BioFuel

Technology Handbook

2007

Dominik Rutz
Rainer Janssen
This handbook is WIP Renewable Energies
published by: Sylvensteinstr. 2
81369 München
Germany
www.wip-munich.de
Dominik.Rutz@wip-munich.de

Copyright: © WIP Renewable Energies

Autors: Dipl.-Ing. Dominik Rutz M.Sc.

Dr. Rainer Janssen

Version: 1. Version, February 2007

Project: Biofuel Marketplace

www.biofuelmarketplace.com

With the support of:

Contract No. EIE/05/022/SI2.420009

 Content

Content

1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 7

PART A: COMMON ASPECTS OF BIOFUELS............................ 9

2. Potential of Biomass ............................................................................... 10

3. Biofuel Policies ........................................................................................ 14

3.1. Biofuel Policy in the EU ................................................................................................... 14
3.2. Biofuel Standardization.................................................................................................... 16
3.3. International Trade of Biofuels........................................................................................ 17
3.3.1 Trade of Biodiesel and Related Products ................................................................................... 18
3.3.2 Trade of Bioethanol ................................................................................................................... 18

4. Biofuel Life Cycle ................................................................................... 21

4.1. Energy Balance and Efficiency of Biofuels..................................................................... 23
4.2. Biofuel Emissions ............................................................................................................. 25
4.2.1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions........................................................................................................ 25
4.2.2 Vehicle Emission Standards....................................................................................................... 27
4.3. Other Environmental Impacts of Biofuels....................................................................... 32
4.4. Economy of Biofuels......................................................................................................... 33
4.5. Consideration of Co-Products .......................................................................................... 34

PART B: TYPES OF BIOFUELS ............................................... 35

5. Bioethanol................................................................................................ 38
5.1. Feedstock Production ....................................................................................................... 38
5.1.1 Sugar Crops................................................................................................................................ 40
5.1.2 Starch Crops............................................................................................................................... 43
5.1.3 Cellulosic Feedstock .................................................................................................................. 45
5.2. Bioethanol Production...................................................................................................... 48
5.2.1 Sugar-to-Ethanol Process........................................................................................................... 50
5.2.2 Starch-to-Ethanol Process .......................................................................................................... 50
5.2.3 Cellulose-to-Ethanol Process ..................................................................................................... 51
5.2.4 Distillation and Dehydration Process......................................................................................... 52
5.3. Properties of Bioethanol ................................................................................................... 53

BioFuel Technology Handbook 3

Content

5.4. Technology Applications for Bioethanol ......................................................................... 54

5.4.1 Spark Ignition Engines ...............................................................................................................54
5.4.2 Compression Ignition Engines....................................................................................................55
5.4.3 Fuel Cells....................................................................................................................................56
5.5. Standardization of Bioethanol.......................................................................................... 57
5.6. Energy Balance of Bioethanol ......................................................................................... 61
5.7. Bioethanol Emissions ....................................................................................................... 62
5.7.1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions ........................................................................................................62
5.7.2 Toxic Exhaust Emissions............................................................................................................63
5.8. Other Environmental Impacts of Bioethanol................................................................... 65
5.8.1 Water Issues................................................................................................................................65
5.8.2 Land Use and Biodiversity .........................................................................................................66
5.8.3 Human Health.............................................................................................................................67
5.9. Economy of Bioethanol .................................................................................................... 68

6. Lipid Derived Biofuels ........................................................................... 70

6.1. Feedstock Production ....................................................................................................... 70
6.1.1 Oilseed Crops .............................................................................................................................71
6.1.2 Microalgae..................................................................................................................................78
6.1.3 Animal Fats ................................................................................................................................79
6.1.4 Waste Oils ..................................................................................................................................80
6.2. Fuel production................................................................................................................. 81
6.2.1 Oil Extraction .............................................................................................................................81
6.2.2 Oil Refining ................................................................................................................................83
6.2.3 Transesterification ......................................................................................................................84
6.3. Properties and Use of Lipid Biofuels ............................................................................... 87
6.3.1 Properties of Pure Plant Oil (PPO) .............................................................................................87
6.3.2 Properties of Biodiesel................................................................................................................88
6.4. Technology Applications for Lipid Biofuels .................................................................... 89
6.4.1 Compression Ignition Engines for Biodiesel Use.......................................................................89
6.4.2 Compression Ignition Engines for PPO Use...............................................................................90
6.5. Standardization of Lipid Biofuels..................................................................................... 90
6.5.1 Standardization of PPO ..............................................................................................................90
6.5.2 Standardization of Biodiesel.......................................................................................................91
6.6. Energy Balance of Lipid Biofuels .................................................................................... 93
6.7. Emissions of Lipid Biofuels.............................................................................................. 94
6.7.1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions ........................................................................................................94
6.7.2 Toxic Exhaust Emissions............................................................................................................95
6.8. Other Environmental Impacts of Lipid Biofuels ............................................................. 97
6.8.1 Water Issues................................................................................................................................97
6.8.2 Land Use and Biodiversity .........................................................................................................99
6.8.3 Human Health.............................................................................................................................99
6.9. Economy of Lipid Biofuels ............................................................................................. 100

4 BioFuel Technology Handbook

 Content

7. BtL Fuels ............................................................................................... 102

7.1. Feedstock Production ..................................................................................................... 102
7.2. BtL Production................................................................................................................ 103
7.2.1 Gasification.............................................................................................................................. 104
7.2.2 Gas Cleaning............................................................................................................................ 105
7.2.3 Synthesis Process ..................................................................................................................... 105
7.3. Properties and Emissions of BtL Fuels.......................................................................... 106

8. Biomethane............................................................................................ 107
8.1. Feedstock Production ..................................................................................................... 107
8.2. Biomethane Production.................................................................................................. 109
8.2.1 Digestion Process..................................................................................................................... 109
8.2.2 Digester Types ......................................................................................................................... 109
8.2.3 Biogas purification................................................................................................................... 111
8.3. Properties and Use of Biomethane................................................................................. 112
8.4. Technology Applications for Biomethane...................................................................... 112
8.4.1 Infrastructure Requirements for Biomethane........................................................................... 112
8.4.2 Vehicle Technologies for Biomethane..................................................................................... 113
8.5. Standardization of Biomethane...................................................................................... 113
8.6. Biomethane Emissions ................................................................................................... 114
8.6.1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions...................................................................................................... 114
8.6.2 Toxic Exhaust Emissions ......................................................................................................... 115
8.7. Other Environmental Effects of Biomethane ................................................................ 116
8.8. Economy of Biomethane ................................................................................................ 117

9. Biohydrogen .......................................................................................... 118

9.1. Biohydrogen Processing ................................................................................................. 118
9.2. Use of Biohydrogen ........................................................................................................ 120

PART C: THE FUTURE OF BIOFUELS .................................. 121

10. 1st vs. 2nd Generation Biofuels ............................................................. 122

11. Integrated Refining Concepts ............................................................. 125

12. Strategies for New Vehicle Technologies .......................................... 127

13. Market Barriers of Biofuels ................................................................ 128

Glossary and Abbreviations ....................................................................... 130

BioFuel Technology Handbook 5

Content

List of Figures .............................................................................................. 141

References of Pictures ................................................................................. 142

List of Tables................................................................................................ 143

References .................................................................................................... 144

6 BioFuel Technology Handbook

 1. Introduction

1. Introduction

This handbook was developed under the Biofuel Marketplace project, supported by the
Intelligent Energy Europe Program of the European Commission. The overall goal of
Biofuel Marketplace is to establish biofuel products and technologies as “ordinary” trading
commodities and thus to open the door to actual large-scale commercial exploitation in
Europe. This will be achieved by creating a web-based Biofuel Marketplace in order to
provide a biofuel supply and demand information system for Europe’s biofuel
stakeholders.
The present handbook was created in order to promote this web-based Marketplace and to
promote the use of biofuels in general. The scope of this handbook is to inform politicians,
decision makers, biofuel producers and traders and all other relevant stakeholders about the
state-of-the-art of biofuels and related technologies. Thereby, the large variety of feedstock
sources, conversion technologies and applications of biofuels are demonstrated.
Descriptions and explanations of the most promising biofuels which are used today and
which will be used in the future facilitate a common basis in order to discuss about the
manifold issues of biofuels. The impartial information given in this handbook will further
contribute to diminish existing barriers for the broad use of biofuels.
The most promising biofuels which are described in this handbook are bioethanol,
biodiesel, pure plant oil1, and biomethane, but also future biofuels such as renewable
hydrogen and BtL-fuels which are also called “second generation biofuels”. In this
handbook, the whole life cycles of these biofuels are assessed under technical, economical,
ecological, and social aspects. Biofuels properties and applications for transport purposes
are demonstrated and evaluated. Thereby the energy balance is an important measure to
evaluate biofuels. In this handbook, the most recent studies on biofuel energy balances are
discussed.
One of the main advantages of using biofuels instead of fossil fuels in the transport sector
is the ability of biofuels to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The combustion of biofuels
itself can be regarded as CO2 neutral. Nevertheless, the whole life cycle of biofuel
production has to be assessed to give statements about the overall greenhouse gas balance.
In this handbook, the results of several studies which investigated energy and greenhouse
gas balances of biofuels are summarized and discussed.

1
Although the name „pure plant oil“ (PPO) refers to a vegetable origin, also oils from other resources, e.g.
waste oil and animal fat, are defined by this term. Nevertheless, it is evident to keep in mind that all types of
oil have to fulfil certain requirements to be used in transport engines. In other publications PPO is also
defined as „straight vegetable oil“ (SVO).

BioFuel Technology Handbook 7

1. Introduction

This handbook also includes environmental aspects beyond its GHG reduction potential,
such as impacts on water and on human health. Moreover, economical aspects are of
crucial importance for establishing and sustaining biofuel markets. Thus, economical
aspects of all types of biofuels are addressed.
Finally, the handbook discusses future developments in the biofuel sector. Social,
economical and ecological influences and market barriers for the promotion of biofuels are
evaluated. New concepts, such as integrated refining concepts and strategies for new
vehicle technologies are illustrated.

8 BioFuel Technology Handbook