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Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 1 Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 4

2-1 Position and Displacement

Displacement is a vector quantity
xi xf
x (m) Displacement Δx = 3 m means the
-2 -1 0 1 2 object position has changed by 3 m
Δx = 3 m in the positive direction.

xf xi Displacement Δx = - 3 m means the

x (m)
-2 -1 0 1 2 object position has changed by 3 m
Chapter 2 Δx = -3 m
in the negative direction.

Motion Along a Straight Line To determine the displacement of an object, you need to specify
1- Magnitude (The distance between the initial and final positions.
Always positive)
2-1 Position and Displacement
2- Direction (Negative or positive direction)
2-2 Average Velocity and Average Speed
Æ Displacement is a vector quantity.
2-3 Instantaneous Velocity and Speed
2-4 Acceleration Magnitude (Absolute value). Always positive.
2-5 Constant Acceleration
Δx = - 3 m
2-6 Free-Fall Acceleration Direction.
2-7 Graphical Analysis

Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 2 Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 5

2-1 Position and Displacement 2-1 Position and Displacement

Position Total distance
Motion along a straight line ≡ One-dimensional motion xi xf Δx = 1 m.
x (m) Total distance = 7 m.
-2 -1 0 1 2
Vertical
Horizontal Slanted Total distance is not always equal to the magnitude of displacement.

xf xi Δx = - 1 m.
x (m) Total distance = 7 m.
Particle -2 -1 0 1 2
Object
Total distance is always positive and does not depend on the direction.
Æ Total distance is a scalar quantity.
An object moves like a particle if every portion of the object moves in
the same direction and at the same rate.
xi xf Δx = 1 m.
x (m) Total distance = 1 m.
Object is located at Object is located at -2 -1 0 1 2
x = -4 m x=3m
x (m) Displacement depends only on the initial and final positions.
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Origin Total distance depends on the path.

Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 3 Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 6

2-1 Position and Displacement 2-1 Position and Displacement

Displacement Checkpoint 1
Displacement = final position - initial position Δ = uppercase What is the direction of the
Δx = xf -xi Greek letter delta following displacements? Solution
Δ ≡ change
Initial position Final position Initial Final Direction
Δx ≡ change in x
xi xf position position
x (m)
-2 -1 0 1 2 -4 m -2 m Positive

Displacement in the positive direction is positive. -2 m -6 m Negative

xi xf xi xf 3m -2 m Negative
x (m) x (m)
-2 -1 0 1 2 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
Δx = 1 - (-2) = 3 m Δx = -1 - (-4) = 3 m

Displacement in the negative direction is negative.

xf xi xf xi
x (m) x (m)
-2 -1 0 1 2 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
Δx = -2- 1 = -3 m Δx = -4- (-1) = -3 m

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Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 7 Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 10

2-2 Average Velocity and Average Speed 2-2 Average Velocity and Average Speed
Position-time graph Average velocity is a vector quantity
x (m) The sign of the average velocity for the time interval t = 1.0 s to t = 3.0 s
2 x (m) x (m)
Slope > 0 Slope < 0
2 2
vavg >0 vavg < 0
1
Stationary particle 1 1
t (s) ∆t ∆t
0 1 2 3 4 t (s) t (s)
x (m)
-1 -2 -1 0 1 2 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
-1 -1
-2
-2 -2
x (m) x (m)
t=0s -2 -1 0 1 2
x (m)
2 Slope = 0
2 vavg = 0
t=1s x (m)
1 -2 -1 0 1 2 The average velocity has both
1 ∆t magnitude and direction.
x (m)
t (s) t = 2 s -2 -1 0 1 2
0 1 2 3 4 t (s)
x (m) 0 1 2 3 4 Æ Average velocity is a vector
-1 t=3s -2 -1 0 1 2 quantity.
-1
-2 t=4s x (m)
-2 -1 0 1 2 -2

Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 8 Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 11

2-2 Average Velocity and Average Speed 2-2 Average Velocity and Average Speed
Average velocity Average speed
The average velocity vavg for a time interval is The average speed savg for a time interval is
Displacement Final position - Initial position Total distance
Average velocity = = Average speed =
Time interval Final time - Initial time Time interval
∆x = x f - xi Total distance
v avg = savg =
∆t t f - ti ∆t
Since Δt is always positive, average velocity has the Average speed is always positive. It does not include direction.
same sign as the displacement . Æ Average speed is a scalar quantity.
m
SI unit for average velocity is
s x (m) Slope = 0 For the time interval t = 1.0 s to t = 3.0 s,
x (m) The average velocity for the time 2 m
vavg = 0 v avg = 0.0
2 interval t = 1.0 s to t = 3.0 s is s
1 ∆t
Total distance 5.0 m m
1 savg = = = 2.5
1.8 - (-1.5) m = 3.3 m t (s) ∆t 2.0 s s
t (s) v avg = 0 1 2 3 4
3.0 - 1.0 s 2.0 s
0 1 2 3 4 -1
-1 m Average speed is not always equal to the
= 1.7
s -2 magnitude of average velocity.
-2

Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 9 Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 12

2-2 Average Velocity and Average Speed 2-2 Average Velocity and Average Speed
Average velocity from x-t graph Example 1
Trip along a straight line Driving Walking
x (m) ∆x x - xi 10 km 2.0 km
2 v avg = = f
∆t t f - ti 60 km/h 25 min
1
∆x =1.8 m - (-1.5 m) = 3.3 m
t (s)
0 1 2 3 4 What is your average velocity for the whole trip?
-1
Solution Displacement D = Driving
-2 ∆t = 3.0 s - 1.0 s = 2.0 s W = Walking
∆x = ∆xD + ∆x W = 10 km + 2.0 km = 12 km
On the x-t graph, the average velocity vavg for a time interval is the slope ∆x 12 km
of the straight line connecting the initial and final points. v avg = = = 20 km/h
∆t 0.59 h
∆t = ∆tD + ∆t W = 0.17 h + 0.42 h = 0.59 h
The average velocity for the time interval t = 1.0 s to t = 3.0 s is 1h
25 min = 25 min( ) = 0.42 h
∆x 3.3 m m 60 min
v avg = = = 1.7 ∆xD ∆xD 10 km
∆t 2.0 s s v avg, D = Æ ∆tD = = = 0.17 h
∆tD v avg, D 60 km/h

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Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 13 Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 16

2-2 Average Velocity and Average Speed 2-3 Instantaneous Velocity and Speed
Example 2 Velocity
Trip along a straight line Driving Walking The instantaneous velocity v at a given instant is
10 km 2.0 km
0.17 h 0.42 h ∆x
velocity = lim
∆t → 0 ∆t
Walking dx velocity ≡ instantaneous velocity
0.50 h v=
dt
What is your average velocity and average speed for the whole trip?
Average velocity over a time Velocity at an instant
Solution In the negative direction
Displacement period Δt
x x
∆x = 10 km + 2.0 km - 2.0 km = 10 km
∆x 10 km Tangent
v avg = = = 9.2 km/h line
∆t 1.09 h
∆t = 0.17 h + 0.42 h + 0.50 h = 1.09 h
∆t ∆t → 0
Total distance = 10 km + 2.0 km + 2.0 km = 14 km
t t
Total distance 14 km
Savg = = = 13 km/h
∆t 1.09 h

Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 14 Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 17

2-2 Average Velocity and Average Speed 2-3 Instantaneous Velocity and Speed
Example 3 Velocity is the slope of x-t curve
Trip along a straight line Driving Walking 1 The velocity v at a given instant is
10 km 2.0 km
dx
0.17 h 0.42 h v= Velocity is the derivative of x with respect to t.
dt
Walking 2 Velocity = the slope of the x-versus-t curve.
0.50 h Velocity = the slope of the line tangent to the x-versus-t curve.
Find the average velocity from the x-t graph.
Solution x (km) ∆x 10 km velocity at an instant
v avg = = = 9.2 km/h
12 ∆t 1.09 h x

10 final Positive
Negative
Velocity is a vector quantity. velocity velocity
8
Zero
6 velocity
∆x = 10 km
4
t
2
Initial ∆t = 1.09 h Velocity is the rate at which the position x is changing with time.
t (h)
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 15 Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 18

2-2 Average Velocity and Average Speed 2-3 Instantaneous Velocity and Speed
Checkpoint 2 Speed
Trip along a straight line Driving Walking The speed at a given instant is the magnitude of the velocity.
10. km 2.0 km
0.17 h 0.42 h speed = v

Driving Walking v = - 4 m/s Æ speed = 4 m/s

15 km/h 0.50 h
v = 4 m/s Æ speed = 4 m/s
What is your average velocity?

Solution Speed is always positive. Speed is a scalar quantity.

∆x
v avg = = 0 m/s Since the displacement is zero.
∆t

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Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 19 Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 22

2-3 Instantaneous Velocity and Speed 2-4 Acceleration

Example 4 Definitions
Plot velocity versus time. Solution
x(m) The average acceleration aavg over a time interval Δt is
8 dx
v= = slope ∆v v - vi
dt aavg = = f
6 3 4 ∆t t f - ti
2 For 1 and 4,
4 slope = 0 The instantaneous acceleration a is

2 dv The acceleration of a particle is the

1 a= derivative of its velocity with respect to time.
For 2, dt
0 t(s) 8.0 - 2.0 m
10 20 30 40 slope =
20 - 10 s The acceleration of a particle is the rate at
v(m/s) 6.0 m m which its velocity is changing with time.
= = 0.6
0.6 10 s s acceleration ≡ instantaneous acceleration
0.4 For 3, The acceleration of a particle is the
4.0 - 6.0 m dv d dx d2 x
0.2 slope = a= = ( )= 2 second derivative of its position with
35 - 25 s dt dt dt dt respect to time.
0 t(s) - 2.0 m m m
10 20 30 40 = = - 0.2 SI unit for acceleration is
10 s s s2
-0.2

Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 20 Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 23

2-3 Instantaneous Velocity and Speed 2-4 Acceleration

Example 5 Acceleration is the slope of v-t curve
The position of a particle moving on an x axis is given by The acceleration a at an instant is
x = 8.3 + 5.0 t - 3.0 t 3, dv
a= = the slope of the v-versus-t curve.
with x in meters and t in seconds. dt

Find the velocity at t = 1.0 s.

Solution Acceleration is a vector quantity. Acceleration is the slope of
the v-versus-t curve
v
dx d 2
v= = (8.3 + 5.0 t - 3.0 t 3 ) = 5.0 - (3)(3.0) t
dt dt
2
= 5.0 - 9.0 t a<0
a>0
At t = 1.0 s, a=0

v = 5.0 - 9.0 (1.0)2 = - 4.0 m/s.

t
At t = 1.0 s, the particle is moving in the negative direction
with a speed of 4.0 m/s.

Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 21 Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 24

2-3 Instantaneous Velocity and Speed 2-4 Acceleration

Checkpoint 3 Acceleration direction
The following equations give the If the signs of the velocity and acceleration of a particle are the same, the
position x of a particle in four speed of the particle increases, if the signs are opposite, the speed
situations. x in meters, t in Solution decreases.
seconds, and t > 0.

x = 2 t -3 v=2 constant

x = - 3 t2 -1 v = -6 t variable neagtive v v
a<0
v>0 t
x= 2/t2 v=- 4/t3 variable negative Speed
decreasing
x = -2 v=0 constant a>0
v>0 a>0
Speed a<0 v<0
In which situation is the velocity of v<0 Speed
increasing
the particle constant? Speed decreasing
t
In which situation is v in the increasing
negative x direction?

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Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 25 Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 28

2-4 Acceleration 2-5 Constant Acceleration

Checkpoint 4 Derivations
What is the sign of acceleration? Solution 1
v = v0 + a t x - x0 = v 0 t + a t2
2
moving a
Increasing speed Positive dx
dv v= → dx = v dt
a= → dv = a dt dt x t
dt
moving a
v t ∫ dx = ∫ v dt
decreasing speed Negative ∫ dv = ∫ a dt t x0 0

v0 0 x - x0 = ∫ v dt
0
constant t
moving a t
Increasing speed Negative v - v0 = ∫ a dt x - x0 = ∫ (v
0
0 + a t) dt
0 t t
constants

∫ v dt + ∫ a t dt
t
x - x0 =
moving
∫
0
decreasing speed a v - vi = a dt = a t
Positive 0
0
t
0
t
x - x0 = v 0 ∫ dt + a ∫ t dt
v = v0 + a t 0 0
1
x - x0 = v0 t + a t2
2

Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 26 Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 29

2-4 Acceleration 2-5 Constant Acceleration

Example 6 Derivations
The position of a particle moving on an the x axis is given by
v = v0 + a t
x = 1.0 + 5.0 t - 3.0 t 3 eliminate t
v 2 = v 02 + 2 a (x - x0 )
with x in meters and t in seconds.
1
x - x0 = v0 t + a t2
2
Find the acceleration of the particle as a function of time.
v - v0
Solution v = v0 + a t → t =
a
dx d v - v0 1 v - v0 2
v= = (1.0 + 5.0 t - 3.0 t 3 ) = 5.0 - (3)(3.0) t
2 x - x0 = v 0 ( )+ a( )
dt dt a 2 a
2
= 5.0 - 9.0 t
dv d 2 a (x - x 0 ) = 2 v 0 (v - v 0 ) + (v - v 0 )2
a= = ( 5.0 - 9.0 t 2 ) = - (2)(9.0) t
dt dt 2 a (x - x 0 ) = 2 v 0 v - 2 v 02 + v 2 - 2 v v 0+ v 02
= - 18 t
2 a (x - x 0 ) = v 2 - v 02

v 2 = v 20 + 2 a (x - x 0 )

Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 27 Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 30

2-5 Constant Acceleration 2-5 Constant Acceleration

Formulas Checkpoint 5
Equations for motion with constant acceleration The following equations give the position Solution
Valid only for a = constant of a particle. To which of these cases do
the equations of this section apply?
v = v0 + a t
Basic equations
1 x =5t+2 a=0 Yes
x - x0 = v0 t + a t2
2
x = 2 t3 + 3 t a = 12 t No
v 2 = v 20 + 2 a (x - x 0 )
2 12
1 x= a= No
Notations x - x0 = (v + v 0 ) t Useful and can t2 t4
ti Æ 0 2 be derived from
tf Æ t 1 the two basic x = 5 t2 + 4 a = 10 Yes
xi Æ x0 x - x0 = v t - a t2 equations
2
xf Æ x
vi Æ v0 1
v avg = (v + v 0 )
vf Æ v 2

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Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 31 Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 34

2-5 Constant Acceleration 2-6 Free-Fall Acceleration

Graphs Free-fall
x In the absence of the effects of air, all objects dropped or thrown near
Earth's surface have a certain constant acceleration toward Earth. This
position

1 slope = v 0 + a t = v acceleration is called free-fall acceleration and it is due to Earth's gravity.

x - x0 = v 0 t + a t2
2
t
y
positive
v direction
constant a = - g = - 9.8 m/s2
free-fall
velocity

v = v0 + a t slope = a = constant acceleration g is the magnitude of the

t free-fall acceleration.
Earth's surface g is always positive.
g = 9.8 m/s2.
a
acceleration

The value of g varies slightly from place to place on Earth's surface. the
slope = 0 value g = 9.8 m/s2 is accurate enough for our purposes in this course.
a = constant
t

Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 32 Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 35

2-5 Constant Acceleration 2-6 Free-Fall Acceleration

Example 7 Formulas
Braking at a constant acceleration. Equations for free-fall = Equations for motion with constant acceleration
x Æ y
x0 Æ y0
60.0 m a Æ -g
v = v0 - g t
110 km/h 40.0 km/h
What is the acceleration in m/s2? Basic equations
1
Solution y y - y0 = v 0 t - g t2
positive
2
Since we know the displacement x - x0,the initial velocity v0, and the final
velocity v, we can use the following equation to find a direction
v 2 = v 20 - 2 g (y - y 0 )
v 2 = v 20 + 2 a (x - x 0 ) a

v 2 - v 02 (40.0 km/h)2 - (110.0 km/h)2 -10500 (km/h)2 1

a= = y - y0 = (v + v 0 ) t Useful and can
= 2
2 (x - x 0 ) 2 (60.0 m) 2 (.0600 km) Earth's surface be derived from
= - 8.75 x 10 km/h 4 2 1 the two basic
a = - g = - 9.8 m/s2 y - y0 = v t + g t2 equations
2
km 1000 m 1h
≡ (8.75 x 10 4
)( )( )2 1
h2 1 km 3600 s v avg = (v + v 0 )
a = - 6.75 m/s2 2
= 6.75 m/s2

Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 33 Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 36

2-5 Constant Acceleration 2-6 Free-Fall Acceleration

Example 8 Example 9
Braking at a constant acceleration. Solution
y
initially at Since we know y - y0 and v0, we can use the
Cliff following equation to find t
rest 0
60.0 m
110 km/h 40.0 km/h 1 Choose the origin of
y - y0 = v 0 t - g t2
What is the time in seconds? 2 the y-axis at the cliff.
0 0 Initially at rest
Solution
Since we know the displacement x - x0,the initial velocity v0, and the final 1
300. m y= - g t2
velocity v, we can use the following equation to find t 2
1 2 2y
x - x0 = (v + v 0 ) t t = -
2 g
2 (x - x0 ) 2 (0.0600 km) 2y 2 (-300 m)
t= = = 8.00 x 10-4 h t= ± - = ± - = ±7.82 s
(v + v 0 ) (110.0 km/h)+ (40.0 km/h) Ground g 9.80 m/s2
-300 m
Since the ball reaches the
3600 s ground after t = 0, the negative
≡ (8.00 x 10-4 h)( )
1h How long does the ball answer is not valid.
t = 2.88 s
= 2.88 s fall to reach the ground? t = 7.82 s

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Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 37 Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 40

2-6 Free-Fall Acceleration 2-6 Free-Fall Acceleration

Example 10 Checkpoint 6
Solution Solution
y
initially at Since we know y - y0 and v0, we can use the
Cliff following equation to find v
rest 0
What is the sign of the ball Positive
Choose the origin of displacement for the ascent, from the
v 2 = v 02 - 2 g (y - y0 ) the y-axis at the cliff. release point to the highest point?
0 0 Initially at rest

300. m v2 = - 2 g y
What is the sign of the ball Negative
displacement for the descent, from
v= ± -2 g y = ± -2 (-300 m)(9.80 m/s2 ) the highest point back to the release
= ±76.7 m/s point?

Since the ball is moving in the

Ground
What is the ball velocity
when it hits the ground?
-300 m negative direction, the positive
answer is not valid. What is the ball's acceleration at its a = - g = -9.8 m/s2
highest point?
v = - 76.7 m/s

Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 38 Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 41

2-6 Free-Fall Acceleration 2-7 Graphical Analysis

Example 11 Velocity change from a-t graph
Solution vf -vi = area between acceleration curve and time axis from ti to tf
Since we know v and v0, we can use the a a
following equation to find t area = vf -vi ti tf
acceleration

acceleration
t
At its maximum area = vf -vi
v = v0 - g t
height, the ball is at
t
0 rest Æ v = 0 ti tf

0 = v0 - g t area > 0 area < 0

when acceleration curve is above when acceleration curve is below
time axis. time axis.
v0 15 m/s
t= = = 1.5 s
g 9.8 m/s2 dv
Thrown up with a= → dv = a dt
initial velocity dt
vf tf
15 m/s. ∫ dv = ∫ a dt
vi ti
area between acceleration curve
How long does the ball tf
and time axis from ti to tf
take to reach its maximum
height?
v f - vi = ∫ a dt
ti

Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 39 Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 42

2-6 Free-Fall Acceleration 2-7 Graphical Analysis

Example 12 Displacement from v-t graph
y Solution xf -xi = area between velocity curve and time axis from ti to tf
Since we know y-y0 and v0, we can use the v v
following equation to find t area = xf -xi ti tf
t
velocity

velocity

Choose the origin of area = xf -xi

1
y - y0 = v 0 t - g t2 the y-axis at the
2 t
6.0 m 0 release point ti tf
1 area > 0 area < 0
y = v0 t - g t2
2 when velocity curve is above time when velocity curve is below time
6.0 m

g t2 - 2 v0 t + 2 y = 0 axis. axis.

2 v0 ±4 v 02 - 8 g y v ± v 02 - 2 g y dx
Thrown up with t= = 0 v= → dx = v dt
initial velocity 0 2g g dt
xf tf
15 m/s ± (15 m/s)2 - 2(9.8 m/s2 ) (6 m)
15 m/s.
= ∫ dx = ∫ v dt area between velocity curve and
(9.8 m/s2 ) xi ti
How long does the ball time axis from ti to tf
take to reach a point 6.0 m ⎧0.47 s The way up tf

above its release point?

= ⎨
⎩ 2.6 s The way down
x f - xi = ∫ v dt
ti

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Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 43

2-7 Graphical Analysis

Summary
x
position curve
position

slope = v
t

v v

velocity curve velocity curve

velocity

velocity

slope = a area = xf -xi

t t
ti tf

a
acceleration curve
acceleration

area = vf -vi

t
ti tf

Aljalal-Phys101-Sept 2007-Ch2-page 44

2-7 Graphical Analysis

Example 13
v(m/s)
The position at t = 10 s is 8.0 m.
What is the position at t = 40 s? 0.6

0.4 3
2
0.2
1
0 t(s)
10 20 30 40
-0.2

Solution
xf -xi = area between velocity curve and time axis from ti to tf
m
area = area1+ area2 + area3 area1 = (0.20 )( 30. s) = 6.0 m
s
= 12.0 m 1 m
area2 = (0.40 )( 10. s) = 2.0 m
2 s
m
area3 = (0.40 )( 10. s) = 4.0 m
s
xf = xi + area = 8.0 m + 12.0 m = 20.0 m