairly effective in preventing the spread of the disease,
although occasional breakouts of low density have still occurred. Furthermore, even though
the rate of immunity is high, the disease is still present in developing countries and has not
been eradicated.

Polio

 Polio is the attack by polio viruses on the motor neurones of the spinal cord and brain.
Symptoms include high fever, muscle spasms and paralysis
 An oral vaccination for polio (developed by Albert Sabin) was first introduced in 1955.
Subsequent mass immunisation caused a 60-70% reduction in the incidence of the disease.
The incidence further decreased after the EPI was introduced in 1974
 In 1988, the WHO launched a global Polio Eradication Initiative. When the program began,
there were 350,000 cases in the world; but by 2000, there were only 700 cases (a 99%
reduction).
 However, newly reported cases caused the WHO to declare a Public Health Emergency of
International Concern for polio in 2014. One factor for such an outbreak is the war and
unrest in several countries which have interrupted vaccination.
 The drastic decline in Polio infection rates since introduction of vaccines show that
immunisation is quite effective in the spread/occurrence of Polio. However, despite previous
successes in polio control, breakouts (including that in 2014) indicate that sustained
vaccination within a population is required to suppress this disease.

6. Epidemiological studies involve the collection and careful statistical analysis of large
quantities of data. Such studies assist the casual identification of non-infectious diseases

Identify and describe the main features of epidemiology using lung cancer as an example

Epidemiology is the scientific study of patterns of occurrence of disease in human populations, and
the factors that affect these patterns. It can be used to study both infectious and non-infectious
diseases, as well as events such as suicides or car accidents.

The main features of an epidemiological study include:

 Being conducted over a long period of time, over very large sample sizes
 An analysis of statistics – identifying patterns and trends in the occurrence of the disease
 Participants should represent a broad range of society and lifestyles (varying age, sex, race,
occupation etc.)
  Identifying a possible cause of the disease (cause-and-effect relationship), as well as any risk
factors.
 It should also include a plan with strategies to control/eliminate the disease, as well as an
evaluation of the effectiveness of such programs.

There are three major types of epidemiological studies:

 Descriptive studies – these are usually the first type of study completed when investigating
the cause of a disease. They provide information about patterns of the disease, including:
- Frequency of disease
- Section of population affected (e.g. age, gender etc.)
- Location and time period of those affected
 Analytical studies are used to collect more data, which is statistically analysed to develop
hypotheses to potential causes of disease (determining cause and effect relationship).
Analytical studies can involve:
- Case control studies, where people with the disease (case) are compared to people
without the disease (control) to look for differences in exposure, and hence a possible
cause.
- Cohort studies, where similar groups of people free of the disease are studied. These
groups differ in one main factor (exposure to a potential cause of the disease). These
groups are then followed over a long period of time to compare the resulting incidence
of the disease
 Intervention studies are used to test the effectiveness of a treatment (e.g. new drug), or the
effectiveness of a public health campaign to change the behaviour of the population and
hence reduce the incidence of the disease.

Lung cancer as an example:

 Descriptive studies – In an early epidemiological study of the cause of lung cancer, the data
collected included information about: age, sex, smoking habits, diet, occupations and
drinking habits of both smokers and non-smokers.
 Analytical studies:
- A case-control study set up in 1947 compared the lifestyles of patients with lung cancer
to patients with other conditions. The results of this study showed that most individuals
with lung cancer were smokers, suggesting a link between the two.
- After the above case-control study, a cohort study was set up in 1951. It followed more
than 40,000 doctors over a 10-year period. One group included smokers (test group),
and the other group included non-smokers (control group). It was found that the test
group had a much higher incidence of lung cancer than the control group. It also
revealed that the more cigarettes smoked daily, the larger the chance on was to die
from lung cancer.
 Intervention studies – the effectiveness of the ‘Quit’ campaign is evaluated using such
studies.
Gather, process and analyse information to identify the cause and effect relationship of smoking
and lung cancer

Lung cancer is the uncontrolled growth of tumours in the lungs.

A cause and effect relationship is a relationship in which an action taken will then influence/initiate
a second action (effect)

Since the initial study in 1947, many epidemiological studies have been carried out to determine the
cause of lung cancer. The findings have universally demonstrated a clear link between smoking and
the increased incidence of lung cancer. Further studies have even shown that the more cigarettes
smoked each day, the greater the incidence of lung cancer.

Statistical information:

 Free cigarettes were given to WWI soldiers. In the 1930’s, there was a sudden lung cancer
epidemic
 In 1964, the Surgeon’s General Advisory Committee concluded that cigarette smoking was
the cause of lung cancer
 In the 1970’s, as the number of females smoking increased, the incidence of lung cancer in
women increased.
 By the 1990’s, the number of male smokers had decreased, and so had the incidence of lung
cancer in males

Identify causes of non-infectious disease using an example from each of the following categories:
inherited diseases, nutritional deficiencies, environmental diseases

Non-infectious diseases are those diseases that are not caused by a pathogen and are not
contagious. They include: inherited diseases caused by changes in genetic information, nutritional
deficiencies (diet) and environmental diseases (factors in the environment).

Inherited diseases These diseases are genetically transmitted, and are caused by errors in
genetic information
o Down syndrome is caused by an extra chromosome 21
o Cystic fibrosis is caused by a mutation to a single gene (CFTR gene
found on chromosome 7). The CFTR gene is recessive, meaning a
person needs two copies of the faulty gene to develop the disease.
This faulty gene changes the protein regulating normal movement
of NaCl in and out of cells. As a result, mucus-secreting organs
produce abnormally thick mucus – affecting the respiratory,
digestive and reproductive systems as well as the sweat glands.
Nutritional deficiencies These diseases can be caused by diets lacking the proper balance and
nutrients or it can be caused by psychological conditions that lead to
improper diets
o Anaemia caused by a lack or iron or folic acid causes lethargy
o Scurvy is caused by an inadequate amount of vitamin C in one’s
diet. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is important for the production of
substances required for connective tissues, bones and dentin.
Scurvy causes pain in the legs, swollen bones and in more
advanced cases: gangrene and reopening of old wounds.
Environmental diseases Environmental diseases include those caused by: lifestyle (substance
abuse), physical factors (UV light from sun causing skin cancer), chemical
exposure (lead poisoning from environment).
o Mesothelioma is caused by exposure to asbestos and patients do
not get symptoms until 20-30 years after exposure. It involves
cancer of the mesothelial cells on the outside of the lung, and the
tumour may eventually surround the entire lung. The disease can
cause: shortness of breath, chest pain and weight loss.
Identify data sources, plan and perform a first-hand investigation or gather information from
secondary sources to analyse and present information about the occurrence, symptoms, cause,
treatment/management of a named non-infectious disease

Disease: Cystic fibrosis

Occurrence Varies with ethnic groups. 1 in 3300 in Caucasians and 1 in 19500 in Hispanics.
Symptoms Cystic fibrosis causes the mucus-secreting organs to produce abnormally thick mucus. It
affects the respiratory, digestive and reproductive systems, as well as the sweat glands.
It blocks passageways in lungs/digestive tracts – causing problems with breathing and
the digestion/absorption of nutrients. Symptoms include:
o Recurrent and severe chest infections
o Malabsorption of nutrients
o Excess salt in sweat
o Diabetes
o Liver failure
o Infertility
Cause Mutation to the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CTFR) gene found
on chromosome 7. The gene is recessive, therefore the individual must have two copies
of the faulty gene in order to develop the disease. The faulty gene changes the protein
regulating normal movement of NaCl in and out of cells – causing the production of
abnormally thick mucus
Treatment The current treatment of cystic fibrosis involves relieving symptoms, as there is no cure
yet. Treatments include:
o Supplements to diet (countering effect of insufficient digestion and absorption
of nutrients)
o Daily physiotherapy and breathing exercises (prevent excessive build-up of
mucus in lungs)
o Antibiotics used to treat and control the many infections that develop
o Lung transplantation if the lungs are too badly damaged
o Gene therapy is being researched as a potential cure of cystic fibrosis

7. Increased understanding has led to the development of a wide range of strategies to

prevent and control disease

Discuss the role of quarantine in preventing the spread of disease and plants and animals into
Australia or across regions of Australia

Quarantine is a strategy used to control the spread of disease involving the isolation of diseased
organism.

The main role of quarantine is to: protect the health of human, animal and plant populations by
preventing entry and spread of foreign pests or diseases
Australia remains free of some of the world’s most serious pests and diseases. This is due to our
geographical isolation and our quarantine system, which is known as the Australian Quarantine and
Inspection Service (AQIS). AQIS has many strategies to prevent entry and spread of unwanted pests
or diseases:

 Border control – Frequent international travel and trade has caused Australia to be in close
contact with other parts of the world. Hence passenger/cargo clearances by quarantine
officers are required at airports, sea ports and mail exchanges. This is to prevent destruction
of environment by exotic pests/diseases.
 Animal quarantine – all animals (including insects, birds, fish) are subject to quarantine
regulations. They must remain at quarantine stations for a certain period upon entering
Australia, before they can be released to move freely
 Plant quarantine – all plants and plant parts (fruits, seeds, cuttings bulbs) are subject to
quarantine laws. They are examined and treated (if necessary) by quarantine officers. If
living plants are imported, they must also remain in quarantine for a required period to
ensure they are not carrying pests/diseases.
 Human quarantine - the staff on aircrafts and ships are required to notify AQIS if
passengers/crew display symptoms of prohibited diseases such as rabies, yellow fever or
malaria.

Within Australia, there are also restrictions on movement of fruits, vegetables and livestock. This is
to protect the agricultural industries from invasion by pests/diseases. Quarantine strategies within
Australia aim to prevent the spread of existing pests and diseases; especially in regards to areas that
are free of the pests/diseases in question.

Process and analyse information from secondary sources to evaluate the effectiveness of
quarantine in preventing the spread of plant and animal disease into Australia or across regions of
Australia

Foot and mouth disease

Foot-and-mouth disease is a contagious disease that occurs in cloven-hoofed animals (e.g. cows and
sheep). It causes the animal to have a high fever and then blisters in the mouth/foot which may
rupture. The disease is caused by an airborne virus and can be transmitted via live animals or by
corpses.

Border controls and quarantine procedures in regards to meat and dairy products have ensured that
Australia has been free of foot-and-mouth disease.

Effectiveness: The quarantine procedures for foot and mouth disease have been extremely effective;
with Australia being free of the disease for over 100 years.

Karnal bunt

Karnal bunt is a fungal disease that affects wheat. It causes a foul smelling black powder to cover the
wheat head. In this way, it reduces grain quality – adding taste/odour to the grain and its products.
Seeds for growing are under strict post-entry quarantine conditions until it is demonstrated to be
disease free.

Effectiveness: The quarantine procedures for Karnal bunt have been effective, as Australia has been
free of the disease.

Fruit fly (quarantine within Australia)

Fruit flies cause fruit to appear normal on the outside but be very soft and brown on the inside.
Fruit flies are incapable of flying very far; the main way in which they are introduced into an area is
via an infected fruit carried by visitors to the area. In 1994, a Fruit Fly Exclusion Zone (FFEZ) was
established to protect fruit growing regions in SA, northern VIC and southern NSW.

Quarantine measures have been implemented to forbid the movement of fruit into these areas. A
number of checkpoints are in place to enforce this. Roads approaching the FFEZ also have
quarantine bins provided with signs asking that any fruits be placed into the bins. In addition, traps
have been placed on borders of the zone. They are regularly inspected for fruit flies; if the pest is
detected, the infected area may be quarantined to prevent further spread.

Effectiveness: Such quarantine strategies have been effective in preventing the spread of fruit fly
into the FFEZ, as the area has remained relatively free from the pest in many years.

Explain how one of the following strategies has controlled and/or prevented disease: public health
programs, pesticides, genetic engineering to produce disease-resistant plants and animals

Pesticides

Pesticides are chemicals used to kill the pests of plants, animals, pathogens and vectors. If these
pests/vectors are killed, then the occurrence of disease will be prevented and the spread of the
disease will be controlled. Pesticides are classified into three groups: insecticides (kills insects),
fungicides (kills fungal pathogens), and herbicides (kills weeds).

An example of the use of pesticide is the control of malaria by the pesticide DDT, which was used to
kill populations of the Anopheles mosquito (the vector for malaria). This helped control the spread
of malaria, as transmission of the pathogen was prevented by death of the vector.

However, the effectiveness of DDT was gradually reduced as mosquitoes built up resistance towards
it through the process of natural selection. Furthermore, harmful environmental effects were
observed with the use of DDT. Hence, the use of DDT was banned in many countries (including
Australia in 1981). Other insecticides (e.g. pyrethrum) are now used, as they are less harmful to the
environment and more effective in controlling mosquito numbers. Consequently, the spread of
malaria has remained relatively controlled.
Gather and process information and use available evidence to discuss the changing methods of
dealing with plant and animal diseases, including the shift in emphasis from treatment and control
to management or prevention of disease

Treatment of disease involves strategies that cure the disease of relieve its symptoms after the
organism has the disease. Control of a disease involves reducing its spread through the population
once it is already present. Management of disease commonly involves programs that improve the
outcome of chronic conditions and improving quality of life of sufferers. Prevention of disease
involves strategies that stop the occurrence of the disease in organisms

Previously, the incidence of disease was commonly met with emphasis on treatment and control.
However, more recently, the emphasis has shifted to preventing and managing diseases instead.
Such a trend can be seen through the following examples:

 Smallpox – this was a widespread disease during the 18th century and many people died as a
result. Treatments were available, however, it was relatively ineffective as people continued
to die from the disease. However, once vaccines for smallpox were discovered and produced
- they were used in favour of treatment. Vaccinations for smallpox has controlled the
disease extremely successfully – leading to the total eradication of smallpox
 Animal/plant diseases – In Australia, rather than pursuing treatments for diseases such as
foot-and-mouth and rabies, we use quarantine methods, disallowing infected organisms
from entering the country. Hence, this has allowed the prevention of the disease in Australia.
Furthermore, plant pests such as the leaf eating caterpillars of the Helicoverpa zea moth
(which affect cotton crops) were previously controlled using insecticides. However, more
recent techniques involved prevention through the genetic modification of plants (e.g. Bt
cotton).
 Cancers –treatments involve chemotherapy, radiotherapy and surgical removals. Although
they are quite successful, there are many side-effects to such treatments (e.g. physical scars,
loss of hair). More recently, preventative measures have been implemented towards
cancers (e.g. lung cancer, skin cancer) through public health campaigns like “Slip, Slop, Slap”
and the “Quit” campaign for smoking. Such campaigns have reduced the incidence of such
cancers, hence preventing the ‘disease’.

Perform an investigation to examine plant shoots and leaves and gather first-hand information of
evidence of pathogens and insect pests

Aim: To examine plant shoots and leaves for evidence of pathogens and insect pests

Equipment:

 Hand lens
 Lemon tree clipping

Method:

1. Gather lemon tree clippings and examine with hand lens for signs of citrus leaf miners
and other pathogens/ insect pests.
2. Record results.
Results:

Silver traits and leaf distortion were observed, meaning that there were citrus leaf miners infecting
the lemon tree clipping.

Pathogens Insect pests

- Bacterial infections cause spots, blights, - Nematodes cause lumps on leaves, leaf
and galls distortion, and scorches and blotches
- Fungal infections cause spots, blights, - Aphids are small green insects which
and galls suck sap from phloem and cause wilting
- Viral infections cause discolouring and - Leaf miners burrow into leaves and
mosaics leave silvery trails causing leaf distortion