Ground Rules

PC1221 Fundamentals of
Physics I
„ Switch off your handphone and pager
Lectures 13 and 14 „ Switch off your laptop computer and keep it
„ No talking while lecture is going on
„ No gossiping while the lecture is going on
Energy and Energy Transfer
„ Raise your hand if you have question to ask
„ Be on time for lecture
Dr Tay Seng Chuan „ Be on time to come back from the recess break to
continue the lecture
„ Bring your lecturenotes to lecture
1 2

1. If vectors A and B (collinear) pointing in the same 2. The site from which an airplane takes off is the origin. The
direction are added, the resultant has a magnitude equal to x-axis points east; the y-axis points straight up. The
4.0. If B is subtracted from A, the resultant has a magnitude position and velocity vectors of the plane at a later time
equal to 8.0. What is the magnitude of A? are given by
r = (1.61× 106 i
ˆ+ 9.14× 103 ˆ
j)m and v = +224i ˆm
A. 2.0 .
s
B. 3.0 The plane is most likely
C. 4.0 a. just touching down.
D. 5.0 b. in level flight in the air.
E. 6.0 c. ascending.
Answer: d. descending.
A and B are parallel. e. taking off.
|A| + |B| = 4 …(1)
|A| - |B| = 8 …(2) Answer:
(1) + (2) 2|A| = 12, so |A|= 6. The y value is not equal to 0 meaning the
airplane is above the ground. The airplane is
(If A and B are opposite, |A| can be |-2|, and cruising toward east at an altitude of about 9
|B| can be |6|.) km.

3 4
 3. If P = 6.0 N, what is the magnitude of the force exerted 4. A roller-coaster car has a mass of 500 kg when fully
on block 1 by block 2? loaded with passengers. The car passes over a hill of
A. 6.4 N 3 radius 15 m, as shown. At the top of the hill, the car has a
B. 5.6 N 2 speed of 8.0 m/s. What is the force of the track on the car
C. 4.8 N 6 1 at the top of the hill?
5.0 kg 8.0 m/s
D. 7.2 N P 3.0 kg A. 7.0 kN up
R
E. 8.4 N
2.0 kg
F2 F2 B. 7.0 kN down
F1 F1
Answer: C. 2.8 kN down
D. 2.8 kN up mg
15 m
Let F1 be the force in between block 1 and block 2, and F2 be the E. 5.6 kN down
force in between Block 2 and Block 3. Let a be the acceleration.
Answer:
6 - F1 = 2a …(1) 2
F1 - F2= 3a …(2) mg – R = m v /r, so
F2 = 5a …(3)
Substitute (3) in (2), F1-5a= 3a, i.e., R = mg - m v2/r
F1= 8a …(4) 2
= 500x9.8 – 500 x 8 /15 = 2766.66 N
Substitute (4) in (1), 6 - 8a=2a, i.e., 6 = 10a,
= 2.8 kN up
so a= 0.6 m/s2.
Using (1), F1 = 6 - 2a = 6 - 2x0.6 = 6 - 1.2 = 4.8N 5 6

Ground Rules
SM2 Students are to attend a
seminar this Thursday at 2pm,
LT32. Attendance is „ Switch off your handphone and pager
Switch off your laptop computer and keep it
compulsory. „

„ No talking while lecture is going on

„ No gossiping while the lecture is going on
Class monitor is to take „ Raise your hand if you have question to ask
attendance at 1:40pm. „ Be on time for lecture
„ Be on time to come back from the recess break to
continue the lecture
„ Bring your lecturenotes to lecture
7 8
 Introduction to Energy
„ The concept of energy is one of the most
important topics in science while it is not the
only important topic
„ Every physical process that occurs in the
Universe involves energy and energy transfers
or energy transformations
„ Giving a lecture now is an example of the
transfer and transform of energy but it is more
complicated (chemical energy from food I ate
this morning to the sound energy in my voice
now)
9 10
Energy Approach to Problems
„ The energy approach to describing
motion is particularly useful when the
force is not constant
„ An approach will involve Conservation
of Energy
„ This could be extended to biological
organisms, technological systems and
engineering situations

Systems Work
„ A system is a small portion of the „ The work, W, done on a
Universe system by an agent exerting a
constant force on the system
„ A valid system may is the product of the
„ be a single object or particle magnitude, F, of the force, the
„ be a collection of objects or particles magnitude Δr of the F
displacement of the point of θ
„ be a region of space application of the force, and
„ vary in size and shape cos θ, where θ is the angle F cosθ
between the force and the Δr
„ Energy in a system is conserved. displacement vectors.
W = F Δr cos θ
11 12
 Did you do any work if you were
F
Work, cont. θ
repelling along a rope down a
helicopter?
F cosθ
„ W = F Δr cos θ Δr
„ The displacement is that of the point of
application of the force
„ A force does no work on the object if the
force does not move through a
displacement
„ The work done by a force on a moving
object is zero when the force applied is
perpendicular to the displacement of its
point of application
13 14

Example. Batman, whose mass is 80.0 kg, is dangling on the

Did you do any work if you free end of a 12.0-m rope, the other end of which is fixed to a
tree limb above. He is able to get the rope in motion as only
were running on a level F
Batman knows how, eventually getting it to swing enough that
ground? θ
he can reach a ledge when the rope makes a 60.0° angle with
F cosθ the vertical. How much work was done by the gravitational
Δr force on Batman in this maneuver?
Answer:
The force of gravity on Batman is down.
Only his vertical displacement contributes to
the work gravity does. His original y-
coordinate below the tree limb is -12 m. His
change in elevation (the distance traveled) is
Why did you feel tired after the run? Δy = -12 cos (60°) m – (-12 m) = 6 m.
Take up Physics major – biophysics. This The work done by gravity is
course will give you interesting knowledge. 15 80 kg x 9.8 m/s2 x 6 m = 4704 J
16
Work in Pushing a Block More About Work
„ The normal force, n, „ The system and the environment must be
and the gravitational determined when dealing with work
force, m g, do no „ The environment does work on the system
Work by the environment on the system
work on the object
„

cos θ = cos 90° = 0

„ The sign of the work depends on the
direction of F relative to Δr
„

„ The force F does do „ Work is positive when projection of F onto Δr is in

work on the object the same direction as the displacement
„ Work is negative when the projection is in the
opposite direction

17 18

Units of Work Work Is An Energy Transfer

„ Work is a scalar quantity „ If the work is done on a system and it is
positive, energy is transferred to the system
„ The unit of work is a joule (J) „ If the work done on the system is negative,
„ 1 joule = 1 newton 1 meter
.
energy is transferred from the system
„ J=N·m „ If a system interacts with its environment, this
interaction can be described as a transfer of
energy across the system boundary (e.g., heat
generated due to friction)
„ This will result in a change in the amount of energy
stored in the system
19 20
Scalar Product of Two Vectors Scalar Product, cont
„ The scalar product „ The scalar product is commutative
of two vectors is „ A .B = B .A
written as A . B
(read as A dot B) „ The scalar product obeys the
„ It is also called the distributive law of multiplication
dot product „ A . (B + C) = A . B + A . C
„ A .B = A B cos θ
„ θ is the angle
between A and B

21 22

Dot Products of Unit Vectors Work Done by a Varying Force

Force
„
î ⋅ î = ĵ ⋅ ĵ = k̂ ⋅ k̂ = 1 „ Assume that during a very
small displacement, Δx, F
î ⋅ ĵ = î ⋅ k̂ = ĵ ⋅ k̂ = 0
is constant
For that displacement, W
„ Using component form with A and B: „
~ F Δx
A = A x î + A y ĵ + A zk̂ „ For all of the intervals,
xf

B = B x î + B y ĵ + B zk̂ W ≈ ∑ Fx Δx Displacement

xi
A ⋅ B = A xB x + A yB y + A zB z
23 24
 Work Done by a Varying
Force, cont Work Done By Multiple Forces
xf
„ lim
Δx →0 ∑ F Δx = ∫
x
xf
Fx dx Force „ If more than one force acts on a system
and the system can be modeled as a
xi
xi

Therefore, W = f Fx dx
x
„
∫ xi
particle, the total work done on the
system is the work done by the net
„ The work done is force
equal to the area
under the curve of
∑W = Wnet = ∫ ( ∑ F )dx
xf
force versus x
Displacement
displacement xi

25 26

Work Done by Multiple Forces,

cont. Hooke’s Law
„ If the system cannot be modeled as a
particle, then the total work is equal to
the algebraic sum of the work done by
the individual forces
Wnet = ∑Wby individual forces „ The force exerted by the spring is
Fs = - kx
„ x is the position of the block with respect to the equilibrium
position (x = 0)
„ k is called the spring constant or force constant and
measures the stiffness of the spring
27 „ This is called Hooke’
Hooke’s Law 28
 Hooke’s Law, cont. Hooke’s Law, final
„ When x is positive „ The force exerted by the spring is
(spring is stretched), always directed opposite to the
F is negative displacement from equilibrium
„ When x is 0 (at the „ F is called the restoring force
equilibrium position),
F is 0 „ If the block is released it will oscillate
„ When x is negative back and forth between x and –x
(spring is
compressed), F is
positive
29 30

Work Done by a Spring Spring with an Applied Force

„ Identify the block as
the system „ Suppose an external
„ Calculate the work as agent, Fapp, stretches
the block moves from the spring
The applied force is
„ xi = - xmax to xf = 0, or „

equal and opposite to

xi = xmax to xf = 0 the spring force
1 2
( −kx ) dx = kxmax
x 0
Ws = ∫ Fx dx = ∫ Fapp = -Fs = -(-kx) = kx
f
„
xi −xmax 2
„ Work done by Fapp is
equal to ½ kx2max
„ The total work done as
the block moves from
–xmax to xmax is zero 31 32
Example. If it takes 4.00 J of work to stretch a
Hooke's-law spring 10.0 cm from its unstressed Kinetic Energy (F x)
length, determine the extra work required to
stretch it an additional 10.0 cm. „ Kinetic Energy is the energy of a particle due
to its motion
Answer: 1 K = ½ mv2
4.00 J= k( 0.100 m )2 „
„ K is the kinetic energy
2 „ m is the mass of the particle
∴ k = 800 N m „

„
v is the speed of the particle
the expression ½ mv2 can be derived using F = ma, and

To stretch the spring to 0.200 m requires

„ A change in kinetic energy is one possible
1 result of doing work to transfer energy into a
ΔW = ( 800)( 0.200) 2 − 4.00 J= 12.0 J system
2
33 34

Kinetic Energy, cont Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem

„ Calculating the work „ The Work-Kinetic Energy Principle
by integration: states ΣW = Kf – Ki = ΔK
„ In the case in which work is done on
W =∫
xf
∑ F dx = ∫
xf
ma dx a system and the only change in the
xi xi
system is in its speed, the work done
by the net force equals the change
vf
W = ∫ mv dv
in kinetic energy of the system.
vi

1 1 dv
∑W = 2mv 2
f − mvi2
2
ma dx = m
dt
dx = mv dv
„ Kinetic energy possessed by an
object of mass m and velocity v is
35
K = ½ mv2 36
 Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem
„ The normal and
gravitational forces do no
work since they are
perpendicular to the
direction of the
displacement
W = F Δx = ΔK
= ½ mv 2 – 0
(the vertical normal force
has no effect)
37
Internal Energy
„ The energy associated
with an object’s
temperature is called
its internal energy, Eint
„ In this example, the
surface is the system
„ The friction does work
and increases the
internal energy of the
surface
39
Nonisolated System
„ A nonisolated system is one that interacts with
or is influenced by its environment, e.g., push a
block on a rough surface
„ An isolated system would not interact with its
environment (e.g., push a block on a friction-less
surface.)
„ The Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem can also be
applied to nonisolated systems. In that case
there will be a transfer of energy across the
boundary of an object (e.g., from the block to
the surface where heat is generated.)
38
Potential Energy
„ Potential energy is energy related to the
configuration of a system in which the
components of the system interact by
forces
„ Examples include:
„ elastic potential energy – stored in a spring
„ gravitational potential energy, e.g., you
stand on top of Bukit Timah Hill
„ electrical potential energy, e.g., you switch
on electricity to iron your shirt
40
Example. A 2.00-kg block is attached to a spring of force
constant 500 N/m as shown in figure. The block is pulled 5.00
cm to the right of equilibrium and released from rest. Find the
speed of the block as it passes through equilibrium if (a) the
horizontal surface is frictionless and (b) the coefficient of friction
between block and surface is 0.350.
Answer:
(a) When the block is pulled back to
equilibrium position, the potential energy
in spring will be fully converted to the
kinetic energy in the block when the
spring returns to original length, i.e.,
½ k x2 = ½ m v2.
So, v =
k x
x = 500 x 0.05 = 0.79 m/s
m 2
41
Example. The ball launcher in a pinball machine has a spring
that has a force constant of 1.20 N/cm. The surface on which the
ball moves is inclined 10.0° with respect to the horizontal. If the
spring is initially compressed 5.00 cm, find the launching speed of
a 100-g ball when the plunger is released. Friction and the mass
of the plunger are negligible.
Answer:
Initial energy stored in the spring
= ½ k x2 = ½ x 1.20 N/(10-2m) x (5 cm x 10-2)2 = 0.15 J
This 0.15 J is used to (i) move the ball up the slope of 10°
for a vertical distance of 5 cm x sin (10 °) = 0.87 cm, and (ii)
provide the ball with a muzzle speed of v. So we have
0.1 kg x 9.8 m/s2 x 0.0087 m + ½ x 0.1 kg x v2 = 0.15 J
v = 1.68 m/s
43
(b) If there is fiction on the surface, the
potential energy on the spring is first
wasted on the work done by friction.
The remaining energy is converted to
the kinetic energy in the block, i.e.,
½ k x2 - μmg x = ½ m v2.
In terms of initial sum and final sum
of energies, you can also treat it as
½ k x2 = μmg x + ½ m v2
2 2
½ 500 0.05 = 0.35 2 9.8 ½ 2 v
x x x x + x x
v = 0.53 m/s
42
Example. You need to move a heavy crate by sliding it across a flat floor with a
coefficient of sliding friction of 0.2. You can either push the crate horizontally or pull the
crate using an attached rope. When you pull on the rope, it makes 30° angle with the
floor. Which way should you choose to move the crate so that you will do the least
amount of work? How can you answer this question without knowing the weight of the
crate or the displacement of the crate?
Normal
Normal force
force
Answer:
When pushing the crate with a force parallel to the ground, the force of friction
acting to impede its motion is proportional to the normal force acting on the
crate—in this situation, the normal force is equal to the crate’s weight. When
pulling the crate with a rope angled above the horizontal, the normal force on the
crate is less than its weight—the force of friction is therefore reduced. To keep
the crate moving across the floor, the applied force in the parallel direction must
be greater than or equal to the force of friction—pulling on the rope therefore
requires a smaller parallel applied force. The work done in moving an object is
equal to the product of the displacement through which it has been moved and
the force component parallel to the direction of motion. The applied force
component parallel to the ground is smaller when pulling the crate with the
rope—thus, the work done to move the crate with the rope must be less,
regardless of the weight of the crate or the displacement. 44
 s1
Slide 45
What if you pull at 0 °, i.e., in s1 scitaysc, 10/2/2007

parallel with the surface?

Normal Normal
force Pull
Push force F2
F1
µ=1 µ=1
mg mg

F2 cos 30° = µ (mg – F2 sin 30°)

F1 = µmg
F2 cos 30° + µ F2 sin 30° = µ mg
Work done = F1 x d
F2 (0.866 + 0.5) = µ mg
F2 = 0.732 µmg = 0.732 F1

Work done = F2 x d
= 0.732 F1 x d
45

Ways to Transfer Energy Into More Ways to Transfer Energy

or Out of A System Into or Out of A System
„ Work – transfer by applying
a force and causing a „ Matter Transfer – matter physically
displacement of the point of crosses the boundary of the system,
application of the force, e.g., carrying energy with it, e.g., use of
you push a book gasoline in car
„ Mechanical Waves – allow „ Electrical Transmission – transfer
a disturbance to propagate is by electric current, e.g., use of
through a medium, e.g., electrical hair dryer
sound, earthquake, tsunami „ Electromagnetic Radiation –
„ Heat – is driven by a energy is transferred by
temperature difference electromagnetic waves, e.g., use of
between two regions in space, light bulb.
e.g., hot tea
46 47
Conservation of Energy Power
„ Energy is conserved „ The time rate of energy transfer is
„ This means that energy cannot be called power
created or destroyed „ The average power is given by
„ If the total amount of energy in a
system changes, it can only be due W
P=
to the fact that energy has crossed Δt
the boundary of the system by some when the method of energy transfer is
method of energy transfer work

48 49

Instantaneous Power Units of Power

„ The instantaneous power is the „ The SI unit of power is called the watt
1 watt = 1 joule / second
limiting value of the average power as „

= ((kg x m/s2) x m ) / s = 1 kg . m2 / s3
Δt approaches zero
„ A unit of power in the US Customary system
W dW is horsepower
P = Δtlim
→0 =
Δt dt „ 1 hp = 746 W
„ Units of power can also be used to express
„ This can also be written as units of work or energy
dW dr „ 1 kWh = (1000 W)(3600 s) = 3.6 x106 J
P= = F ⋅ = F ⋅v Energy transferred in
dt dt Not 1 kilo-watt 1 hr at a constant rate
Power = force x velocity 50 per hour 51
 Example. An energy-efficient light bulb, taking in 28.0 W of power, can produce
the same level of brightness as a conventional bulb operating at power 100 W.
The lifetime of the energy efficient bulb is 10 000 h and its purchase price is
$17.0, whereas the conventional bulb has lifetime 750 h and costs $0.420 per
bulb. Determine the total savings obtained by using one energy-efficient bulb
over its lifetime, as opposed to using conventional bulbs over the same time Energy and the Automobile
Answer: period. Assume an energy cost of $0.080 per kilowatt-hour.

„ The concepts of energy, power, and friction

help to analyze automobile fuel consumption
kWh „ About 67% of the energy available from the
fuel is lost in the engine
„ About 10% is lost due to friction in the
transmission, drive shaft, bearings, etc.
kWh „ About 6% goes to internal energy and 4% to
operate the fuel and oil pumps and accessories
„ This leaves about 13% to actually propel the
car
52 53

Friction in a Car Friction in a Car, cont

„ The magnitude of the total friction force
(ƒt ) is the sum of the rolling friction (ƒr )
force and air resistance (ƒa)
„ ƒt = ƒr + ƒa
„ At low speeds, rolling friction predominates
„ At high speeds, air drag predominates

54 55