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Procedia Engineering 172 (2017) 1184 – 1189
Abstract
The paper presents risks of the use of building materials with radioactive properties. The element that generates almost half of the
natural radiation is radon. The most common medical complications are radiation sickness and cancer, affecting the lungs. The
workplaces where building materials are manufactured with the use of radioactive materials present a hazard to human health,
e.g. in deep and opencast mining. The report states that radon after smoking is the second leading cause of lung cancer.
Protection against excessive radiation from radon ought to be bases on the use of materials with a relatively low level of
radioactivity.
©©2017
2016Published by Elsevier
The Authors. Ltd. This
Published is an openLtd.
by Elsevier access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of MBMST 2016.
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of MBMST 2016
Keywords: radon, concrete, radioactive, health risks, civil engineering.
1877-7058 © 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of MBMST 2016
doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2017.02.138
Andrzej Ubysz et al. / Procedia Engineering 172 (2017) 1184 – 1189 1185
1. Introduction
Civil engineers often focus their attention on the ultimate limit states of the bearing capacity and the use of the
structure. However, they forgetting that buildings are primarily intended to serve people. The paper presents risks of
the use of building materials with radioactive properties. The element that generates almost half of the natural
radiation is radon. Below, there are some examples of radioactive effects of concrete, which may be neglected in the
process of design and construction. However, their impact on people’s health and even life is significant.
Natural radioactivity (ionizing radiation) comes from natural radioactive elements present in soil, rocks, air and
water. Examples of such natural sources include:
This king of radiation is both the natural environment: air, water reservoirs, food, and from human activities:
production plants emitting harmful substances, concrete engineering structures.
What is natural radioactivity? Henri Becquerel, the discoverer of the phenomenon, observed the effect of
blackening of the photographic plate by putting some uranium salt on it. The result of this observation was
published in 1896. Two years later, Maria Sklodowska-Curie named this phenomenon radioactivity. These studies
were considered groundbreaking, and both scientists were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1903. Becquerel (Bq) has
become the unit of radioactivity.
Radioactivity is the transformation of the atomic nucleus, which is accompanied by the emission of radiation.
Natural radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of D, E and J radiation by naturally occurring unstable isotopes of
elements. Alpha radiation is a reaction of radioactive decay in which helium nucleus u ଶଶ݁ଶ ଶଶ (the alpha particle) is
emitted. A stream of such particles emitted by decaying nuclei is called D radiation. Nuclei resulting from the
breakdown have an atomic number reduced by 2, and a mass number reduced by 4. This is illustrated by the process
of disintegration of the atoms of uranium ଶଶଶ
݁, thorium ଶଶଶ
ଶଶ ݁݁ and
ଶଶ
ଶ݁݁݁݁.
radium
ଶଶ݁ ଶଶଶ ଶ ଶ݁
ଶଶ݁ ՜ ଶଶ݁݁݁ ଶ ݁ଶ (1)
ଶଶଶ ଶଶ݁ ଶ ଶଶ
ଶଶ݁݁ ՜ ݁݁݁݁ ݁ ଶ ݁ଶ (2)
ଶଶଶ ଶଶ ଶ ଶଶ
ଶ
݁݁݁݁ ՜ ଶଶ݁݁
݁ଶ (3)
݁ଶ ଶଶଶ
Decay product of the last reaction is radon ଶଶ ݁݁. This element as well as some other radioactive elements are
present in rocks, fossil fuels and water. However, in contrast to the radioactive elements of higher number of mass,
it is marked by a short half-life (Figure 1) and by considerable ionizing capacity resulting from high-energy and
high-mass particles.
The measurement of the concentration of radon is performed most commonly using a scintillator. Description of
the test method are shown i.a. in [1]. In the next part it is shown where the problem of the occurrence of radon can
be found in the civil engineering in what circumstances it can pose a risk to health and to human life.
Contact with radon is in most cases not harmful to human health and life. There are situations, however, in which
engineers should be aware of such risks. It is assumed that the concentration of radon in the air is 10 Bq /m3, which
is about half the dose of radiation which people are exposed to from natural sources. However, in buildings made in
large part from concrete, cement and their derivatives, much higher natural radiation of these materials is present.
1186 Andrzej Ubysz et al. / Procedia Engineering 172 (2017) 1184 – 1189
Mass number
atomic number
The density of radon is of 9.73 kg / m3, thus it is about eight times as heavy as air. Accordingly, radon
concentration in the lower parts of the premises, and in particular on the lower levels often greatly exceeds its mean
concentration in the air. Additional effect of radiation from the subsoil is observed from the basement , especially
where the substratum is made of granite containing large amounts of uranium. The phenomenon can be observed in
Poland, for instance, in the region of the Izerskie Mountains. Most European countries have introduced limiting of
the allowable concentration of radon in the buildings in which people stay for an extended period of time. This is
Andrzej Ubysz et al. / Procedia Engineering 172 (2017) 1184 – 1189 1187
both due to the short half-life of the element and simultaneous formation of subsequent of radioactive elements
(Figure 1) emitting alpha radiation.
Fig. 4. High levels of stone dust pollution in a rock aggregate production plant.
1188 Andrzej Ubysz et al. / Procedia Engineering 172 (2017) 1184 – 1189
Measurements show that a man remaining in a closed or isolated and poorly ventilated room for 16 hours a day
receives a dose of 3 mSv (milisievert is the unit that specifies the amount of radiation received by a living
organism). This dose is similar to the dose of natural radiation a person receives in 1 year. Comparing to the medical
imaging: during an X-ray of the limb a person receives a dose of around 0.01 mSv, during X-ray of the chest
receives a dose of around 0.1 mSv and computer tomography of the brain – 2 mSv. The above-mentioned exposure
thus corresponds to having lung X-rays every few days.
The most common medical complications are radiation sickness and cancer diseases, affecting mainly the lungs.
The workplaces where building materials are manufactured with the use of radioactive materials present a hazard to
human health, e.g. in deep and opencast mining. Some authors consider uranium mines as reference points, where
Andrzej Ubysz et al. / Procedia Engineering 172 (2017) 1184 – 1189 1189
3. Conclusions
According to [3] environmental data confirm a close relationship between lung cancer and large concentrations of
radon. The report states that radon is the second leading cause of lung cancer after smoking. Protection against
excessive radon radiation ought to be bases on the use of materials with a relatively low level of radioactivity (e.g.
slag, ash, granite aggregate, other materials derived from combustion). The rooms should be thoroughly ventilated
on a regular basis. The most beneficial would be a continuous exchange of indoor air with atmospheric air. During
the process of designing or adapting premises, basements must not be used for residential purposes.
Production technologies should take into account possible rise in the level of radon emission into the atmosphere
as a result of combustion or high levels of dustiness.
In the first case, protection filters can be installed at the outlet of smoke installation.
In the second case, shields and filters should separate automatic production halls from the rooms where
employees are present.
On the other hand, radon has also got a positive effect.
Studies of the phenomenon of radiation hormesis have shown that low doses of ionizing radiation (within the
region of and just above natural background levels) are beneficial, stimulating the activation of repair
mechanisms that protect against disease such as cancer and certain genetic disorders.
In addition, radon positively stimulates some biological processes in nature.
References
[1] D. Mazur, M. Janik, J. Loskiewicz, P. Olko, J. Swakoń, Measurements of Radon Concentartion in Soil Gas by CR-39 detectors, Radiation
Measurements 31,1999.
[2] Figure shared by P.Drozdzewski from the collection of copyright lectures Nuclear Chemistry.
[3] Raport EPA's Assessment of Risks from Radon in Homes (‘Estimation of risks posed by radon in homes. Made by the EPA’), 2003 prepared
by Environmental Protection Agency in USA.
[4] Impact of new environmental and safety regulations on uranium exploration, mining, milling and management of its waste (Proceedings of a
TCM held in Vienna, 14-17 September 1998), 2010.
[5] Académie des Sciences – Académie Nationale de Médecine: Dose-effect relationships and estimation of the carcinogenic effects of low doses
of ionizing radiation, March 30, 2005.