1- Public Opinion

I) What is Public Opinion?

A) often is misused to suggest all Americans think a particular way
B) Different Publics
a) a public refers to any group of people with a shared view about an issue
(i) because of the nature of American politics, most issues have a 'one side vs. the
other side' mentality
b) typically publics do not contain the entire population
(i) some issues, like the death penalty, have strong support, strong opposition, or just
mild feelings one way or another
C) Definition
a) public opinion is very complex, but can be narrowed down to any attitude held by a
significant number of people on matters of government and politics
b) public opinion does not have to be done through media or polls, but can come in the
form of writing emails/letters to Congress, film, advertisements, voting for or against
candidates, or protests
(i) sometimes, until the ideas are made known, people are unaware that they shared
ideas with others
1 this is less likely today with the extensive use of social media
II) Family and Education
A) no one is born with opinions or attitudes about government and politics
B) a person's life is full of 'teachers' that shape their views on public policies
a) while there is an infinite number of 'teachers', the most important are family and
schools
C) Family
a) from birth, children are around their parents the most
(i) more likely to see politics and the world from their parents' point of view
b) the tv/news parents watch can color how a child sees the world
(i) they are too young to understand complex issues, but the basis for their beliefs is
rooted in what they see at home
1 this is true even for those who do not share their parents' beliefs- they still see
the world from a certain point of view, but decide to rebel against it
D) Schools
a) school provides a break from ideas at home, and exposes children to new ideas and
viewpoints
(i) in early years, the focus is put on working together and learning to coexist
b) schools also look to instill loyalty and the values of being a good citizen
 (i) saying the pledge in the morning, for instance
(ii) US History, Texas History, and Government all look at our own system and how
it developed
1 even other classes use the basic ideas learned in these to build an idea of
citizenship
c) informal learning from peers is also very important
III) Other Factors
A) Mass Media
a) includes all means of communication like newspapers, radio, internet, magazines, and
most importantly, TV
(i) in recent years, the internet has played a much larger role- why?
B) Peer Groups
a) made up of the people someone regularly associates with
(i) friends, classmates, neighbors, coworkers
b) belonging to a particular group will help shape a person's attitudes
(i) people in a group tend to think alike, and will form closer bonds as time passes
C) Opinion Leaders
a) usually highly respected people (typically in government) that hold some power to
sway a large group of people's thinking
(i) on a smaller scale, this can include teachers, priests/ministers, lawyers, doctors,
etc
D) Historic Events
a) those who study history are able to trace causes and effects of certain beliefs/rhetoric
(i) by using this, they attempt to prevent disasters of the past from reoccurring
b) many events themselves affect the development of public programs
(i) the Great Depression is the largest
1 gave us Social Security, Medicare, Unemployment, etc
(ii) other major events include the Civil War, WWII, the Civil Rights era, and most
recently the attacks of September 11, 2001
2- Measuring Public Opinion

I) Measuring Public Opinion

A) Elections
a) in a democratic society, public opinion should be reflected in elections
(i) this means whoever won is basically given permission to carry out their campaign
promises
b) in reality, elections rarely reflect true public opinion
(i) the Electoral College can mean the candidate with the most popular votes still
loses
1 Al Gore lost with over 500,000 more total votes; Hillary Clinton lost with
over 2 million more total votes
(ii) poor voter turnout means only some actually voice their opinion in the ballot
1 in the 2016 election, only 54% of eligible voters actually cast a ballot
(iii)candidates usually win or lost by a small margin, which means only about a
quarter of the voting population decide who becomes president
B) Interest Groups
a) these are private organizations whose members share certain views and try to shape
public policy
b) participation in an interest group signifies the issue is very important to you
C) Media
a) since media can influence many people at a time, it is often viewed as an accurate
depiction of public opinion
(i) in fact, the media only represents a small vocal minority, and has less power than
is typically believed
D) Personal Contacts
a) these include letters/emails to public officials
b) elected officials try to keep in touch with their base to secure reelection when the time
comes
II) Polls
A) Straw Polls
a) the most inaccurate form of polling that tries to reach as many people as possible, but
does not account for those who might actually respond
b) in 1936, a straw poll sent out in a magazine had over 2 million responses and showed
that FDR would lost the next election in a landslide, but in fact he easily defeated his
opponent
(i) they pulled their sample numbers from people with cars and in phone directories
 1 they didn't take into account that the poor did not have cars or phones, and
therefore were entirely unrepresented in the poll
c) today, straw polls are done online (Twitter) and are put on tv, which only provides
information from people who both watch the network and are on Twitter
B) Scientific Polling
a) since the 1930s, people have attempted to design polls that are more wide-ranging
and accurate
(i) most of them are not used for elections, but are for things like movies, tv,
commercial products, etc
III) Polling Process
A) Defining the Universe
a) universe means the group/population the polling is attempting to contact
(i) this can be one city, or every high school student in Texas, all Democrats in
Georgia, etc
B) Constructing a Sample
a) since most universes are made up of large groups of people, pollsters must get a
sample that would represent their universe
(i) most randomly select people from the universe (random sample)
(ii) usually a large universe has a sample size of about 1500 people
1 by the law of probability, that number should give an accurate idea of the
universe
2 there are obviously going to be errors, and usually it is + or – 3 (a spread of 6
total points)
C) Preparing Valid Questions
a) pollsters must design questions that will not influence the thinking of the person
answering
(i) they must also try to avoid “trigger” words that can make a person answer
emotionally
D) Interviewing
a) how pollsters communicate with a sample can affect accuracy
(i) for this reason, most polling is done face to face
1 the pollster's appearance, dress, attitude, and tone can affect answers
E) Analyze and Report Findings
a) there are entire companies designed to take raw data and analyze it for dissemination
IV) Evaluating Polls
A) generally, polls are accurate in a national sense
 a) even with the 2016 election, polls showed Hillary Clinton ahead of Trump by a few
percentage points, and now that the popular vote is in it shows that she won by over 2
million votes, but Trump won the electoral votes (popular vote reflected the polls
very closely)
B) sometimes, polls can get a little full of themselves
a) occasionally polls can do exactly what they're designed not to- influence an opinion
based on “herd mentality”
3- Interest Groups

I) Interest Groups and What They Do

A) Organizing Interests
a) people with strongly held beliefs about something (environment, guns, teaching, etc)
come together to join forces so they can influence legislation in their favor
B) Encouraging Participation
a) active (personal) participation has been in decline, but “checkbook memberships”
have increased
C) Supplying Information
a) increasing activity on the internet has allowed groups to get information out more
easily
(i) sometimes groups provide false information to convince people to work for their
interests or against an opponent
b) many groups will attempt to influence elections by putting out negative ads against
candidates they don’t like
II) Types of Interest Groups
A) Agricultural Groups
a) most food comes from large scale farms owned by huge companies, so they try to
make sure Congress doesn’t pass any laws that will hurt their industry
B) Business Groups
a) the most powerful of these represent large businesses and they donate millions of
dollars to candidates campaigns in exchange for special consideration
b) other groups represent small businesses, trade businesses (like snack foods), or
energy
(i) oil groups are the most powerful and wealthiest in the energy industry, but wind
and solar industries have been gaining power over the last 10 years
C) Labor Groups
a) designed to represent the people who work for large companies or government
(i) most of these are also labor unions
1 these have power through donations or having their unions go on strike
D) Cause-Based Groups
a) focus on a cause like drunk driving or attempting to increase government
participation
E) Societal Groups
a) represent ethnic, religious, social, racial, or other groups not included in other interest
groups
F) Professional Groups
a) represent professions, like lawyers, doctors, or another group that has high levels of
education
III) Functions of Special Interest Groups
A) Endorsing Candidates
a) probably the most common function of interest groups
b) since interest groups want certain legislation that will help them (or stop legislation
that will hurt), they need candidates that will agree with them
(i) the most common way of doing this is to donate to campaigns
 1 if a candidate wins and doesn’t follow through, the interest group will endorse
their opponent and try to get them out of office
B) Lobbying
a) once a candidate wins their election, representatives from the interest groups will
contact them to get to know them
(i) this usually involves fancy dinners to get people to like the representative, then
when something is needed they’ll be able to contact the official more easily
C) Informing Public Opinion
a) interest groups have professionals to go on tv, to a council meeting, testify in court as
experts, etc to gain new members and keep existing members happy
b) many also have local representatives who organize large groups of people to either
organize protests/marches or contact their representatives
(i) a strong showing from many people could influence officials
D) Filing Lawsuits
a) in some cases, a formal lawsuit is filed to change a law
(i) the most famous was Brown v. Board of Education, when a group of parents of
black students sued for equal access to public schools
1 this would end segregation in schools
IV) Interest Groups and the Public Good
A) Benefits of Interest Groups
a) they allow interests that might not otherwise be heard to have a voice
(i) example: the civil rights movement started as interest groups
B) Criticism of Interest Groups
a) some believe the groups have too much power
(i) a well-funded group can influence legislation significantly
1 example: the NRA blocking any government agency from studying whether or
not gun control efforts might help slow the rate of mass murders using
automatic weapons
b) many also believe interest groups appeal to emotion more than reasoned argument
(i) again, the NRA and the belief that Obama was going to take away all guns
4- Campaign Funding

I) Campaign Spending
A) spending on campaigns has been growing to outrageous heights
a) in 1960, the spending was estimated at $175 million (total of all candidates running)
b) the 2016 election has spent an estimated $2 billion
(i) this number reflects only the Democratic and Republican presidential candidates,
not 3rd Party or any Congressional campaigns
II) Sources of Funding
A) Private and Public Sectors
a) small contributors- usually $5-10 from individuals
b) wealthy individuals or families- large donations usually ranging from $50,000-5
million
c) candidates- wealthy candidates (almost all of them) can self fund
d) PAC- political action committees are generally funded by special interest groups
(i) SuperPACs are less regulated and can funnel unlimited amounts of money, while
PACs are limited by the FEC
e) temporary organizations- spring up solely to support a specific candidate
B) Why People Give
a) small donations account for very little, but give people a stake in the election
b) large scale donations are generally given to gain favor or to influence future
legislation
III) Regulating Campaign Finance
A) various laws have passed limiting the contributions that can directly be given to
candidates
a) PACs are also regulated, but have a higher limit they can spend on candidates
b) SuperPACs have no limit and very little regulation
IV) Federal Election Commission (FEC)
A) administers all law dealing with campaign finance
B) has four primary jobs
a) Disclosure Requirements
(i) cannot donate directly to the candidate of more than $100 per person
(ii) can only donate through a campaign committee
1 all spending and donations must be reported by committee
(iii)also places time limits on when to report spending
b) Limits on Contributions
(i) before Citizens United, corporations were forbidden from donating to campaigns
 (ii) no individual can donate more than $1,000 to a campaign, $5,000 to a PAC, or
$20,000 to a Party
1 these limits do not apply to SuperPACs
(iii)PACs
1 since corporations can't give much directly to candidates, they used to use
PACs and set up dummy corporations that funneled their money
2 SuperPACs allow them to avoid even having to set up the dummy
corporations
c) Limits on Expenditures
(i) most limits apply only to presidential candidates, not congressional
(ii) now that “money is free-speech,” there are almost no limits on what money can
be spent on in an election
d) Public Funding
(i) allows for people to add as little as $3 to their tax return to go to Presidential
Election Campaign Fund
1 major candidates can use some of this money in their campaigns
 using this money actually puts more limits on spending, so some wait to
ask for it until after the limit is passed
C) Loopholes
a) there have been so many loopholes worked into the laws, today elections are basically
billion dollar industries
(i) using these loopholes, candidates have raised more money than previous
candidates in each election since 1976
5- Political Parties

I) What is a Political Party?

A) Group of people seeking to control government through elections
B) 2 major parties
a) Democrat vs. Republican
C) other parties have never won a major election
II) Political Party Functions
A) designed as conduit between people and government
B) nominate candidates
a) select people to run for office
b) very rare for person to run for office without nomination
C) inform and activate supporters
a) choose issues and support them based on popular support
D) bonding agent function
a) candidates must be seen as qualified
E) governing
a) much of Congress is separated by Party
F) watchdog
a) watch other Party to keep them in line
III) Why a 2 Party System?
A) Historical
a) originally, the framers didn't want political parties
(i) Hamilton and Jefferson disagree and formed first parties
B) Tradition
a) because there have always been 2 parties, people assume there will always be 2
parties
C) Electoral system
a) because of winner takes all mentality, system promotes 2 candidates
b) discourages small new parties because they can't compete with large parties
c) voting laws set by states rather than nation
(i) designed to promote self interest
(ii) leads to 1 party dominating areas for a long time
(iii)gerrymandering
1 redistricting to fit political advantage
d) minor parties have been left off ballot for major elections
D) Ideological consensus
a) over time, Americans share the same basic principles
 (i) typically, Americans choose one side of an issue
1 promotes 2 Party System
IV) Other Political Systems
A) multiparty
a) several major and minor parties compete in elections
b) common in Europe
c) typically a party is formed over a single issue
d) often leads to instability
B) one party system
a) dictatorship
b) aka “no party system”
c) areas of US considered one party due to gerrymandering
V) Party Membership Patterns
A) purely voluntary
B) a person's background (religion, race, education) often influences party affiliation
C) family is most important factor in choosing party
a) 2/3 of people have same party as parents
D) major events affect party
a) Civil War and Depression were the 2 biggest events
E) today, economic status influences party
a) poor tend to vote Democrat, rich for Republican (not 100% though)
VI) Nation's First Parties
A) Federalist-- supported the Constitution
B) Anti-federalist-- support states rights
a) later called the Democratic- Republicans
VII) 4 Major Eras
A) 1800- 1860 Democrats dominated
a) originally led by Thomas Jefferson
b) Whig party started around 1830
(i) won only twice
c) Jacksonian Democrats won the rest
(i) mostly small farmers, frontier people, slaveholders
d) 1850's Whigs disappeared and Democrats split over slavery
(i) Republican party formed from leftover Whigs and antislavery Dems
(ii) Lincoln was first Republican President
VIII) 1860-1932 Republicans dominated
A) started with Civil War
 B) supported by business, farmers, laborers, and newly freed black Americans
C) Democrats held on to south after Reconstruction
a) Grover Cleveland was only Democrat to win in this era
D) changes in railroads and big business vs workers
a) workers supported Republicans, had greater numbers
b) Democrats lost, and responded by campaigning that they were the real party for the
"little man"
E) Teddy takes over, very popular with people, but not in government (bully)
a) decides not to run again, supports his VP Taft
F) Taft very unpopular with people, popular in government (easy to bully)
a) Republicans renominate him, Teddy doesn't like it
(i) Teddy forms Bull-Moose Party, splits vote, Dems win
G) Republicans take back over after WWI and rule through 20's
a) series of scandals and poor choices lead into Great Depression
IX) 1932-1968 Democrats rule
A) FDR takes over, begins social programs for poor during Depression
a) country begins to recover, then WWII hits and it pushes us into huge recovery
b) New Deal sets ideals for Democratic party for the future
B) Republican WWII hero Eisenhower takes over in 50's
C) JFK takes it back for Dems
a) because of problems in Vietnam, Nixon wins 1968
X) 1968-present
A) Nixon(R) takes over, then resigns after Watergate scandal
B) Ford(R) pardons him, loses to Carter(D) because of pardoning Nixon
C) Carter had issues with economy, Iran hostage crisis, seen as weak- 4 years
D) Reagan(R) takes over- 8 years
a) lowered individual taxes, closed tax law loopholes esp. for high income, increased
federal spending (military and IRS), ended Cold War, economy started to recover
E) George Bush Sr.(R) next- 4 years
a) expensive Gulf War, issues left over from Reagan years weakened him
F) Bill Clinton(D) takes over- 8 years
a) record growth in economy, pushed through new healthcare laws, NAFTA, welfare
reform, children's insurance, last 3 years the country had a budget surplus
b) impeached for purgery after lying about an affair, but found not guilty
G) George W. Bush(R)- 8 years
a) won by questionable decision in the Supreme Court
(i) led to division in country, which mostly ended after 9/11 attacks
 b) fought 2 wars in his 8 years
(i) also lowered taxes on wealthy, leading to huge increase in federal deficit
c) banks were allowed to become larger during this time, and mixed with little oversight
of Wall Street directly led to Great Recession in 2008
(i) this was Congress, not the President
(ii) Bush proposed federal bailout, but left office before it happened
H) Barack Obama(D)- 8 years
a) instituted bailout of large companies
(i) slowly brought country out of Recession with new reforms
b) passed landmark state controlled healthcare
c) ended Iraq war
d) used more drone strikes than Bush without declaration of war
I) Donald Trump(R)- present
a) candidacy greatly divided Republican Party, but he successfully ran various smear
campaigns against primary opponents and against Democratic opponent
b) has attempted to repeal almost every Obama-era piece of legislation
(i) currently this has only been successful in smaller stuff- was repeatedly unable to
repeal the healthcare law
XI) Types of 3rd Parties
A) ideological parties
a) based on particular beliefs, including social, economic, and political issues
b) Libertarian Party- emphasizes individualism and shrinking government
B) single-issue parties
a) concentrate on one public-policy
b) short lived- like Free Soil Party sought freedom for slaves
c) typically very small
C) economic protest parties
a) typically rise during economic troubles
b) Populist Party- wanted public ownership of railroads, telephone
D) splinter parties
a) split away from major parties
b) Bull-Moose, Tea Party, Green Party
XII) Role of Third Party
A) put pressure on major parties for certain issues
a) sometimes major parties adopt popular ideas from third parties
B) can pull votes away from major parties, leading to opponents winning
a) Bull-Moose pulled votes from Republicans, Democrats won
 C) influence some legislation
a) income tax, women's suffrage, banking regulation

Describe how the Republican and Democratic Parties switched ideologies during the 1930s