Thinking Skills and Creativity 28 (2018) 14–20

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Thinking Skills and Creativity

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tsc

Children’s creativity as a manifestation and predictor of their

T
wisdom
Elżbieta Płóciennik
University of Lodz, Faculty of Educational Sciences, Department of Pre-School and Early-Learning Pedagogy, ul. Pomorska 46/48, 91-408 Łódź,
Poland

AR TI CLE I NF O AB S T R A CT

Keywords: Wisdom is typically associated with the post-formal period of human development and as the
Child’s creativity result of vast amounts of human knowledge, life and professional experience. Thus, people are
Wisdom surprised by such questions as ‘Can one learn wisdom?’, or ‘What signs might indicate wisdom in
Mixed methods in research children?’ This article presents a fragment of the analyses of various studies (based on R.J.
Qualitative strategy
Sternberg’s concept) covering 369 pre-school children, which took place in different Polish cities
Open tasks
in 2016.1 These were diagnostic and exploratory studies, the main aim of which was to identify
and analyse specific manifestations of wisdom in children of senior pre-school age, during mental
activity involving open tasks. Such studies could only be conducted using mixed methods in
analyses.

1. Introduction

Wisdom has not been the subject of recent academic discussions as often as it used to be in previous centuries, however, scholarly
interest in it is constantly growing. This has been shown in the analysis of analysis of publications and studies on wisdom from 1990
to 2013 carried out by Austrian psychologist (Glück et al., 2013). Considering both the empirical studies that have been conducted by
contemporary psychologists and the concepts of human development, one can see that wisdom is identified as a characteristic that
can be developed from childhood. The basis for its identification and support for its development should be diagnosis of a child’s
present and potential capabilities.
Psychology and positive educational science emphasise the need to focus on an individual’s strengths, their capabilities and
competencies, and to analyse the positive conditions in educational activity. This is part of the analysis of pupils’ capabilities in
different areas of their intellectual, artistic, organisational and social skills, and is frequently more important from the perspective of
the stimulation of individual development. The significance of diagnosing and using children’s capabilities and strengths in education
was brought to the fore by Gardner (1993) and Vygotsky (1986). With identification of the a child’s strengths, teachers not only
broaden their knowledge of the child’s comprehensive development, but can also lay the foundation for supporting this development
and unlocking the potential of each individual (sf. Craft, 2002). This diagnosis is supportive and dynamic. It involves interaction
between the analyst and the child, which is particularly important in the case of incorrect answers, as the analyst can ask auxiliary
questions to serve as guidelines in helping solve the problem. Thus, it is similar to a positive diagnosis, where what matters most is the
child solving the problem, the problem-solving process, and answers corresponding to the child’s capabilities. This diagnosis makes
the child’s potential visible and allows for familiarisation with the child’s reflectivity, moral understanding, values and the meanings
the child assigns in their daily environment.

E-mail address: pwd46kat@uni.lodz.pl.

1
This research were financed from statutory resources for research on the Faculty of Educational Sciences in the University of Lodz.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2018.02.009
Received 28 December 2017; Received in revised form 8 February 2018; Accepted 8 February 2018
Available online 17 February 2018
1871-1871/ © 2018 The Author. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY-NC-ND/4.0/).
E. Płóciennik Thinking Skills and Creativity 28 (2018) 14–20

Fig. 1. Wisdom model – basis for the development of diagnostic tasks as part of individual studies.
Source: Own work based on R.J. Sternberg’s publications.

2. Relationships between creativity and wisdom

Wisdom is a complex characteristic that can be interpreted in a number of ways. The theory of wisdom that is closest to the
assumptions of the child’s holistic development is the WICS (Wisdom, Intelligence, and Creativity, Synthesized) concept, by Sternberg
(2003). Within this concept, wisdom as an element of practical intelligence supervises the integrated operation of analytical, creative
and practical intelligence. Wisdom guarantees proper application of intelligence and creativity when solving different problems; it is
a part of practical intelligence and its application leads to successful implementation of socially useful ideas. Wisdom is also char-
acterised by unique kinds of thinking: reflective, dialogical and dialectical (Sternberg, Jarvin & Grigorienko, 2009, pp.106–110) that
should be used during smart problem solving, as depicted in Fig. 1.
Analytical intelligence is the basis for cognitive functioning, meaning the gathering and processing of information. However, its
development in isolation from other types of intelligence might result in difficulties with understanding cause-and-effect relationships
between knowledge elements, putting knowledge into practice, and generating creative and practical solutions (Sternberg, Jarvin &
Grigorienko, 2009). Practical intelligence is also essential for people at all stages and in all areas of life: when solving school,
professional and life problems, and in relationships with others. Vygotsky (1978) even claimed that it is the first to develop in people,
irrespective of speech – small children first explore the world through practical actions.
On the other hand, creative intelligence is the basis for the higher achievements of individuals, allowing them to go beyond
existing solutions through abstract thinking, associations, deduction and induction, metaphorisation or transformation (cf. Houtz,
2003). Thus, it forms a special dimension of artistic, scientific and technical activity, and when creating social innovation or im-
proving the quality of life it is closely connected with personality development and growth (Maslow, 1954). It fulfils itself in a
creative attitude that includes creative thinking, the emotional and motivational sphere and resourcefulness, and is closely connected
with practical intelligence. The creative attitude includes characteristics and capabilities that condition wise actions and thinking,
such as sensitivity, the ability to identify problems, an openness to problems and ambiguity, reflection in the form of constant surprise
at the world, cognitive curiosity and critical thinking, the ability to draw comparisons and make decisions, and the motivation to
persistently seek for solutions and improve upon them.
Thus, emphasis on the developmental and educational significance of the creative process provides the basis for treating activities
aimed at supporting the development of wisdom in a similar way. What matters in this case are the social environment and climate
fostering the wise thinking and acting of individuals from an early age, and activities supporting the development of predictors,
characteristics and capabilities that form mature wisdom in adult life. According to research and analyses conducted by Sternberg
(1997), the predictor of wisdom is creativity. Identified as the result of research, this correlates with the manifestations of wisdom in
individuals. Analyses of the wisdom of individuals should thus use tasks stimulating different types of creative as well as reflexive,
diagnostic and dialectical thinking.

3. Children’s creativity and their wisdom

The results of tasks performed by children do not only depend on developmental stages (as J. Piaget claimed), but also on a
number of correlating factors:

– The aptitude and capabilities of the child taking the test,

– Their interest in the task,
– An adequate amount of time to complete the task,
– The experience and expertise of the individual in solving problems,
– The reliability, objectivity and responsibility for the educational and/or diagnostic process of the person preparing and using the
diagnostic tasks (Wood, 1998, p. 257; cf. Wood, 2003).

This is why the selection of tasks for analysing and supporting the development of a child’s skills is so important. In the context of
searching for manifestations of wisdom in children (Craft, Gardner & Claxton, 2008; Meacham, 1990), this is all the more significant:

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developmental psychology has defined norms within which discussions about wisdom are mostly related to the post-formal period
(cf. Baltes & Staudyngier, 2000).
On account of the novelty of the issue of connecting wisdom with childhood, studies were carried out in 2016, mostly to identify,
analyse and interpret children’s verbal task-related activity that might indicate their wisdom (understood as a characteristic con-
sisting of different elements and subject to observation). The theoretical and organisational problems posed by the studies were the
lack of identified and described indicators of children’s wisdom in thinking and acting, and of diagnostic tools for determining the
manifestations of children’s wisdom. This is why it was assumed that diagnostic tasks should be based on conversations or interviews
with the child, or on an educational dialogue understood as an exchange of thoughts between partners attempting to solve a problem
(cf. Lee & Wright, 2017). Dialogue with a child allows for observation and analysis of their thinking, based on which one can draw
conclusions about the essence and content of the child’s mental processes (Wood, 1998). These kinds of dialogue also shares some
characteristics with supporting and dynamic diagnosis.
The aim of the studies mentioned above was to identify and describe the symptoms of wisdom in senior pre-school children, in
relation to their task-related activity. It was assumed that their statements would be the source of information about their under-
standing of the social situations presented in their tasks, and their ability to interpret and give advice with regard to the behaviour of
characters in these situations. It was also assumed that each new task required pre-knowledge and pre-understanding, allowing the
children to move from specific to formal thinking − tasks requiring of the children reflection and interpretation would also allow for
identification of their concealed knowledge and the meanings attributed to the content of the tasks.
The lack of standardised tools for use in studies of problems in the manifestation of children’s knowledge makes it necessary to
prepare such tasks including scoring (quantitative approach). Thus, ambiguous, open tasks were used, in order to provoke the
children’s thinking (the guantitative analyses of test tasks used with children aged 5–6 years were already presented: Płóciennik,
2017). Open tasks are usually used with pre-school children and prove to be effective when analysing creativity, reflectiveness,
resourcefulness, ambiguity tolerance and the ability to form loose associations and redefine problems. The tasks used pictures
showing things close to the children’s concerns (for example, positive and negative behaviour of children in their peer relations).
These captured the interest of the children because of their ambiguity, encouraging them to interpret their content and give advice,
and inspiring them to search for solutions to the social problems depicted (Płóciennik, 2018). Preparing these tasks requires an
approach based partly in qualitative strategy: with consideration for the age of the respondents; the need to select tasks adjusted to
their cognitive and social capabilities, and thinking through of the conditions and range of the open tasks (cf. Silverman, 2016). The
studies so conducted were thus mixed in form (Creswell, 2009) and were carried out using a triangular strategy (Creswell & Plano
Clark, 2007). This approach emphasises the effectiveness of solving problems tackled as part of the studies, and so the researcher
adopts a flexible approach and makes research assumptions, selects various strategies and research method or methods for analysing
the research material obtained, intentionally mixing elements of qualitative and quantitative research in order to achieve subjective
and objective views and answers to open and closed questions.

4. Results and conclusions of the studies

With reference to the study results, it can be concluded that the majority of the children taking part (N 369) were successful in
completing tasks assessing and evaluating the behaviour of characters presented in educational situations. They were able to give
advice in order to improve or change the behaviour of the characters presented to them, at the same time referring to universal norms
and values, proposing changes in the behaviour of the characters, evaluating the usefulness of their own ideas, and entering into self-
reflection. Thus, the tasks prepared were not too difficult for most of the pre-schoolers, however, they did diversify their aptitudes in
connection with the theoretical model of wisdom developed. The studies presented in this article also used such techniques of
creative thinking as transformations (are understood here as changing all or some of the characteristics of the object or state of things,
so that their final form is substantially different from the original) in the form of the conversion of the characters’ behaviour in a given
task-related situation, and analogies (are understood here as indicating certain characteristics of an object in question, a person or a
notion, by showing its similarity to a different object or the correspondence between their characteristics) when identifying the
characteristics of a wise person.
Interestingly, when proposing changes of the negative behaviour of the characters in the task-related situations (e.g. when solving
the task: ‘What can happen to the kids in the picture? What would you advise them? How are they supposed to change their
behaviour?’; Fig. 2), some children taking part in this study used the negative particle ‘not’ as a negation indicator. For example, …not
carry a crayon in your mouth, …not run, …not put the rope around your neck, …not put so much in your mouth, …not turn the gas on, etc. In
these cases, such usage might indicate that the children had no idea how to change the behaviour of the characters in the model in
question, that their level of thinking was low, and that they were not able to evaluate whether these were coded ways of giving advice
in the form of prohibition. These results also showed socio-cultural influences in education based on prohibitions rather than pre-
cepts.
But this message only tells its recipients how they should not, or must not, behave, with the meaning of the message resulting from
the linguistic sense of the statement and the context (expectations). If the statement is positive (does not contain negation), it is an
expression and acknowledgement of an expectation and an imperative, showing the possible, proper or expected way of acting. A
quantitative analysis of the issue can be found in Table 1:
Ideas in the imperative form, about proper behaviour with instructions on how to act correctly, were formulated by the children
in the following ways:

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Fig. 2. Situational pictures used to help the children generate ideas for transforming behaviour.
Source: Methodical materials for Polish kindergartens; MAC Edukacja Publisher.

Table 1
Ideas on how to change the behaviour of the characters in the situations presented, with analysis of the use of prohibitive and imperative forms by the children.
Source: Quantitative and qualitative analysis of our own study.

Study location Ideas for changing the behaviour – total Transformation – imperative form Negation with the ‘not’ particle – prohibition

City 1 142 97 45
City 2 147 123 24
City 3 79 62 17
In total 368 282 86
% 100% 76.60% 23.40%

– About a picture showing a boy going around a room with a crayon in his mouth: …hold two things in one hand; …put the box on the
floor; …put the drawing under your arm or on the table;
– About a picture showing boys playing horse-and cart with a rope around the neck of one of the children: …hold his arms instead; …
watch their step when they’re running; …play cowboys in a different way, use toy horses; …put the rope around a toy or something else;
– About a picture showing a girl eating quickly: …swallow one thing first, then another; …take smaller bites; …put your hair in an elastic
band;
– About a picture showing a girl playing with a gas cooker: …turn off the gas, turn off the oven; …go play in her room; …pretend that
she’s cooking; …ask her mum to buy her a toy cooker.

When analysing their manifestations of wisdom, a significant conclusion that can be drawn is that pre-schoolers should practice
giving advice and suggestions about how to change incorrect behaviour, by providing alternatives to it (examples of proper beha-
viour), as they are indeed potentially able to do this. Doing so also teaches them how to behave correctly (instead of only preventing
them from behaving improperly).
Another way of identifying manifestations of wisdom in senior pre-school children is through the creation of analogies by fin-
ishing the sentence, ‘A wise man is like… because…’. Analyses of research material have clearly indicated that children at this age are
able to draw such comparisons and that their ideas differ. Of all the children taking part in the studies, 153 (N 369) were able to
suggest analogies as required (identifying and indicating similarities between different objects), some of which took the form of a
metaphor (with children attributing unusual meanings to the notion of a wise man). However, a majority of the children did not
provide a single correct idea of such an analogy/metaphor (216, which is 58.54% of all the children taking part in the study), or failed
to provide any answer (99 children, or 26.83% of all the children taking part in the study). They frequently took some time to think
about the instructions before saying, ‘I don’t know’. Some of the children who attempted to answer this question (117, or 31.71% of
all the children taking part in the study) gave answers inconsistent with the instructions: instead of creating a metaphor, they
described a wise man giving such characteristics as: Cheerful…; Polite…; When he is good because he doesn’t do anything wrong then…; A
person who knows everything…; Because he knows, helps children and is nice…; He can read a lot, he knows how to read…; A wise man will
put out fire, he is inventive and knows a lot about things, if a tree fell on a utility pole, then person would fix the tree and the pole…; Because he
behaves well, doesn’t take toys away from others, and doesn’t yell…, He doesn’t tease others, steal or show anger…
Less than half of the children taking part in the study gave one or more examples of such analogies or metaphors (153 children
provided a total of 280 ideas). A numerical comparison of the children’s ability to come up with a metaphor can be found in Table 2.
Another conclusion that can be drawn from this analysis is that children from the City 2, statistically younger and with a lower
level of cognitive courage (which was proved by statistical analyses carried out when the research tool was verified), attempted to
formulate such a comparison less frequently. As such, this result should be verified in subsequent studies into manifestations of
wisdom in children. In other words, whether the phenomenon is the result of a lower level of a child’s cognitive development,
connected with their age, or a lower level of their development in the affective sphere.
On the other hand, children who provided examples of analogies or metaphors also identified the characteristics of a wise man in
reference to different classes of objects: people, animals, things or fantastic characters, which can be seen in Fig. 3.

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Table 2
Analysis of statements in the creation of metaphors by children.
Source: A summary analysis of own studies.

Study location An idea for an analogy/metaphor with An idea for an analogy/metaphor without An invalid comparison No answer or “I don’t
justification justification know”

City 1 105 10 55 18
City 2 107 3 37 50
City 3 55 0 25 23
In total 267 13 117 99

Fig. 3. Classes of the notion of ‘a wise man’, identified based on the children’s answers.
Source: Own work based on summary analyses.

The following statements by pre-schoolers can be seen as examples of analogies including justifications: A man is wise when he
is…

– A president, because he says very important words.

– A scientist, because he reads a lot and knows a lot, and he likes reading different books.
– clown, because he makes people laugh when they are sad.
– A detective, because he has a magnifying glass and he can find traces, and he doesn’t give up when he’s looking for something.
– A computer, because it’s almost never wrong.
– A boat, because it’s calm and it doesn’t go as fast as a motorboat or a motorbike.
– dog, because it protects the house from robbers.
– A rabbit, because it never wants too much.
– A good lion, because it is the king of all animals and it only fights with its enemies.

Some of the children were also able to provide metaphors connecting very distant notions, in order to find:

– A perceptual analogy that consists in transferring emotions and mental states onto a given object: …the sun because he is nice; …the
world because he is nice and he’s not a stranger;
– A functional analogy based on the transfer of meaning from one object to another through an activity: …as a telephone. Because the
telephone can also… can also take thoughts, but from charging. Because when it’s charging, its thoughts are there… And then it gets
ideas…

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– And a structural analogy that consists in substituting one notion with another, at the same time giving it a different meaning: …a
message because he can tell the truth like a message; …a cheetah because it’s fast and the man in his thoughts, and he writes… and he
devours… he is a devourer of books, for example.

As can be concluded from these comparisons, the children identified very different characteristics of ‘a wise man’, and were also
able to find objects distant from them in terms of physical appearance while still displaying, in their opinion, analogous char-
acteristics. Thus, another conclusion can be drawn: such tasks are within their present or subsequent development level, and so they
can indeed be used in pre-school education for stimulating and uncovering children’s wisdom.
For the children, statements about selected task-related situations became the means to meta-cognitive reflection (cf. Dewey,
1993; Fisher, 1998). The characteristics of a wise man and the descriptions of the proper behaviour articulated by the children allow
to name, specify, and elaborate on certain meanings, and to isolate them from the stream of consciousness. The formulation of
alternative, extensive and reflective statements with regard to tasks based on evaluation and interpretation – which the children were
not previously familiar with – also revealed and built the children’s self-control. At the same time, it allowed them to confront their
knowledge with the conditions of the task, and the content of the pictures. Thus, it can be seen that such tasks foster the development
of personal knowledge and understanding, ordering, extending or modifying it, so forming the basis for metacognition. They also
triggered explanatory knowledge and interpretation of the surrounding social reality (cf. Fisher, 1998; Flavell, 1979; Tarricone,
2011). The manifestations of metacognition in the children taking part in the study were further proved by the control they revealed
over the effects of one’s thinking, their ability to get to know themselves, and awareness of their own knowledge (e.g. the pre-
schoolers first got to know the terms of the task, and then analysed them, asked questions specifying the terms of the task, and
controlled their own statements, which was manifested in extending the response time and correcting their own answers). Open tasks
also required the children to organise their knowledge and views, and to express them in a form comprehensible to the recipient. In
the case of a cognitive conflict, the dialogue gave the children an opportunity to organise their own knowledge, deepen it or build it
in a new, qualitatively different form (especially when using metaphors). And the use of knowledge in new situations is one of
indicators of wisdom (cf. Arlin, 1990; Baltes & Staudinger, 2000; Meacham, 1990).
The difficulty level of the divergent tasks used in the study was appropriate for pre-school children – greater differences only
appeared in the case of tasks in metaphorical thinking and idea transformation (these tasks diversified the children’s skills to a greater
extent and contributed to the generation of new objects and ideas). In order to come up with metaphors, one has to, among other
things, have knowledge and the ability to identify different characteristics, see new connections between concepts, and demonstrate
speed of thinking and ingenuity, and all these attributes are associated with wisdom (Baltes & Staudynger, 2000; Simonton, 2008).
Children participating in the study showed an understanding of good and bad behaviour, social relationships, connections between
characteristics of different objects, and instructions on how to perform unusual tasks. The ability to generate different solutions and
openness to ambiguity form a basis for creative thinking and wise decision-making, at the same time being elements of wise thinking
and acting (Zwicky, 2003). Consequently, it can be assumed that the children’s creative activity can be a means of identifying their
wisdom. On account of the ability to be creative, which is an important wisdom predictor, this also confirmed the potential of
children of senior pre-school age to think and behave wisely (considering values) in the context of the concept by Sternberg
(Sternberg, 1997).

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