Application of Radio Control Cars as Intelligent Unmanned Ground

Vehicles with Collaborative and Independent Behavior

Steven Wasson, John Kouns, Stephen Bruder, Kevin Wedeward and Aly El-Osery
Intelligent Systems & Robotics Group, New Mexico Tech, Socorro, NM, 87801, USA

ABSTRACT

Simple radio control cars commonly sold as toys can provide a viable starting platform for the development of low-cost
intelligent Unmanned Ground Vehicles (UGVs) for the study of robot collectives. In a collaborative effort, Sandia
National Labs and New Mexico Tech have successfully demonstrated proof-of-concept by utilizing low-cost radio
control cars manufactured by Nikko.

Initial tests have involved using a small number (two to ten) of these UGVs to successfully demonstrate both
collaborative and independent behavior simultaneously. In the tests individuals share their locations with the collective
to cover an area, thus demonstrating collaborative behavior. Independent behavior is demonstrated as each member of
the collective maintains a desired compass heading while simultaneously avoiding obstacles in its path. These UGVs
are powered by high-capacity rechargeable batteries and equipped with a custom-designed microcontroller board with a
stackable modular interface and wireless communication. The initial modular sensor configuration includes a digital
compass and GPS unit for navigation as well as ultrasonic sensors for obstacle avoidance. This paper describes the
design and operations of these UGVs, their possible uses, and the advantages of using a radio control car platform as a
low-cost starting point for the development of intelligent UGV collectives.

Keywords: Radio control cars, collaborative behavior, intelligent collectives

1. INTRODUCTION

Over the past decade, interest in the topic of distributed UGVs has grown consistently. This is due in part to the premise
that many tasks are better suited to a group of lesser complexity cooperative autonomous vehicles rather than a single
sophisticated vehicle [1, 2]. In particular, applications that involve searching large areas, such as landmine detection
[3], localizing emission sources [4], and many others are susceptible to a solution involving multiple collaborative
agents. Employing a collective can offer additional benefits beyond timesavings such as increased system robustness
and reliability (via redundancy), improved communication coverage (via ad-hoc networking [5]), and greater spatial
coverage (e.g. distributed sensor networks).

Many of the research efforts to date in the area of mobile collectives have focused on computer simulations [6, 7] as the
feasibility of conducting hardware trials has been limited primarily by the availability of a suitable platform which can
be obtained in quantities of tens to hundreds (or more) at a reasonable cost. In a project sponsored by Engineering
Collectives™, a sub-group of Sandia National Labs, the Intelligent Systems & Robotics Group (ISRG), a university-
based research group at New Mexico Tech (NMT), has proposed the use of radio control cars as a starting platform for
mobile collectives due to their low cost. In this project, a radio control car was selected and slightly modified to make it
intelligent and more robust.

To demonstrate the viability of using radio control (RC) cars as a starting platform for an intelligent UGV collective two
primary objectives were determined: 1) demonstrate collaborative behavior between multiple UGVs and 2)
demonstrate independent behavior. To demonstrate collaborative behavior, the example of designing the UGVs to be
capable of searching for targets within an area was selected. Independent behavior was to be demonstrated by
incorporating self-preservation skills requiring the UGVs to detect and avoid obstacles in their immediate path. This
paper will discuss the transformation of radio control cars into intelligent UGVs and the implementation of
collaborative and independent behavior. Furthermore, issues relating to the use of RC cars as a starting platform for
intelligent UGVs will be discussed as well as future work.

Unmanned Ground Vehicle Technology VI, edited by Grant R. Gerhart, Chuck M. Shoemaker, Douglas W. Gage, 279
Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 5422 (SPIE, Bellingham, WA, 2004) · 0277-786X/04/$15 · doi: 10.1117/12.541400
 2. TRANSFORMING A RADIO CONTROL CAR INTO AN INTELLIGENT UGV

RC cars, often found in retail stores and hobby shops across the country, are highly viable platforms for developing an
UGV. Most notably, they are inexpensive in comparison to designing and building a platform from the ground up.
Because of this they can be considered dispensable depending upon the application in which they are used. Also, given
that radio control cars are mass-produced and have a large market, they are very well supported and have evolved to be
very reliable pieces of machinery. Their robust design allows them to withstand substantial abuse by the common
consumer.

Off-the-shelf RC cars, however, are not suited for a direct transition from being a toy to being an intelligent UGV.
Primarily, they lack intelligence and sensory resources. The platform itself, electronics, drive system and power supply,
are often insufficient for the platform to be a truly viable UGV. However, with slight modification, the RC car platform
can be transformed into an intelligent UGV for mobile collectives. This section will briefly discuss the considerations
involved in selecting an RC car platform for intelligent UGV collectives and further present the RC car platform chosen
for this project. It will then proceed to describe the modifications to the platform and the installation of sensors and
intelligence.

2.1. Selecting the Platform

The primary consideration when choosing an RC car platform for the use of intelligent UGV collectives is the type of
drive system to use. The majority of RC cars are either based on Ackerman steering or on skid-steering. Both of these
systems have their own advantages and disadvantages. Ackerman steering, the system that is used on automobiles, is
both energy-efficient and results in very little friction. However, this system is complicated in terms of its mechanical
parts and control. Perhaps its main deficiency, though, is that it does not allow the platform to pivot in place.
Conversely, the skid-steer system, which uses considerably more energy and results in much greater friction, permits the
platform to pivot in place, allowing it to change orientation without changing position. It is also simpler mechanically
and easier to control. Due to these characteristics, the skid-steer system is often preferred over the Ackerman system.

The platform chosen for this project, shown in Figure 1, is a simple skid-steer based RC toy car manufactured by Nikko
at a retail price of $30. Its drive train utilizes two motors (one on each side) with gear reductions of 13:1. It has a
compartment in the back that houses its battery and an additional compartment in the middle to house its electronics. A
third motor present in the platform gives it the ability to articulate vertically by altering the angle that the drivetrains rest
at. The ability to articulate vertically makes it easier for the platform to pivot in place, as there will be less torque
required to overcome friction. This feature also enables the platform to be equipped with ground-penetrating radar
(GPR) sensors that may only operate properly when positioned a certain height above the ground.

Figure 1: RC Car manufactured by Nikko

280 Proc. of SPIE Vol. 5422

2.2. Upgrading the Platform

Even with a suitable RC platform chosen there are a few characteristics inherent to the design of RC cars that make
them insufficient as UGVs. Because RC toy cars are designed to be fast and affordable, manufacturers often
compromise on the more costly components needed in the vehicle. In particular, the motors and batteries, the two most
costly components, are the most compromised parts of an RC vehicle in terms of quality. Motors that are typically
included in off-the-shelf RC cars are extremely inefficient, unreliable, and designed only to supply the highest speeds
possible. The batteries are typically low-density high-discharge cells that result in short run-times. Due to the
requirements of most UGV applications, these two key parts of the platform must be upgraded.

2.2.1. Motors

The stock motors installed in the platform chosen for this project are inappropriate for the intended application of the
platform. Their main deficiency is that they only produce 11.3 mN-m of stall torque. With this low stall torque, the
platform lacks the power necessary to conquer basic ground-level obstacles such as rocks and grass while driving at low
speeds. Also, being that the stock motors are of low quality, they lack the robustness to sustain the repetitive exposure
to being stalled while driven at low speeds. Finally, the stock motors are extremely inefficient, utilizing only 59% of
the power that is supplied to them at maximum efficiency. These issues absolutely necessitated that the motors be
replaced.

To best retrofit the locomotion of the platform, several issues had to be taken into consideration simultaneously. First,
given that the drive system of the radio control car is geared for speed and not torque, and modification of the drive train
being unfeasible, motors needed to be found that supplied enough torque while maintaining low speeds. The motors
also needed to be efficient in order to maximize the run time of the batteries. The most constricting factor on motor
selection is that a very small physical size was needed in order to fit the mounting brackets on the existing platform.

The motors selected to replace the stock motors are from the RE-max 24mm motor line manufactured by Maxon
Motors. These motors utilize graphite brushes, consume 11W at 9V nominal, and can be outfitted with a 32 count-per-
turn encoder. With a maximum efficiency of 77%, the RE-max motors are considerably better than the stock motors
and will allow for a notably longer run time. The 24mm diameter of these motors fits perfectly within the motor mounts
of the platform, and being only 32mm in length (including encoder assembly) allow the stock motor cover to still be
used to help to protect the motor from dirt and debris. Their rated stall torque is 39.6 mN-m, which is once again
considerably better than the included stock motors. The total cost per motor with the encoder assembly is $120.

2.2.2. Batteries

The battery pack supplied with the platform is composed of 1500 mAh Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd) cells. These are
perfect for the intended use of the platform but it was highly desirable to increase the platform’s power efficiency and
run-time. Several factors had to be accounted for in choosing new batteries. These were the cost, physical size, energy
density, and reliability of the battery. Three widely available battery types were studied and are outlined below.

One of the most common types of battery chemistry available is Ni-Cd. These batteries have been around for many
years and are used in a wide range of applications ranging from radio control cars to portable electronics such as
cordless phones. They are available commercially in common packages (AA, AAA, C) so that the general consumer
can recharge them and use them wherever he/she pleases. Some of the advantages of this battery are that they are
generally the cheapest of all the rechargeable battery chemistries and are highly reliable if taken care of properly.
However, due to their chemistry, Ni-Cds are not capable of attaining energy densities as high as some of their
counterparts. Another problem with Ni-Cds is that they develop what is known as “memory” and require occasional
cycling in order to maintain their specified capacity.

Nickel-Metal Hydride (Ni-MH) batteries have also been around for several years, though not as long as Ni-Cds. They
have been taking over the market and replacing Ni-Cds in the past several years; powering modern cordless phones and
having powered early-generation cell phones. The Ni-MH technology is still being updated and capacities are being
increased. Currently, Ni-MH C cells are available with up to 5000 mAh capacity and sub-C cells are available up to

Proc. of SPIE Vol. 5422 281

 3300 mAh. Though these battery cells are more expensive than their Ni-Cd counterparts they are often cheaper per
mAh than Ni-Cd batteries are. Ni-MH cells also do not develop memory and thus do not require cycling as Ni-Cds do.
In order to charge Ni-MH cells a specifically designed charger must be used. Such chargers are widely available and
are often capable of charging several different types of battery chemistries.

One of the newest battery technologies to have emerged in the past few years is the Lithium-Polymer (Li-Poly)
chemistry. These batteries have been generating quite a stir in the battery market and are becoming quite popular for
use in small electronic devices such as cell phones and personal digital assistants (PDAs). Li-Poly batteries contain a
very high energy density while having a very small physical size and low weight. Some companies are offering
custom-built Li-Poly packs in up to 8000 mAh capacity. However, since this technology is still relatively young these
batteries are less reliable and considerably more expensive than Ni-MH cells. The Li-Poly batteries also require a
specialized charger and must be painstakingly taken care of or a disastrous failure may occur.

After taking the pros and cons of the various types of batteries into consideration, 3300 mAh Ni-MHs in a 1.2 V sub-C
cell package were chosen for this project. Not only can these battery cells be packed together to fit a seven-cell pack in
the original battery compartment of the platform, but they are also priced moderately at $50 for seven cells. The UGV
is capable of running for up to two hours continuously under moderate to heavy use with the 3300 mAh Ni-MH
batteries.

Depending on the UGVs particular application, it may be possible to salvage and make use of some or all of the
electronics of the RC platform. However, this is often not feasible. The included motor driver circuitry, like the motors
and batteries, is often inefficient and incapable of providing the required performance. Also, the radio communications
link may be too weak and lack the appropriate bandwidth for the desired use. For this project, the electronics were
completely discarded.

2.3. Adding Sensory Capabilities

Having successfully upgraded the RC platform it becomes necessary to add the sensory capabilities required by the
particular application of the UGV. For this project, a UGV collective must collaboratively search an area for a target
while the individual nodes detect and avoid obstacles. The following sensors were determined necessary for this task:

• Localization
• Odometry
• Obstacle Detection
• Wireless Communication
• Target Detection

A GPS receiver and digital compass were utilized for localization. These provide the UGV with its absolute position
and heading. The GPS chosen for this project is the Garmin GPS 16, which retails for $140. This fully contained unit
has a 12-channel receiver and is capable of differential GPS utilizing WAAS or RTCM, which can provide accuracy up
to 3 meters. It is easily interfaced to a computer system via an asynchronous serial port. The digital compass chosen is
the Vector 2x, manufactured by PNI Corporation and available for only $50. This compass has 2° RMS accuracy when
calculating the heading from the Earth’s magnetic field and is easily interfaced to a computer system via a synchronous
serial port. Due to its obvious sensitivity to magnetic fields, the compass was mounted in the front of the UGV as far as
possible from the field producing batteries and motors of the UGV.

Odometry of the UGV is made possible by quadrature encoders installed on the motors. These encoders have a
resolution of 32 pulses per revolution. When interfaced to the 13:1 gear reduction of the drive train and quadrature
decoded, a total of 1,664 pulses per revolution of the wheel are generated. When these pulses are counted over a
particular trajectory, the displacement of the UGV can be computed. The speed of the UGV can be computed by
counting the number of pulses generated over a specified interval of time. In addition, the direction of motion can be
determined by quadrature decoding the encoder signals. This information can then be used by a computer system to
control the motion of the UGV.

282 Proc. of SPIE Vol. 5422

Obstacle detection is typically accomplished either optically or acoustically. Depending on the operating environment,
one is preferred over the other. For this project, acoustic detection of obstacles was preferred because optical sensors
are difficult to utilize effectively in direct sunlight and acoustic sensors generally have a greater sensing range. The
particular sensors chosen were the Davantech SRF04 Rangers. These ultrasonic-based proximity sensors emit an
ultrasonic sound burst and produce a digital pulse proportional to the echo time. They have a range of 3 cm to 3 m and
a ±22.5º field of view. It was decided to use three of these sensors mounted at 45º from each other to produce a total
field of view of 135º in the front of the UGV.

Wireless communication, normally not thought of in terms of sensing, allows multiple UGVs to “sense” each other and
is essential for collaborative behavior. Several means of wireless communication are available today, including the
ever-popular 802.11b and radio frequency (RF). Due to ease of use, wireless RF serial transceivers were chosen for this
project. The particular module chosen is the MaxStream 9XStream 900MHz Wireless Serial Transceiver, which is
available for only $120 per card. The 9XStream transceiver is a long range, low power wireless module that operates at
9600 bps over-the-air data rate and is capable of a range of 1500 ft in an indoor or urban environment.

With the listed sensors the UGVs are capable of total autonomous navigation in an outdoor environment. In addition to
the sensor suite, they can also be outfitted with other sensors so that a particular goal may be pursued. One example is
that a small wireless camera may be mounted on the UGV enabling it to survey or search places physically unreachable
by humans. Another possible application is to mount a microstrip antenna capable of GPR to the underside of the
UGVs allowing for remote detection of land mines without endangering any persons.

2.4. Adding Intelligence

Two options were considered when selecting the computer system for the UGV. The first option was to use a full-
featured single board computer (SBC). A key advantage SBCs have is that they have well-developed hardware and
software support. Additionally, SBCs can utilize common operating systems, such as Real-Time Linux, to provide an
easy-to-use development environment. However, SBCs are often quite expensive. Microcontrollers, while not as
powerful as SBCs, are more affordable and still provide enough processing power for the needs of this project. While
the lack of an operating system on a microcontroller makes software development more difficult, hardware
manipulation is considerably easier.

The latest generation of the NMT Mobile Robot Kit [MRK] Controller Board was chosen as the computer system for
this project. This custom-designed microcontroller board, shown in Figure 2, is used in the popular NMT MRK [8]. At
a minimal cost of $100, it is equipped with the following features:

• 16-bit 24 MHz Motorola S12 Microcontroller with 11 KB of User RAM, 3 KB of User EEPROM, and 32
KB of User Flash EEPROM
• 8-Channel DIGITAL IN and 8-Channel DIGITAL OUT Ports with Integrated LEDS for Visual Feedback
• 8-Channel TIMER Port
• 14-Channel Analog-to-Digital Port (ANALOG IN)
• Four Texas Instruments TPIC0107B Intelligent H-Bridges rated at 3.0 A maximum continuous current
• Two Asynchronous Serial Communications Interfaces via RJ-11 Port, MaxStream Wireless Serial Module
Port, and MRK/48 Expansion Interface
• MRK/48 Expansion Interface with the following signals for interfacing to external devices
o 16-bit Multiplexed Address & Data Bus and 3 Control Signals for External Memory Interfacing
o 2 General Purpose Interrupt Lines
o 4-pin Synchronous Serial Peripheral Interface
o 4 Timer Channels
o 4 PWM Channels
o 2-pin Asynchronous Serial Communications Interface
o 2-pin I²C Interface
o 2 General Purpose I/O Lines
• 13x11 Prototyping Area

Proc. of SPIE Vol. 5422 283

 2 Dual-Channel 3.0A 8-Channel 8-Channel 8-Channel 14-Channel
High Power Out Ports Timer Port Digital Out Port Digital In Port Analog In Port

8V-33V MaxStream Prototype MRK/48 16-bit Motorola RJ-11 Serial

Power In Wireless Serial Area Expansion MC9S12 Communications
Connector Module Port Interface Microcontroller Port

Figure 2: MRK 3.1 Controller Board

The input power to the microcontroller is supplied by the 7-cell Ni-MH battery pack. The power is subsequently
regulated down to 5V via a step-down regulator circuit and then distributed to the rest of the board. High power
voltages required for the H-Bridges are pulled directly from the power connector. The built-in H-Bridges are controlled
by the S12’s PWM interface and are used to drive the motors. The encoders of the motors and the ultrasonic sensors are
interfaced to the TIMER port. The GPS receiver is connected to the RJ-11 Serial Communications port. The digital
compass is connected to the Synchronous Serial Peripheral port of the MRK/48 Expansion Interface. Finally, the
MaxStream 9XStream 900MHz Wireless Serial Transceiver is connected to the built-in MaxStream Wireless Serial
Module port. Even with all these devices, the microcontroller board has plenty of room for additional devices.

3. MULTIPLE UGVS FOR COLLABORATIVE SEARCH ALGORITHMS

Having successfully transformed a simple RC toy car into an intelligent UGV, it became necessary to demonstrate
collaborative behavior between multiple UGV nodes. A collaborative search application was chosen to demonstrate
this. As a starting point, two UGVs were configured to search within an area and locate targets. Due to the lack of
target detection sensors, the UGVs mapped obstacles in their search area while avoiding them. The collaborative search
algorithm chosen for the two UGVs is depicted in Figure 3 on the next page.

In this simple search algorithm, the two UGVs were placed at different coordinates. These coordinates represent the
corners of a rectangular search area. After sharing their coordinates with one another over the wireless serial link, the
UGVs traversed along their current North/South longitude line until they reached each other’s respective latitude
coordinate. The UGVs then traversed East/West towards each other for one meter. By repeating these two steps the
UGVs gradually zigzagged towards each other, locating and avoiding obstacles along their way. When they met or
crossed over the middle, they proceeded back to their original starting locations.

284 Proc. of SPIE Vol. 5422

 N
E
1m
UGV 2

UGV 1

Figure 3: Two-Node Collaborative Search Algorithm

To accomplish this task, the individual nodes were required to share their GPS coordinates with each other. This
necessitated the need for a communications protocol to ensure that 1) only one UGV transmitted its coordinates at a
time and 2) the data received by the receiver was identical to the data transmitted by the sender. The first step in
accomplishing this was to assign each UGV its own identification number. According to their respective number, the
UGVs then alternated making and receiving transmissions. For two UGVs, the nodes were assigned identifiers 1 and 2,
respectively. Finally, the UGVs were configured to echo each other’s transmissions for verification.

The following fixed-length data stream was developed for the UGVs to share information with one another.

$ROBOTx, latdeg, latmin, latdecmin, N/S, longdeg, longmin, longdecmin, E/W, target

The first field contains a “$” to indicate the beginning of a stream, the word “ROBOT,” followed by the UGVs unique
identifying number represented by x. The latitude of the UGV is then presented in the next four fields containing the
degrees, minutes, decimal minutes, and North/South hemisphere. The longitude of the UGV is presented in four similar
fields containing the degrees, minutes, decimal minutes and East/West hemisphere. Finally, a Boolean value to
represent the detection of a target is attached at the end of the stream.

The above information is shared only at the beginning of the search between the two UGVs. UGV 1 makes the first
communication, followed by UGV 2 echoing the received transmission back for verification. If an error occurs during
transmission, UGV 1 will transmit a second time. If a transmission error occurs again, an operation failure is assumed
and the programs are halted. After UGV 1 has successfully transmitted its coordinates in this fashion, UGV 2 performs
the same steps to communicate its coordinates to UGV 1. Once the coordinates have been successfully shared, the
UGVs proceed to search the area as previously described. As the search is performed, they continue to make alternating
transmissions containing their respective coordinates and target detection information. This information is used to
generate an obstacle map on a remote base station.

Proc. of SPIE Vol. 5422 285

 4. RESULTS

The results of converting an RC car into an intelligent UGV were successful overall. A suitable RC car platform was
chosen and modified while maintaining a reasonable cost of $840 per unit. The itemized cost of a single unit is shown
below in Table 1. This low price makes the platform extremely cost-effective for UGV applications. However, this is
just the prototype cost for a single unit. When mass-produced by 100s of units, the cost will most likely be cut in half,
making it even more ideal for UGV collectives. The true savings, though, will be in the form of reduced labor costs and
development time.

Radio Control Car Platform $30

Two RE-max 24mm Maxon Motors with Encoder Assembly $240
Seven Ni-MH sub-C Cell Batteries $50
Garmin GPS 16 $140
Vector 2x Digital Compass $50
Three Devantech SRF04 Ultrasonic Sensors $110
Maxstream 9XStream 900 MHZ Wireless Serial Transceiver $120
MRK Controller Board $100
Total $840
Table 1: Itemized Cost of Single UGV Platform

To date, two nodes have been successfully utilized in a UGV collective to collaboratively map out obstacles in a search
area while simultaneously avoiding them, laying the foundation for larger and more sophisticated collectives. However,
during trial runs, a significant deficiency in the platform was observed. Despite upgrading the drive train of the RC car,
the platform had difficulty in traversing outdoor terrain. In particular, it was very difficult for the UGV to turn in place.
This was due to the platform not being adequately geared to favor torque over speed. This deficiency in the drive train
resulted in slower operation and faster dissipation of the battery pack.

5. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

This project has successfully demonstrated the viability of using RC cars as starting platforms for UGV collectives.
Their low cost and high production volume make them extremely affordable. They also eliminate long development
time and large production costs. The platforms require only minimal modification as outlined in this paper.
Commercially available computer systems and sensors, though often difficult to install on an RC car, are often found at
competitive prices.

For this project, the drive train of the RC car, though modified, proved to be inadequate for a UGV platform. Namely,
they lacked sufficient torque to move the UGV at low controlled speeds. Current work is looking at how this deficiency
can be eliminated. Given the nature and mechanical structure of the drive train, physical modifications to the gearing
are not feasible. The most likely solution will be to choose another RC car platform. Due to RC cars being designed to
maximize speed and not torque, this is proving to be the greatest obstacle in using an RC car as a starting platform for
UGV applications.

The project is currently expanding the UGV collective beyond a simple two-node operation with additional nodes. For
future work, a micro strip antenna capable of GPR will be added to the platform for the purposes of landmine detection
and minefield mapping. This task is currently being planned for a 100+ node collective. To do this, a more
sophisticated control algorithm and communications protocol will be needed. The results of an ad-hoc networking
research project within ISRG [9] will most likely be utilized for this task. Upon completion, ISRG will seek to interface
this landmine detection collective to an existing UGV capable of neutralizing anti-tank landmines [10].

286 Proc. of SPIE Vol. 5422

 6. REFERENCES

1. Jiming Liu, Jianbing Wu, and Xun Lai, “Analytical and experimental results on multiagent cooperative behavior
evolution,” in Proceedings of the 1999 Congress on Evolutionary Computation-CEC99, 1999.
2. Goldsmith, S.Y. and Robinett, R., III, “Collective search by mobile robots using alpha-beta coordination,” in
Collective Robotics. Proceedings of the First International Workshop, CRW'98, pp. 135, 1998.
3. K. Wedeward, S. Bruder, V. Yodaiken, and J. Guilberto, “Low-Cost Outdoor Mobile Robot: A Platform for
Landmine Detection,” in 42nd Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Las Cruces, NM, August 8-11, 1999.
4. Cameron, S.M., Loubriel, G.M., Robinett, R.D., III, Stantz, K.M., Trahan, M.W., and Wagner, J.S., “Adaptive
remote sensing techniques implementing swarms of mobile agents,” in Proceedings of the SPIE - The International
Society for Optical Engineering, Unattended Ground Sensor Technologies and Applications, vol. 3713, pp. 160,
1999.
5. Sibley, G.T., Rahimi, M.H., and Sukhatme, G.S., “Robomote: a tiny mobile robot platform for large-scale ad-hoc
sensor networks,” in Proceedings. ICRA '02. IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, pp. 1143
-1148, 2002.
6. Logan, B.and Theodoropoulos, G., “The distributed simulation of multiagent systems,” in Proceedings of the IEEE,
vol. 89, pp. 174, 2001.
7. Ishijima, A., Kawakami, T., Kuroti, N., and Oohori, T., Cooperation action acquisition of the autonomous robot
swarm by reinforcement learning in a seesaw balancing problem, Memoirs of the Hokkaido Institute of
Technology, pp. 175, 2002.
8. “New Mexico Tech Mobile Robot Kit.” http://www.ee.nmt.edu/~mrobokit (9 March 2004).
9. Aly I. El-Osery, David Baird, Mazhar Memon, Stephen Bruder and Kevin Wedeward, “Power Control in Ad Hoc
Networks: An Overview,” SPIE Defense and Security Symposium, Orlando, FL, April 12-16, 2004.
10. Steven Wasson, Jose Guilberto, Wade Ogg, Stephen Bruder, Kevin Wedeward and Aly El-Osery, “An Unmanned
Ground Vehicle for Landmine Remediation,” SPIE Defense and Security Symposium, Orlando, FL, April 12-16,
2004.

Proc. of SPIE Vol. 5422 287