NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF

CONCRETE STRUCTURES

RAVI RANADE
Practicing NDT , Structural & Rehabilitation consultant
“Kanchan Bhavan” , 5 , Shilavihar Colony, Karve Road, Erandawane, PUNE 411038 INDIA
Tel / Fax :- +91 - 20 - 2543 2643 Mobile :- +91 94220 07479
E-mail : - info@concretepune.com OR ranaderavi@rediffmail.com
Web sites – www.conretepune.com , www.ndtconcrete.com , www.ndtindia.com

INTRODUCTION :-

The need of testing hardened concrete has been felt for last three to four decades. The
present methods of testing fresh concrete such as cube test, slump test are now being
supported by various Non Destructive Testing methods. Many of the tenders now specify
Non destructive testing as an additional quality control requirement. To assess the integrity
of old or new concrete and reinforcement, Non destructive testing is one of the most
powerful and reliable tools. The need of conducting non destructive testing for condition
assessment of the RCC structures has grown considerably in recent times, due to increase
in number of structures, showing signs of distress.

The standard life of RCC frame structure is considered to be 60 – 80 years. But it has been
reported that, many of the buildings completing just 20 – 25 years of their life, in Mumbai and
other coastal areas, have observed in distressed condition. If one visits the chemical plant
buildings, the RCC structures are in distressed condition within a span of only 7 to 10 years.
The severe exposure condition is the main reason for this deterioration. For better durability
performance of the structure, use additional cover , blended cement, anticorrosive coating to
reinforcement are being recommended on one side and on the other hand use of quality
controlled RMC, intensive and strict quality control & testing by using modern techniques is
being suggested.

The Non Destructive Testing is being fast, easy to use at site and relatively less expensive
can be used for

 Test actual structure instead of representative cube sample.

 Test any number of points and any locations
 Quality control tool
 Assess the structure for various distressed conditions
 Damage assessment due to fire, chemical attack, impact, age etc.
 Detect cracks, voids, fractures, honeycombs and week locations
 Monitor progressive changes in the properties of concrete , reinforcement etc.
 Assess overall stability of the structure
 Monitoring repair and rehabilitation systems
 Scanning for reinforcement location, stress locations.

In the recent years significant advances have been made in Non Destructive Testing
techniques, equipment and methods.

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The various Non destructive / partial destructive tests can be identified as follows

 Group - I A - Surface Hardness Methods

 Rebound Hammer Test

 Penetration Test – Windsor Probe

 Group - I B - Dynamic or Vibration Methods

 Resonant Frequency – Only Lab method

 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test

 Acoustic Emission

 Impact Echo

 Transient Dynamic

 Sonic / Pulse Echo , Impulse Response

 Cross Hole sonic logging

 Vibration Measurement

 Group - C - Magnetic Methods

 Reinforcement Detectors & Cover meters

 Group - D - Electrical Methods

 Dielectric Measurement ( Moisture Content )

 Electrical Resistivity

 Half – Cell Potential

 Polarisation

 Group - E - Electro- Magnetic Methods

 Radar

 Group - F - Radioactive / Infrared Methods

 X – Radiography

 Gamma Radiography

 Infrared Thermography

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 Group - G - Penetrability Methods

 Air / Gas / water permeability Test

 Group - H - Partially Destructive Tests

 Penetration Resistance Test ( Windsor Probe )

 Pull - out test

 Pull - off test

 Break – off test

 Core cutting

 Group - I - Other properties of fresh / hardened concrete

 Chemical tests
 Cement Content & Agg / Cement ratio
 Sulphate determination test
 Chloride determination test
 Alkalinity test
 Carbonation test
 Moisture Measurement

 Crack measurement & monitoring

 Endoscope / Bore scope / Underwater Inspection

 Underwater Inspection

 Abrasion resistance test

 Fresh concrete tests for W/C ratio and compressive strength

Selection of Non Destructive Testing Method

Parameter Test / Method

 CONCRETE

 Compressive strength Rebound Hammer ,

Windsor probe,
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity,
Core ,
Capo,
Pull out
Combined methods

 Flexural Strength Break – off

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 Direct tensile strength Pull off
Parameter Test / Method

 Concrete Quality, Homogeneity Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity,

Honeycombing, voids, Pulse echo,
Endoscopy,
Gamma Ray Radiography
 Damages – Fire / blast Rebound Hammer
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity
Core Test
 Cracks , Delaminations Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity
- Water tanks / Pavements / Bridges Infrared Thermography
Acoustic Crack Detector
Dye Penetration Test
X – ray Radiography
Gamma Ray Radiography
Crack scope
Vibration Measurement
 STEEL
 Location, cover, size Re bar locator , Bar sizer
 Corrosion Half – Cell Potential
Resistivity
Carbonation
Chloride Content
 Condition Endoscope / Borescope
Underwater Inspection
 Integrity & Performance Tapping
Pulse – echo
Acoustic emission
Radar
Load Test

Rebound Hammer Test :- ( IS – 13311 ( Part 2 ) : 1992 )

Principle
This is the most common method adopted for checking strength of concrete since 1940.
The test is based on the principle that the rebound of an elastic mass depends on the
hardness of the surface against which mass strikes. The plunger of hammer is pressed
strongly and steadily against the concrete surface at right angles to its surface, until the
spring loaded mass is triggered from the locked position. The spring controlled mass
rebounds and the extent of such rebound depends upon the surface hardness of concrete.
The distance traveled by the mass as a percentage is defined as rebound number.

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 Rebound Hammer

Different Rebound Hammers along with Calibration Anvil

Procedure

The test is sensitive to local variations in the concrete, for e.g. If plunger strikes the
aggregate underneath, then it would indicate high rebound number, visa versa if it strikes a
void / cement paste , then it will indicate low rebound number. For this reason it is desirable
to take at least 12 readings per 300 Sqcm. ( as per BS 1881 : Part 202 (21)) and discard
abnormally high / low readings from the average one. The impact / test points shall not be
closer than 20 mm to each other.

Rebound Hammer Test on Pre-cast elements

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 Rebound Hammer Test on Bridge Girder

Influence of Test Conditions

The test is significantly influenced by following factors :

Type of Cement :-
Concrete made with high alumina cement can give strength 100 % higher or that with
supersulphated cement can give 50 % lower strength than that with ordinary Portland
cement.

Type of Aggregate :-
The influence of aggregate type and proportion can be considerable.

Surface condition & Moisture content :-

Trowelled & floated surfaces are harder than moulded surfaces. Exposed aggregate
surfaces are unsuitable for this methods.
A wet surface will give rise to underestimation of strength of concrete by about 20 % lower
than calibrated under dry condition.

Curing & Age of concrete :-

The relation between hardness and strength varies as a function of time, subsequent curing
and exposure condition will further influence this relationship. But this effect can be ignored
for concrete up to 3 months old.

Carbonation of Concrete surface :-

Concrete exposed to atmosphere will normally form a hard carbonated skin. The strength
predicted for carbonated concrete may overestimate up to 60 %.

Application :-

The rebound hammer method may be used for

 Assessing the likely compressive strength of concrete with the help of suitable calibration
charts.
 Assessing uniformity of concrete
 Assessing the quality of concrete in relation to specified standard requirements.
 Assessing the quality of one element of concrete to another.

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Reliability & Limitations :-

The test determines the hardness of the surface only. The impact of hammer is sensitive to
the surface layer of about 25 to 50 mm only. The reliability of this test as alone, for
compression strength is less, but it can generally indicate uniformity of concrete.
The rebound hammer results are very sensitive to the spring constant, thus after a use of
hammer for about 15000 impacts, it is recommended to calibrate the hammer on Anvil.

The influence of aggregate type and proportion can be considerable. Thus it is strongly
recommended that every lab, NDT consultant using rebound hammer shall develop their
own graphs for compressive strength verses Rebound number, and shall not use blindly, the
graphs given by manufacturers.

The probable accuracy of prediction of concrete strength in laboratory level is  15 % and

that of structure is  25 %. It is recommended to use of Rebound hammer along with
ultrasonic concrete testing or core test.

Penetration Resistance Test (Windsor probe ) :-

Principle

A test commonly known as Windsor probe test, estimates the strength of concrete from the
depth of penetration by a metal rod driven into the concrete by a specific amount of energy
generated by standard charge of powder. The penetration is the function of surface
hardness, punching shear resistance and hardness of aggregate expressed as Mohr No.
The first two variables are closely related to compressive strength. The penetration is
inversely proportional to the compressive strength of concrete, but the relation depends on
the hardness of the aggregate.

Procedure

The probe diameter is 6.35 to 7.94 mm and length is about 79.5 mm. Probes are driven
with a velocity of 183 m/s. The strong aggregate near surface may obstruct the probe, thus
at least three tests are recommended at a location. The probes shall be driven at least 100
to 175 mm apart to avoid overlapping of zones of influences.

This test compared to rebound hammer test is better in the sense that, it does not test only
the surface, but it in depth the probe actually fractures the aggregate and the compression of
material is taken into account.

Windsor probe

Reliability & Limitations :-

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This test is also not widely accepted ,as it tests only thin layer to the tune of three times the
impregnated depth. It is claimed that concrete between 25 to 75 mm below surface can be
assessed by this method. The surface damage caused by this test is about 50 – 100 mm. It
is reported that, this test is not reliable for concrete with strength less than M – 10. The
probable accuracy of prediction of concrete strength of structure is  25 %.

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test :- ( IS – 13311 ( Part 1 ) : 1992 )

Principle
This is one of the most commonly used methods, in which the ultrasonic pulses are
transmitted through the concrete. In solids, the particles can oscillate along the direction of
sound propagation as longitudinal waves, or the oscillations can be perpendicular to the
direction of sound waves as transverse waves. At surfaces and interfaces, various types of
elliptical or complex vibrations of the particles occur.
A complex system of stress waves is developed which includes longitudinal (Compression) ,
shear ( transverse ) and surface ( releigh ) waves. Piezoelectric transducers are designed to
generate longitudinal and transverse (shear) waves. The active element of most acoustic
transducers is piezoelectric ceramic These transducers converts electrical signals into
mechanical vibrations (transmit mode) and mechanical vibrations into electrical signals
(receive mode). The travel time is measured with an accuracy of +/- 0.1 microseconds.
Transducers with natural frequencies between 20 kHz and 200 kHz are available, but 50 kHz
to 150 kHz transducers are common.
This instrument basically is dependent on the Dynamic Young’s Modulus , density ,
Poisson’s ratio of the material. Under certain specified conditions the velocity and strength
of concrete are directly related.

V2 = Ed (1-v)
p (1+v) (1-2v)

Where Ed = Dynamic Young’s Modulus p = Density

v = Dynamic Poisson’s ratio

As V  Ed , Ed  Es & V  fck
Thus V  fck

Thus it is clear from the above equations that pulse velocity is directly proportional to the
compressive strength of concrete.

Procedure
There are three possible ways of measuring pulse velocity :

Direct Transmission Semi-direct Transmission Indirect Transmission

( cross probing ) ( Surface probing )
UPV - Different Test Methods

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The transducers are placed on the smooth concrete surface to measure the time required for
travel. A coupling media such as petroleum jelly, grease are applied to the surface to have
good acoustical coupling. The velocity is calculated as

V = L / T

Where, L is the distance between two probes and

T is the time required to travel the distance between two transducers.

If the quality of concrete in terms of density, homogeneity, strength and uniformity is good
then the velocity obtained is higher

In practice it is convenient to establish the relation between strength of cube and pulse
velocity. Calibration charts are prepared based on the above relationship by testing
sufficient numbers of cubes under various conditions and for various mix designs. This
calibration charts also has to applied proper modifications / correction factor for various
influencing conditions such as Grade of cement , Moisture content, Type of aggregate,
water cement ratio, % reinforcement etc.

At Construction Diagnostic Centre (CDC), we have carried out an extensive research on

quality assessment and it has been observed that, the quality gradation as per IS – 13311
(part-1)- 1992 is valid ONLY for M – 15 grade concrete. For concrete with more than M –
20, we recommend to grade the quality of concrete as per below given table –

Gradation of Quality of concrete ( as per CDC ) - Direct & Semi Direct velocity
Km/Sec.
Quality of Concrete M - 20 to M - 25 M - 30 to M - 35 > M - 40
Excellent More than 4.400 More than 4.600 More than 4.900
Good 3.750 to 4.400 3.900 to 4.600 4.150 to 4.900
Medium 3.400 to 3.750 3.600 to 3.900 3.800 to 4.150
Doubtful Less than 3.400 Less than 3.600 Less than 3.800

Gradation of Quality of concrete ( as per CDC ) - Indirect velocity Km/Sec.

Quality of Concrete M - 20 to M - 25 M - 30 to M - 35 > M - 40
Excellent More than 3.900 More than 4.100 More than 4.400
Good 3.250 to 3.900 3.400 to 4.100 3.650 to 4.400
Medium 2.900 to 3.250 3.100 to 3.400 3.300 to 3.650
Doubtful Less than 2.900 Less than 3.100 Less than 3.300

Influence of Test Conditions

Moisture content : -
The pulse velocity through saturated concrete is higher by about 2 to 10 % than dry
concrete. For high strength and well-compacted concrete the influence is less as against
low strength and less compacted concrete.

Type of Aggregate : -
For aggregate having higher specific gravity pulse transmission is faster.

Type of Cement : -
It has observed by the author that, the pulse velocity does not have any significant effect
with the different grades of cement.

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Type of Mix & water / cement ratio : -
With the change in mix proportion the % change in velocity is less as compared with the %
change in compressive strength. For change in w/c ratio, % change in velocity is
comparable with % change in the strength.

Reinforcement : -
The pulse velocity through steel is about 5.9 Km/sec. as against 3.0 to 4.5 Km/sec. of
concrete. Thus it can be seen that, for weaker concrete the effect of reinforcement is more
than for higher strength concrete. As far possible reinforcement shall be avoided while
selecting the test point.

If the axis bar is parallel to the pulse path ( which is a rare case ), the increase in velocity
may be to the extent of 5 to 20 % depending on the bar size and the location of bar from
the path of the pulse.

If the axis of bars is perpendicular to the pulse path, the increase in velocity may be to the
extent of 1 to 5 % depending on the bar size.

Stress :-
At higher stress level significant reduction in pulse velocity is observed.

Path length :-
The minimum path length is governed by the frequency of the transducers.

Natural frequency transducers kHz Minimum path length ( mm )

For concrete with
V = 3.5 Km/sec. V = 4.5 Km/sec.
150 23 30
100 35 45
50 70 90
20 175 225

There is no significant drop in velocity up to 3.0 m path length. For 3m to 6 m path length,
reduction of 5 % in pulse velocity has been reported.

Application

The ultrasonic pulse velocity method is used to assess

 The homogeneity of the concrete
 The presence of cracks, voids and other imperfections, depth of crack
 Changes in the structure of the concrete which may occur with time
 The quality / compressive strength of concrete of one element in relation to another
element / standard requirement.
 The values of dynamic elastic modulus of concrete

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 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity testing of Bridge Girder – Direct Method

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity testing of Residential Building– Direct Method

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity testing of Overhead Water Tank wall– Indirect Method

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Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity testing of Slab – Direct Method – Probe from Top & Bottom

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity testing of Slab – Indirect Method

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity testing of Concrete Road – Indirect Method for crack depth
detection

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 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity testing of Silo

Reliability & Limitations

Ultrasonic pulse velocity has been found to be a valuable and reliable method of detecting
interior of concrete member in truly a non destructive way.

If the data about factors influencing pulse velocity as stated above is not available , then, the
assessment of compressive strength will have limitations. The accuracy of the strength
prediction by this method at about 95 % confidence level is about  15 - 20 % depending
upon the concrete mix design data available and the correction factors applied. It is
recommended to use this test in combination with rebound hammer & core test for new
concrete and with core test for old concrete.

Pull out test :-

Principle & Procedure

The force required to pull out a previously embedded rod ( LOK Test )or cut & expanded in
situ ring (Capo test) is measured and the same is related to the compressive strength of the
concrete. After the test the cone hole is patched with non- - shrink grout/ mortar. The
concrete is actually subjected to tension & shear, but the calculated pull out strength is
approximately near to the shearing strength of the concrete. The pull out test need not be
carried out up to removal of concrete core, but if the rod / ring do not come out for the
required force, then the required strength is assumed to exist. This test is assumed to be
better over Rebound hammer test or Penetration resistance test.

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 Pull out Test

Similar to the above test, special cylindrical moulds are inserted in the slab shuttering. Thus
the actual concrete mix with same curing can be tested. These moulds are removed from the
slab and tested for compression strength.

Reliability & Limitations

But these tests has got limitations that all bolts / moulds needs to embedded before hand (
except for Capo Test ). The moulds can be inserted only in slab. All these tests require pre
planning.

Pull – off Test : -

Principle & Procedure

This method measures the in situ tensile strength of concrete by applying a direct tensile
force. The calibration charts of pull – off tensile strength to cube compressive strength are
available. A metal disk is fixed to the surface by epoxy resin adhesive to the concrete
surface and is then removed by jack to measure the pull – off force. To avoid surface
carbonation effect a partial core of suitable depth can be drilled. It is reported that, the effect
of age, type of aggregate, curing etc. is very marginal . This method can be used for testing
bond strength of repair work.

Pull – Off test

Break – off Test :-

Principle & Procedure

This test determines the flexural strength in a plane parallel at a certain depth from surface.
A partial core hole is cut into the concrete or a removable cylinder is introduced in the

14
concrete. Using a hydraulic unit a transverse force is applied at the top of surface , which
breaks up the core left in the concrete. The break – off force is related to the bending tensile
strength. The core obtained from test may also be tested for compression in laboratory.

Break – Off Test

Core Test :- ( IS – 516 – 1959 , IS – 1199 – 1959 & IS - 456 - 2000 )

Principle & Procedure

This is one of the very reliable tests adopted for checking the compressive strength of the ‘In
situ concrete”. Other physical properties such as density, water absorption can also be
measured from the core concrete. In addition chemical properties of concrete specimen for
its cement content, carbonation depth, chloride and sulphate content may be measured.

Though this test may become partially destructive for beams / columns , but it can be used
for slabs, walls, where partial destruction of concrete due to core cutting do not disturb the
stability of the member. In this method concrete cores of sizes raging from 20 mm to 150
mm in diameter and 50 mm to 500 mm long are drilled out by a diamond cutters. The
recommended diameters are 100 to 150 mm, but if the drill depth is insufficient as in of case
slabs , then smaller diameters may be used but not less than three times nominal aggregate
size. The core diameter to length ratio shall be normally between 1.0 to 2.0 ( preferably 2.0)
The core diameter shall be at least three times the nominal maximum size of aggregate.
Reinforcement shall be avoided in the core. At least three cores shall be tested for
acceptable accuracy. These cylindrical concrete cores are then made smooth at both ends
( if required ) and then tested for compressive strength. If required capping of the faces shall
be done. The strength of capping material shall be higher than that of concrete in the core.
Cap shall be as thin as practicable. The specimen shall be cured in water for 48 hours
before testing.

The cylindrical strength is then co-related to cube strength. IS – 516 suggest a multiplying
factor of 1.25 for converting cylindrical strength to equivalent cube strength. In addition a
correction factor for height to diameter ratio shall be applied as given in IS – 516. IS – 456
states that the concrete in the member represented by a core test shall be considered
acceptable, if the average equivalent cube strength of core is equal to at least 85 % of the

15
cube strength of the grade of concrete specified, but no individual core has a strength less
than 75 %.

Diamond Core Cutting Machine Diamond Core Bits

Application

The core cutting is mainly conducted for :-

 Determining “In situ” compressive strength of structure.

 Small cores for chemical tests
 Inserting water supply, plumbing pipes
 inserting conducts for electrical cables
 Making pockets for machine foundation for inserting bolts
 Making weep holes in walls

Core Sample Extraction from a Dam Core Sample Extraction from a Beam

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 Core Extraction from a RCC Chimney Core Extraction from Box Girder Bridge

Reliability & Limitations

As this test gives actual in situ strength of concrete is more acceptable, but due to partial
destructiveness needs to be used very carefully. The reliability of small cores i.e. 40 – 50
mm is less as compared to normal cores. The detection of reinforcement shall be perfect. If
the quality of concrete is not good, one may not even get a complete core for testing. The
cost of core cutting is more compared with other ND tests, as it consumes diamond bits,
which are costly.

Other properties of fresh / hardened concrete

In addition to the compressive strength , many other properties need to be tested. To

assess the durability of the structure tests such as chemical tests, crack monitoring,
moistures content are conducted. Many of the chemicals require fully equipped laboratories,
but now days “kits” available for site testing may be used.

Chemical tests :-

Cement content and aggregate / cement ratio :-

It is well known that, lime compounds and silicates in Portland cement are generally
decomposed by and soluble in hydrochloric acid. The quantity of soluble silica or calcium

17
oxide is determined by simple analytical procedures, and if the composition of the cement is
known, the cement content can be calculated.

It is virtually impossible to find out the relative ingredients of blended cement. Even the
accuracy of cement content is reported to be about  30 to 50 kg/ m3

Chloride determination :-

Principle & Procedure

The excessive amount of chloride in concrete is a great potential corrosion of embedded

reinforcement. The small quantity may be present in concrete , but chlorides may increase
due to use of creek sand, saline air, seawater, and severe exposure conditions as in case of
chemical industries.

Various methods for measuring chloride content are available. Laboratory analysis is a
simple and reliable method, but it requires a specialised laboratory set up. ‘Hach’ simplified
method and ‘Quantab; simplified methods uses the commercially available test kits / strips
for site determination of chloride content. These methods are quick are have good accuracy

Reliability & Limitations

An adequate number of samples representing members, needs to be collected. The chloride

distribution may vary point to point depending upon the vicinity of the exposure condition. It
has been reported that ‘Quantab’ method can predict chloride content with an accuracy of
0.03 to 1.2 %.

Carbonation test :-

Principle

CO2 present in the atmosphere reacts with the hydrated cement minerals to reduce the
alkalinity of the concrete and increase the risk of reinforcement corrosion. Carbonation of
concrete results in increase in strength and reduction in permeability. Reinforcement in
concrete will not corrode, if the pH of concrete is maintained around 13. Carbonation
reduces the pH level of concrete. Reinforcement corrosion may possibly commence at a
pore solution pH of about 11. Carbonation rate is normally high in dry weather than in moist
weather. The depth of carbonation increases with an increase in water / cement ratio. It is to
be noted that corrosion of reinforcement will start if entire cover to the steel is carbonated ,
but presence of moisture and oxygen is essential.

Procedure

The extent / depth of carbonation is determined by treating freshly broken / core cut
concrete surface or a drilled powder obtained from various depths, with a phenolphthalein
indicator. A purple red colouration will be obtained where the highly alkaline concrete has
been unaffected, but carbonated portion will remain uncoloured. The change of colour
corresponds to a pH of about 8.3.

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Purple colour indicates Un-Carbonated concrete and Colourless Concrete is a Carbonated
Concrete

Crack monitor & Moisture content meter:-

To measure the crack width and movement , Crack scope and Crack movement devices are
available. The crack scope magnifies the crack about 25 times the crack and measures up to
a level of 0.0025 mm. The moisture content in the hardened concrete can be measured by
meter within its magnetic field of about 25 mm.

Fresh concrete tests for W/C ratio and compressive strength :-

Now a days fresh concrete testers are available . This instrument consists of probe with two
small bowls at bottom attached to a rotary drill. The probe is inserted into fresh concrete and
the probe is rotated for about ten times. While rotating the resistance of concrete and other
properties of concrete such as temperature , fluidity are sensed by a software and are
analysed to give ,finally the slump / W/C ratio / Approximate 28 days strength and the
temperature of the concrete.

Group - III - Reinforcement location , size and corrosion

Steel shares about 40 to 70 % of the load in RCC, that’s why it is equally important that
condition assessment of steel is also carried out along with concrete. During last few
decades it has been observed that, corrosion of reinforcement in severe in structures near
seashore and in the vicinity of chemical industries. A lot of attention is needed for detecting
this detoriation and protecting it with proper treatment. Thus due importance shall be given
for measuring the size of bar and the amount of corrosion.

Rebar Locator & bar sizer :-

Principle & Procedure

The reinforcement bar is detected by magnetising it and inducing a circulating “ eddy

current” in it. After the end of the pulse, the eddy current dies away, creating a weaker
magnetic field as an echo of the initial pulse. The strength of the induced field is measured
by a search head as it dies away and this signal is processed to give the depth
measurement. The eddy current echo is determined by the depth of the bar , the size of bar
and the orientation of the bar. This detection of location of reinforcement is required as a
pre process for core cutting.

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 Reinforcement Detection

Reliability & Limitations

With this instruments a cover to reinforcement can be measured up to 100 - 150 mm with an
accuracy of  15 % and Manufacturers claim accuracy of a bar diameter measurement to be
less than 2 to 4 mm. But it has observed that, most of the available detectors do not
accurately measure the bar diameter. Proper calibration of these instruments is very
essential.
The factors which affect the accuracy are –
Very closely spaced bars or bundled bars or bars in layers, Binding wire, aggregate
containing iron or magnetic properties

Corrosion mapping

Reinforcement in concrete will not corrode if the protective iron oxide film formed by the high
alkaline condition of the concrete pore fluid with a pH around 13 is maintained. This film
gets destroyed by chlorides or by carbonation, if moisture and oxygen are present, resulting
in corrosion. In the corrosion process anodic and cathodic areas are formed on the
reinforcement, causing dissolution of the steel and the formation of expansive corrosion
products at the anode.

Half – Cell Potentiometer :- – ASTM – C-876

Principle & Procedure

The instrument measures the potential and the electrical resistance between the
reinforcement and the surface to evaluate the corrosion activity as well as the actual
condition of the cover layer during testing. The electrical activity of the steel reinforcement
and the concrete leads them to be considered as one half of weak battery cell with the steel
acting as one electrode and the concrete as the electrolyte. The name half-cell surveying
derives from the fact that the one half of the battery cell is considered to be the steel
reinforcing bar and the surrounding concrete. The electrical potential of a point on the
surface of steel reinforcing bar can be measured comparing its potential with that of copper
– copper sulphate reference electrode on the surface. Practically this achieved by
connecting a wire from one terminal of a voltmeter to the reinforcement and another wire to

20
the copper sulphate reference electrode. Then generally readings taken are at grid of 1 x 1
m for slabs, walls and at 0.5 m c/c for Column, beams

Working Diagram of Half-Cell Potential Test

Half-Cell Potential Test Copper – Copper Sulphate Half-Cell

One end of Half-Cell connected to the reinforcement

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 Half-Cell Potential Test of Column Marking of Slab and Pre-wetting for
Half-Cell Potential Test

Half-Cell Potential Test of Overhead Water Tank Wall

An Equi-potential contour map can be plotted to get an overall picture of the member

Half – Cell Equi-potential Contour Map

22
The risk of corrosion is evaluated by means of the potential gradient obtained, the higher the
gradient , the higher risk of corrosion. The test results can be interpreted based on the
following table

Half – cell potential ( mv) relative to % chance of corrosion activity

Cu-Cu sulphate Ref. electrode

Less than - 200 10 %

Between – 200 to – 350 50 % ( uncertain )
Above – 350 90 %

Significance and use

This method may by used to indicate the corrosion activity associated with steel embeded in
concrete.
This method can be applied to members regardless of their size or the depth of concrete
cover.
This method can be used at the any time during the life of concrete member.

Reliability & Limitations

The test does not actual corrosion rate or whether corrosion activity has already started, but
it indicates the probability of the corrosion activity depending upon the actual surrounding
conditions. If this method used in combination with resistivity measurement , the accuracy is
higher. If the concrete surface has dried to the extent that it is dielectric , then pre wetting of
concrete is essential.

Resistivity :- –

Principle & Procedure

Corrosion is an electrochemical process. For corrosion of steel reinforcement to occur in

concrete, an ionic current (a flow of ions) must pass between anodic and cathodic regions of
the concrete. The electrical resistivity of the concrete affects the ionic flow and the rate at
which corrosion can occur; a higher concrete resistivity decreases the current flow. An
empirical relationship between corrosion rate and concrete resistivity has been derived from
measurements on actual structures

Concrete electrical resistivity can be obtained by applying a current into the concrete and
measuring the response voltage.

Four probes
On-site electrical resistivity of concrete is commonly measured using four probes in a
Wenner array. The reason for using four probes is the same as in the laboratory method - to
overcome contact errors. In this method four equally spaced probes are applied to the
specimen in a line. The two outer probes induce the current to the specimen and the two
inner electrodes measure the resulting potential drop. The probes are all applied to the same
surface of the specimen and the method is consequently suitable for measuring the
resistivity of bulk concrete in situ.
The resistivity is given by:

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V is the voltage measured between the inner two probes (measured in volts, V)
I is the current injected in the two outer probes (measured in amps, A)
a is the equal distance of the probes (measured in metres, m).

Wenner 4 probe - Concrete Resistivity Meter

Interpretation of Results -

Resistivity (kΩ – cm ) Indication of Corrosion Rate

More than 200 Very Low Corrosion Rate
20 to 200 Low Corrosion Rate
10 to 20 Low to Moderate Corrosion Rate
5 to 10 High Corrosion Rate
Less than 5 Very High Corrosion Rate

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 Resistivity Contour Map

Significance and use

 Indication of corrosion rate

 Correlation to chloride permeability
 On site assessment of curing efficiency
 Determination of zonal requirements for cathodic protection systems
 Identification of wet and dry areas in a concrete structure
 Indication of variations in the water/cement ratios within a concrete structure
 Identification of areas within a structure most susceptible to chloride penetration
 Correlation to water permeability of rock

Reliability & Limitations

The resistivity is affected by various factors such as rebars on electrical resistivity

measurements, aggregate size, moisture content, temperature, carbonation

Group - IV - Miscellaneous Test

Impact Echo -

Principle & Procedure

Receiver adjacent to impact point monitors arrival of stress as they undergo multiple
reflections between surface and opposite side of plate like member or from internal defects.
Frequency analysis permits determination of distance to reflector if wave speed is known.

Significance and use

Locate a variety of defects within concrete elements such as delaminating, voids,

honeycombing or measure element thickness

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 Impact Echo

Pile Integrity Test (Pulse Echo Method )

Principle & Procedure-

 Hammer impact on the surface and a receiver monitors reflected stress wave. Time
domain analysis used to determine travel time.
 Based on One Dimensional Stress Wave approach, a low strain integrity testing
 The pile head motion is measured as a function of time. The time domain record is then
evaluated for pile integrity.

Significance and use

• Suitable for - Slender structural elements like structural columns, driven concrete piles,
cast in place concrete piles, concrete filled steel pipe piles, timber piles.
• Evaluation of Pile integrity and pile physical dimensions i.e. cross-sectional area, length,
continuity, and consistency of the pile material
• Piles shall be trimmed to cut off level or sound concrete level before the test with all
laitance removed.
• For Pile Dia. > 500 mm additional readings ( @ 3 to 5 Nos ) are required.
• Application of Impact shall be within a distance of 300 mm
• The software filters the signal to eliminate High & Low frequencies
• In a few cases where piles are too long or skin fiction is high, low strain method does not
provide sufficient information particularly the toe reflection. In such cases high strain
method can be used by giving higher impact energies
• The cast-in-situ piles should not be tested normally before 14 days of casting as per IS
code & not before 7 days as per ASTM.
• The reasonably correct assessment of Stress Wave Velocity of pile concrete is essential
as an input.
• A Complementary Ultrasonic Pulse velocity test may be carried out at the head of the
pile in order to arrive at the speed of sound propagation.
• The test being a low cost and speedy, it is recommended to carry out testing of 100 %
piles. The further tests such as Dynamic or Static Load tests may be decided upon the
results of Pile Integrity Tests.

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 Pile Integrity Test (Pulse Echo Method )

Typical Pile Integrity Testing Instrument in use

Defective Piles

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 0m 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Good Pile – PIT Signal

0m 1 2 3 4 5 6
Defective Pile – PIT Signal

Limitations -
• Evaluation is approximate and not exact.
• No information about load carrying capacity of pile.
• It does not provide information regarding verticality or displacement in position of piles.
• Minor deficiencies like local loss of cover, small intrusions or type of conditions of
materials at the base of piles are undetectable.
• Integrity testing may not identify all imperfections, but it can be useful tool in identifying
major defects within the effective lengths.
• The test may identify minor impedance variations that may not affect the bearing
capacity of piles. In such cases, the engineer should use judgment as to the acceptability
of these piles considering other factors such as load redistribution to adjacent pile, load
transfer to the soil above the defect, applied safety factors and structural load
requirements.
• Soil stiffness or founding on rock of similar density as the pile, will attenuate the signals
such that there will be little or no toe reflection.
• The low strain integrity method is applicable to cast-in-situ concrete bored and driven
piles. Conclusive results are rarely obtained in case of segmented precast reinforced
concrete driven piles or precast piles in prebored holes.

It may not detect -

• The toe reflection when the L/D ratio roughly exceeds 20 (In hard soils) to 60 (In very
soft soils)
• Progressive changes in cross-section
• Minor inclusions and changes in cross-section smaller than 25% .
• Variations in length smaller than 10%.
• Features located below a crack or a major (1:2) change in impedance
• Debris at the toe
• Deviations from the straight line and from the vertical

Impulse Response -

Principle & Procedure-

Test similar to sonic echo method except the signal processing involves frequency domain
analysis of the received signal and the impact force history.

Significance and use

Determine the length of deep foundations ( pile & piers ) , determine the location of cracks or
constriction ( Neck-in). Provides information on the low-strain dynamic stiffness of the shaft /
soil system.

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Cross Hole Sonic Logging ( Pile Integrity Testing ) -

Principle & Procedure-

Analogous to the ultrasonic pulse velocity test, but transducers are positioned within tube
cast into the deep foundation or holes drilled after construction.

Crosshole Sonic Logging (CSL) uses high frequency compressional sonic waves as the
energy source. The sonic source produces an impulse whose frequency content is usually
30 to 40 kHz. Sonic waves passing through concrete are influenced by the density and
elastic modulus of the concrete. Fractured or "weak" concrete zones lower the velocity of
the sonic waves and, therefore, can be detected. In addition, the amplitude of a seismic
pulse is affected by these defects although this is not extensively used at the present time.
The frequency content of the seismic energy pulse determines the resolution and
penetration of the signal. High frequencies have high amplitude attenuation but can image
small targets. Conversely, lower frequencies have less attenuation but image larger targets.

Significance and use

Determine the location of low-quality concrete along the length of shaft and between
transducers. With drilled holes permits direct determination of shaft length.

Limitations -
Access tubes must be installed prior to concrete placement and special care must be taken
to avoid tube debonding between concrete and the tubes. Tube debonding condition can
occur with PVC access tubes above the water table. No signal is obtained in the tube
debonding zone. Only defects along the path of the sonic wave will be detected; it cannot
detect anomalies outside the rebar cage. It cannot be used to detect shaft bulbing (increase
in diameter

Radar -

Principle & Procedure-

Analogous to the ultrasonic echo method except that electromagnetic waves are used
instead of stress waves. Interface between material with different dielectric properties results
in reflection of a portion of incident electromagnetic pulse.

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Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is a geophysical method that uses radar pulses to image
the subsurface. This nondestructive method uses electromagnetic radiation in the microwave
band (UHF/VHF frequencies) of the radio spectrum, and detects the reflected signals from
subsurface structures. GPR can be used in a variety of media, including rock, soil, ice, fresh
water, pavements and structures. It can detect objects, changes in material, and voids and
cracks.

GPR uses high-frequency (usually polarized) radio waves and transmits into the ground.
When the wave hits a buried object or a boundary with different dielectric constants, the
receiving antenna records variations in the reflected return signal. The principles involved
are similar to reflection seismology, except that electromagnetic energy is used instead of
acoustic energy, and reflections appear at boundaries with different dielectric constants
instead of acoustic impedances.

Radar

The depth range of GPR is limited by the electrical conductivity of the ground, the
transmitted center frequency and the radiated power. As conductivity increases, the
penetration depth decreases. This is because the electromagnetic energy is more quickly
dissipated into heat, causing a loss in signal strength at depth. Higher frequencies do not
penetrate as far as lower frequencies, but give better resolution. Optimal depth penetration is
achieved in ice where the depth of penetration can achieve several hundred metres. Good
penetration is also achieved in dry sandy soils or massive dry materials such as granite,
limestone, and concrete where the depth of penetration could be up to 15-metre (49 ft). In
moist and/or clay-laden soils and soils with high electrical conductivity, penetration is
sometimes only a few centimetres.

Ground-penetrating radar antennas are generally in contact with the ground for the strongest
signal strength; however, GPR air-launched antennas can be used above the ground.

Significance and use

The depth range of GPR is limited by the electrical conductivity of the ground, the
transmitted frequency and the radiated power.
As conductivity increases, the penetration depth decreases. This is because the
electromagnetic energy is more quickly dissipated into heat, causing a loss in signal strength
at depth.

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Higher frequencies do not penetrate as far as lower frequencies, but give better resolution.
Dry sandy soils or massive dry materials such as granite, limestone, and concrete where the
depth of penetration could be up to 15 m.
In moist and/or clay-laden soils and soils with high electrical conductivity, penetration is
sometimes only a few centimetres

Good Radar media Poor Radar media

( Low Conductive Low Attenuation ) ( High Conductive High Attenuation )
Dry salt Salt water
Snow Metals
Ice and fresh water clay
wet or dry sand Clay-rich soils
Dry rocks Conductive Mineral

Applications –

• Locate pipes, cables below ground , buried foundations

• Locate steel in concrete,
• Find internal defects, voids, delaminations and cracks
• Locates zones of water penetration and corrosion within defective concrete,
• Determine thickness of members.
• Find integrity of concrete / masonry walls
• Mapping of subsurface soil and rock layering
• Locating buried archaeological structures

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Radiographic Tests ( X - Ray / Cobalt Gamma ray ) :-

Principle & Procedure-

These are the recent development for scanning the concrete. Radioactivity methods are
being increasingly used for the identification of defects in concrete hidden from the eye,
which develop during construction.

The techniques of using X- ray linear acceleration and cobalt 60 gamma radiography can
be used to identify various defects, such as cracks, voids in concrete or grout, position of
reinforcements, corrosion of steel , bond stresses in pre-stressed beams and degree of
compaction etc.

A radiographic image is essentially a two-dimensional shadow picture or display of the

intensity distribution of the X-rays or Gamma rays that have passed through a object. The
Object attenuates radiation according to mass and the type and size of the defects present.
When a beam of X-ray or gamma-radiation passes through concrete, more radiation is
absorbed by the denser parts of concrete. The radiation pattern can be made visible with
photographic film or fluorescent screens. Gamma-rays differ from X-rays only in their origin.
The two main techniques used are radiography and radiometry.

In both cases, gamma-radiation is preferred because its sources are more portable than X-
ray sources, easier to use on sites, thicker section of concrete can be penetrated, gives clear
details at shorter exposure time and cheaper than X-ray sources.

Radiograph of a Pre-stressed Beam

Reliability & Limitations

Delaminations are almost always undetectable.
Radiation health hazard and Expensive.
Cracks should be oriented parallel to the X-ray beam.

Infrared Thermography

Principle & Procedure-

Infrared -
Infrared energy is part of the electromagnetic spectrum and behaves similarly to visible light.
It travels through space at the speed of light and can be reflected, refracted, absorbed, and
emitted. The wavelength of IR energy is about an order of magnitude longer than visible

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light, between 0.7 and 1000 µm (millionths of a meter). Other common forms of
electromagnetic radiation include radio, ultraviolet, and x-ray.

Infrared radiation -
Everything on this planet contains thermal energy and therefore has a specific temperature.
This thermal energy is emitted from the surface of the material. This energy is called is
infrared (IR) radiation. The amount of IR radiation emitted at a certain wavelength, from the
surface of an object, is a function of the object's temperature. Thus we can calculate the
temperature of an object by measuring the infrared radiation emitted from it.

How is infrared energy related to problem detection?

Detectors in the infrared camera convert this incoming infrared energy from the infrared
spectrum to the visual spectrum so we can see the infrared energy. These visual maps that
co-relate image intensity or colour to the amount of infrared radiation received from that
object. The amount of radiation received, along with other parameters, is used to calculate
the actual surface temperature of the target object. The detectors are extremely sensitive to
small temperature differences and, with a trained and experienced thermographer,
inspections are accurate and very valuable.

Infrared Thermography -
Infrared Thermography is the technique for producing a visible image of invisible (to our
eyes) infrared energy emitted by objects. The higher the temperature, the more energy
emitted. The camera provides a basic grey scale image which is converted to false color
images to make interpretation of thermal patterns easier. More cameras will also measure
the temperatures of the target object. The thermal image produced by an infrared camera is
called a thermogram.

Infrared Thermography – Use in Construction

 Thermal heat loss inspections for buildings, plants, facilities, refineries.
 Moisture contamination evaluations in buildings, condo's, plants facilities
 Concrete integrity inspections
 Locate missing or damaged insulation
 Identify air leakage energy losses
 Evaluate the thermal performance of retrofits
 Locate radiant heating wires or pipes
 Detect delaminations in concrete bridge deck
 Locate and identify mold growth areas in building structures

Electromagnetic Spectrum

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Normally Thermal imaging cameras detect radiation in the infrared range of the
electromagnetic spectrum (roughly 9000–14,000 nanometers or 9–14 µm)

Sample Thermographical Image of Buildings showing Hot & Cool locations

Thermographical Image of O. H. Tank indicating water level

Reliability & Limitations

Small Delaminations / cracks are almost undetectable.
Most of the time only surface defects can be identified.
Sometimes external heating may be required.
Accurate temperature measurements are hindered by differing emissivities and reflections
from other surfaces

Vibration Measurement – (BS 7385- Part 1 & 2 :1990, ISO 4866:1990(E), BS 6472:1992 )

Structural vibration in buildings can be detected by the occupants and can affect them in
many ways: their quality of life can be reduced as also can their working efficiency. Ground
borne vibration from sources such as blasting, piling, machinery or road/rail traffic can be a
source of concern for occupants of buildings in the vicinity. This concern can lead to a need
to assess the effect of the imposed vibration on the building structure to ascertain whether
damage could occur.

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 Sources of Vibrations

It is increasingly recognized that buildings must sustain vibrations, and recognition of this is
needed both in design for structural integrity, serviceability and environmental acceptability,
and in the preservation of historic buildings. Measurement of vibration in a building is carried
out for a variety of purposes:

a) Problem recognition -
Where it is reported that a building is vibrating at such a level as to cause concern to
occupants, it may be necessary to establish whether or not the levels warrant concern for
structural integrity.

b) Control monitoring -
Where maximum permitted vibration levels have been established by some agency and
those vibrations have to be measured and reported.

c) Documentation -
Where dynamic loading has been recognized in design and measurements are made to
verify the predictions of response and provide new design parameters. These may use
ambient or imposed loading. Strong motion seismographs, for example, may be installed so
as to indicate whether or not the responses to earthquake warrant changes on operating
procedure in a structure.

d) Diagnosis -
Where it has been established that vibration levels require further investigation,
measurements are made in order to provide information for mitigation procedures. Another
diagnostic procedure is to use structural response to ambient or imposed loading to
establish structural condition, for example, after a severe loading, such as an earthquake.

35
In general, building vibration are measured in acceleration terms. In some cases, such as
impulsive events, it may be found convenient to measure in terms of particle velocity so that
peak values may be identified.

Vibration Meter

Vibration Measurement is carried out for various structures such as Buildings / Structures,
Bridges, Chimney / Stacks, Water Tanks, Heritage Structures

Endoscopy –

Endoscopy surveys provide a fast, cost effective means of identifying problematic / un-
accessible areas where bear minimum destruction is allowed for inspection such as –
 Concrete pipes,
 Water Pipes
 Storm pipes
 Sewer Lines,
 Culvert
 Cavity walls,
 Air ducts, Vents,
 Chimneys,
 Ceiling, roof and floor voids,
 Water tanks,
 Heritage structures,
 Timber structures,
 Concrete or Masonry structures with large voids, honeycombing etc.

Bore scopes / Endoscopes

36
 Endoscopy of Masonry Endoscopy of False Ceiling

Bore scope survey - rusting inside pipes Bore scope survey – Boiler Tube

Endoscopes allows to conduct surveys with the very minimum of disruption to the structures,
whilst providing with the detailed information. This technique has been found to be very
useful for identifying corrosion inside pipes, hollow areas in the timber structures caused by
decay of timber due to wet rotting, termites

These endoscopes / Bore Scopes can take a sharp snap shots along with continuous video
recording.

Underwater Inspection –

Many a times inspection and testing of underwater structures becomes very difficult. Most of
the ND methods can not be conducted underwater and we are required to depend only on
the visual inspection of the part of structure above water level. One way of inspecting
underwater structures is to send the non technical divers and capture images or to capture
video / images by underwater camera operated by a technical person sitting outside the
water. The cost of second option is less and is recommended as the on site inspection is
carried out by a technical person.

Such underwater inspection is required for many structures like – Dams, Bridges, Water
Tanks, Effluent & Water Treatment Plants, Jetty etc.

37
 Underwater camera

Underwater Structures

Corrosion of Underwater Structures captured by Camera

38
 Inspection of Jetty & Bridge Foundations by Underwater Camera

Ultrasonic Thickness Gauge – (IS : 15435: 2003 & IS : 2417 )

A very useful tool in the structural audit / survey. In most of the Industries, especially in
Chemical factories corrosion is a very serious issue for the structural stability of the
structural steel structures, M S Chimney , Stacks, Gantry girders, Pipe racks, Pipelines etc.

Using the Ultrasonic thickness Gauge one can find out the precise thickness of all such
steel / metal structures, components.

Ultrasonic Thickness Gauge

39
Moisture Measurement -
Moisture is know to be one of the main source causing deterioration of masonry and timber
structures. To identify the source of leakages and dampness moisture meters are very
helpful. If the concrete, masonry , timber structures are found to be wet, then appropriate
repairs can be carried out to avoid further decay / deterioration of the material and structure
as a whole.

Moisture Measurement of Timber Moisture Measurement of Concrete

 Infrared Thermometers –

Used in combination with Moisture meters to identify the temperature gradient and spot
temperatures from a long distance by just sighting the object, a very useful tool in structural
audits of the buildings, water structures, chimney etc.

Infrared Thermometer

40
Load Test – (IS – 456 – 2000 )

Though not a Non Destructive Test, IS – 456 – 2000 recommends Load testing of flexural
members to be carried out In case the core test results do not satisfy the requirements.
Many a times Load test is carried out on building & Bridge components when –

• The strength of concrete is below the acceptable norms

• Structural Design data is not available.
• Load carrying capacity of the flexural member needs to be assessed.
• The members is to be subjected to a higher loads
• The members are noticed to have cracks, deflections
• The structure is damaged due to fire, earthquake, blast, corrosion etc.
• Change in use of structure.

The Load Test for Building is carried out as per IS – 456.

For Bridges Load test is carried out in accordance with IRC – SP – 51 – 1999, the load test
can be performed by either loading with simulation of specific IRC vehicle ( IRC – 37 ) or by
other type of static load which produces the design forces.

Load Test of RCC Beam

Load Test of Bridge

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Recommended Numbers of Readings for various test methods

Test method Nos. of Individual readings recommended at

a location

Standard cores 3
Schmidt hammer 12
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity 2
Windsor Probe 3
Pull – out 1
Pull – off 3
Break – off 1

References

1. BS1881:Part 201:1986 - Guide to the use of nondestructive methods of test for hardened concrete
2. BS1881:Part 203:1986 - Recommendations for measurement of velocity of ultrasonic pulses in concrete
3. BS1881:Part 207:1992 - Recommendations for the assessment of concrete strength by near-to-surface tests
4. IS 13311 : Part 1 :1992 – NDT of Concrete – Method of test - UPV
5. IS 13311 : Part 2 :1992 – NDT of Concrete – Method of test – Rebound Hammer
6. IS – 456 – 2000 – Plain & RCC – Code of Practice
7. IS – 1199 – 1959 - Method of sampling & Analysis of Concrete
8. IS – 516 – 1959 – Methods of tests for Strength of Concrete
9. ACI – SP 82 – In Situ / Non Destructive Testing of Concrete
10. ACI 311.4 4R-00 – Guide for Concrete Inspection
11. ACI 365.1 R-00 – Service life Prediction – State of Art Report
12. ACI 214.4 R-03 – Guide for obtaining Cores & Interpreting Compressive strength results.
13. ACI 228.2 R-98 – NDT Methods for Evaluation of Concrete in Structures
14. ACI 228.1 R-03 – In-Place Methods to Estimate Concrete Strength
15. ACI 437 R-03 – Strength Evaluation of Existing concrete buildings
16. ACI – SP - 168 – Innovations in NDT of concrete
17. ACI – SP – 112 - NDT
18. ACI – Monogram No – 9 – Testing of Hardened concrete – NDT methods
19. ACI – Monogram Series – Evaluation of Concrete Properties from Sonic Tests
20. Malhotra V. M. (Ed.) - Testing Hardened Concrete: Non-destructive Methods, ACI, monograph No. 9, Detroit, US, 1976.
21. Malhotra V. M. – Handbook of NDT of concrete – Second Edition
22. J. H. Bungey - The Testing of Concrete in Structures
23. N. J. Carino – NDE to Investigate Corrosion status in Concrete Structures
24. P.A.M. Basheer – Near Surface Testing for strength & Durability of Concrete
25. R. Halmshaw – NDT – Second Edition
26. H. W. Reinhardt – Testing during Concrete Construction
27. ACI – India Chapter – National Seminar on “Quality Assurance in Civil Engineering through Material testing” - 2003
28. ACI – India Chapter – National Symposium on “NDT of Structures” - 2000
29. ACI – India Chapter – National Seminar on “Potential of NDT for Quality Assurance & Diagnosis” - 2004
30. ACI – India Chapter – International Seminar on “NDT- 2006”
31. ICI – Proceedings of Indo-US Workshop of NDT –1996
32. IRC – Highway Research Board – Special Report on “ State of Art : NDT techniques of concrete bridges” – 1996
33. The British Institute of NDT – Proceedings of International Conference on “NDT in Civil Engineering” Vol 1 & 2 - 1997
34. BAM – Proceedings Vol 1 & 2 - International Symposium ( NDT – CE – 1995 )
35. BAM - Proceedings International Symposium ( NDT – CE – 2003 )
36. ISNT – Proceedings of “Workshop on NDE of Concrete Structures” - 2002
37. SPIE – Vol 2457 - Proceedings “NDE of Aging structures & Dams”
38. COEP – National Symposium on “Diagnosis & Evaluation of Concrete Structures using NDT “ - 2004
39. Grasim Cement Publication No – 8 on NDT
40. CECR – Compilation of paers on “Instrumentation & NDT” 1988-98
41. Controls – Product Catalogue
42. NDT James – Product Catalogue
43. FLIR – Product Catalogue
44. Central Federal Lands Highway (Website)
45. www.piletest.com
46. Wikipedia
47. Sensors and Softewares (Website)

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