Mineral.
Deposita 31,359 364 (1996)
The genesis of Colombian emeralds: a restatement
A. Cheilletz 1, G. Giuliani 2' 1
ENSG and CRPG-CNRS UPR 9046, BP 20, 54501, Vandoeuvre les Nancy Cedex, France
20RSTOM, Dpt TOA, UR 13, 213 rue La Fayette, 75480, Paris Cedex 10, France
Received: 28 November 1995/Accepted: 20 March 1996
Abstract. A renewal of m e t a l l o g e n e t i c a l studies of C o l o m -
bian e m e r a l d d e p o s i t s p r o d u c e d new geological a n d geo-
c h e m i c a l d a t a that f a v o u r a h y d r o t h e r m a l - s e d i m e n t a r y
genetic m o d e l for these deposits. A c o m p r e h e n s i v e m o d e l
is p r e s e n t e d which integrates b o t h chemical a n d s t r u c t u r a l
aspects a n d invalidates s o m e aspects of the m o d e l recently
p r e s e n t e d by O t t a w a y et al. T h e d e p o s i t s result from a
t w o - s t a g e process in which s h o r t e n i n g tectonics affect the
two b o r d e r s of the E a s t e r n C o r d i l l e r a of C o l o m b i a a n d
p r o v o k e d e c o l l e m e n t planes, thrusting, a n d thrust-fault
related folds in the E a r l y C r e t a c e o u s b l a c k shale series.
T h r e e m a j o r descriptive a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i v e aspects of the
d e p o s i t s are presented: (1) time r e l a t i o n s h i p s between the
two different sets of b a r r e n a n d m i n e r a l i z e d e x t e n s i o n a l
veins; (2) the a s s o c i a t i o n of g r a p h i t e a n d e m e r a l d m i n e r a l -
ization, a n d (3) the t h e r m o c h e m i c a l sulfate r e d u c t i o n reac-
tion acting at the site of the e m e r a l d d e p o s i t s to reduce
sulfate of e v a p o r i t i c origin from the h y d r o t h e r m a l brines
into h y d r o g e n sulfide by i n t e r a c t i o n with o r g a n i c - r i c h
strata.
E m e r a l d is one of the m o s t f a m o u s e x p o r t s from C o l o m -
bia. Even t h o u g h miners from the mines of Chivor, M u z o
o r Coscuez recognize from experience the signs of min-
eralization, no c o m p r e h e n s i v e genetic m o d e l able to ex-
plain these m i n e r a l i z a t i o n s h a d been e l a b o r a t e d (Sutill
1994). F o l l o w i n g o u r original p a p e r in Mineralium Deposita
in 1990 (Giuliani et al. 1990), O t t a w a y et al. (1994) p r o -
p o s e d a m o d e l for the f o r m a t i o n of the C o l o m b i a n emer-
alds, b a s e d on the characteristics of the M u z o deposit.
This model, r a t h e r t h a n e l u c i d a t i n g the process of f o r m a -
tion of C o l o m b i a n emeralds, a d d s s o m e confusion to it.
Based on o u r field a n d l a b o r a t o r y practise of C o l o m b i a n
e m e r a l d deposits, we d e v e l o p several a r g u m e n t s here
a g a i n s t s o m e m a j o r p o i n t s of O t t a w a y et al. (1994), a n d we
p r o p o s e a c o m p r e h e n s i v e m o d e l that integrates b o t h
chemical a n d s t r u c t u r a l aspects.
Correspondence to: A. Cheilletz
MINERALIUM
DEPOSITA
9 Springer-Verlag 1996
Geological setting
The Colombian emerald deposits are found within the eastern and
western borders of the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia which corre-
sponds, in its central part, to a fold belt which thrusts onto the
Llanos basin in the east and on the west to the Magdalena basin
(Fabre 1987). The Cretaceous and Eocene series (up to 10 km thick
approximately) are the result of thick accumulations within two
sedimentary back-arc basins (Tablazo and Cocuy) which were de-
formed and inverted in Cenozoic times (Campbell and Biirgl 1965;
M6gard 1987; Schamel 1991). The emerald deposits define two
mineralized zones (Fig. 1), located at the two fronts of the Eastern
Cordillera: the eastern zone consists of the mining districts of
Gachal~t, Chivor and Macanal; the western zone contains the dis-
tricts of Pefias Blancas, Coscuez, Muzo and Yacopi.
Geology of the deposits
These deposits are unique because they are hosted within Early
Cretaceous black shale series (Giuliani et al., 1995b), the Macanal
formation (Valanginian age; Ulloa and Rodriguez 1976) for the
eastern zone and the Paja formation (Albian-Aptian age following
Biirgl 1955; or Hauterivian-Barremian age following Forero 1987)
for the western zone. The mineralization is contained within hydro-
thermal breccias (Giuliani et al. 1990), centimetre-wide veins and
pockets filled with carbonates (calcite, dolomite) and pyrite. Two
unusual rock-types are recognized within the areas mined:
(1) Albitites (kaolin, miners term) are massive, whitish banded layers
(Fig. 2a) intercalated within the black shales. They represent meta-
somatized black shale horizons (Giuliani et al. 1993a) and are the
result of fluid flow alteration marked by epigenetic growth of albite,
calcite, dolomite, pyrite, micas and quartz. The albite/calcite ratio is
highly variable. The Na/K ratio in soils and rocks was proposed as
an emerald prospection guide (Beus 1979). Some albitite layers are
folded and cut by a carbonate-pyrite vein set (Fig. 2b).
(2) Stratiform tectonic breccias (cenicero, miners term) are crumbly
polygenetic breccias composed of fragmented black shales and albi-
tites cemented by pyrite, albite and crushed black shale (Fig. 2c).
They may contain emerald pockets. Most lie generally parallel to the
black shale bedding and in the vicinity of albitites. In mine-scale
terms, breccia planes are concordant with the black shale stratifica-
tion; however, detailed observations reveal that in some places they
cut their foot-wall at a high angle and are associated with dishar-
monic or asymmetric folds in the hanging-wall (Fig. 2d). In the
Muzo mines, Pogue and Evanston (1916) recognized folds and flat
faults in the mineralized formation which they interpreted as thrust
360
EarlyCretaceoussediments .~. ~
Emeraldmines ,~ ' ation at the same time as beryllium. Therefore, geochemical data
/.:::.:.:.:.:.:..~. .-....... Bogota'~ ..........j
Pe~as Blancasi.J::/::::::/ ~ ::.:::/::::7.. 2,-,,-,L~)MBA
CoscueziX!i:)~iiii~ ~ Unja f" ":~","~ <!::
o .............. :::/
/:/
: ent stages of vein opening. In all the emerald deposits,
. . . ,
Fig. l. Geographic distribution of Colombian emerald deposits
structures. On a regional scale, typical structures of the Eastern
Cordillera are NNE SSW striking anticlines and synclines inter-
preted as fault-bend folds or detachment folds associated with
deeper decollement levels (Colleta et al. 1990; Dengo and Covey
19931. The most likely interpretation for stratiform breccia in the
mine area is that they represent thrust planes generated by
shortening during thin-skinned tectonics. As a consequence thrust-
ing, related folding and vein opening are synchronous together with
hydrothermal fluid circulations driven by shearing planes; these
particularly promote the metasomatic alteration of black shale into
albitites and the formation of the mineralized vein system.
Microthermometric, Raman-probe and SEM analysis demon-
strate the presence of H20-NaCI-CaCI2-CO2-N2-rich brines trap-
ped in emerald or associated carbonates and pyrite (Koslowski et al.
1988; Giuliani et ah 1992, 1993b; Ottaway et ah 1994; Cheilletz et al.
1994). The fluid composition is homogeneous and similar for the
western and eastern emerald zones. Constrained by ~gAr/4~ age
and the assumption of lithostatic confining pressures, isochoric
extrapolations lead to pressure-temperatures estimates of 1.1 kb and
290 360 :C for emerald deposition in the Coscuez deposit (Cheilletz
et al. 1994). Oxygen and carbon isotope study of quartz and carbon-
ates in all deposits indicates a basin formation origin for the waters
of the mineralizing fluid (Giuliani el al. 1992). These results were
confirmed by Ottaway et al. (1994) for the Muzo mines. The 6-~4S
values of H2Sin solution in equilibrium with pyrite from six emerald
deposits range from + 14.8 to + 19.4%, whereas sedimentary pyrite
from the enclosing black shale yields a <5~4Sof - 2.4"& (Giuliani
et al. 1995a). These high 634H2S values suggest the non-participa-
tion of magmatic or Early Cretaceous black shale sulfur sources but
rather favour an evaporitic origin for the mineralizing brines. Cation
analysis of fluid inclusions by crush-leach technique (Banks et ah
1995) confirms these results: fluids in emeralds are derived from the
dissolution of primary halite (C1/Br -~ 10 000) and are predominantly
Na-CI-K Ca-Fe brines. The source of beryllium is local (Koslowski
et al. 1988), as indicated by a mass balance calculation between the
Be content in the deposits (less than 1 ppm) and in the average black
shale (3.5 ppm). However, the origin of this element in not the
cemcero as indicated by Ottaway et at. (I994) because the cenicero
represents a fault plane. In fact, beryllium was extracted from the
black shale during albitization and calcitization by fluid-rock inter-
action (Be average content in albitite is 1.5 ppm; Giuliani et al.
1993a). Cr, V, Fe and REE particularly have also a local origin and
were extracted from the black shalc during their metasomatic alter-
support a metallogenic model in which the Colombian emeralds
correspond to mesothermal deposits formed through water-rock
interaction between hot basinaI brines and black shale.
Carbonate veins and emerald mineralization
The paragenetic succession of emerald vein d e v e l o p m e n t
as presented in Fig. I of O t t a w a y et al. (1994) is misinter-
preted: in the description, it is indicated that "the precipi-
tation of albite was followed by t a b u l a r or fibrous calcite".
In fact, the vein represented in this sketch is a composite
vein resulting from the spatial superposition of two differ-
veins are spatially associated with stratiform breccias a n d
albitites. They consist of parallel, en-6chelon or conjugate
arrays grouped into two successive stages of extensional
vein sets (Fig. 2e): stage 1 is barren and consists mainly
of fibrous calcite or pyrite infilling of the veins; stage 2
is productive a n d characterized by precipitation of
r h o m b o h e d r a l calcite a n d dolomite, pyrite, quartz, albite,
muscovite, fluorite, parisite ( R E E - b e a r i n g dolomite) and
emerald. Hydraulic breccias occur in high fluid-pressure
zones related to stage 2 vein development. No dissolution
of the fibrous calcite of stage 1 d u r i n g stage 2 has been
observed, which is inconsistent with the model of O t t a w a y
et al. (1994) in which one secondary reaction involves the
p r o d u c t i o n of an acidic fluid able to "dissolve the c a r b o n -
ate in the wall rock". In fact, calcite a n d pyrite, are by far
the most a b u n d a n t minerals precipitating within the vein
system d u r i n g the whole mineralizing process. The struc-
tural data o b t a i n e d on the emerald deposits of the C h i v o r
(Arhan 1993) a n d C o s c u e z - M u z o districts (Branquet 1995;
Lopes 1995) show that the extensional vein network is
Fig. 2. a Hand-sample of banded albitite (kaolin); the sample is
a metasomatized black shale characterized by alternating whitish
(secondary albite and calcite) and grey (mainly secondary calcite and
pyrite) layers. It represents an underformed albitite characteristic of
stage 1: Muzo mine; b hand-sample of banded albitite folded during
stage lk synchronous hydrothermal fluid infiltration provokes the
infilling of an extensional vein network well developed in the hinge
of the fold; Muzo mine; c hand-sample of stratiform breccia
(cenicero). It is a polygenic breccia with black shale (black) and
albitite (white) angular elements. The cement is constituted by
crushed black shale, pyrite and calcite; Coscuez mine: d outcrop of
stratiform breccia. It is the near horizontal layer in the middle of tile
photo with a white carbonate band at its bottom; it subdivides the
black shale series into two units with different orientations: the
hanging-wail shows disharmonic folding, whereas the foot-wall
stratification (white arrow) is cut by the breccia plane. The stratifoml
breccia corresponds to a thrust plane; Muzo mine; e thin section
(polarized light) of a composite calcite vein. A stage lI rhombohedral
calcite vein culs a fibrous calcite vein of stage 1. Note that the stage
1 vein presents a typical internal structure of antithetic extension
undeformed by stage II; Chivor mine; f calcite vein (white) with
anthracite elements (black); Coscuez mine; g hand-sample of black
shale with metasomatic banded pyrite (whitc); Muzo mine; h hand-
sample of native sulfur (yellow) and kaolin (white) produced by the
present-day meteoritic alteration of an albitite (kaolin): Muzo mine.
gift by A. Gucrrero
361
362
! stage 1 structures (Fig. 3). The resulting fault and fold
Stage [ I pattern constitutes the trap for the emerald mineraliza-
I ...... ~'\ Calcite vein
H20'~ :::::::::::::::::::::::::::: Be :::::::::: Cr :::::::::::::::V ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
9 / :2 Albitite ::::::::::::: .\~.:::::: :: \,.:::::::::-,\:::::::::::::::::::: "
Na :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::::::: : : : : : : : :
Ca / i i i i i i i i i i i i i i / ] i : i !i:i:ii~\':]:i:):ii:::::\\ :!
Mg l : D e c ~ i: ii~'\:i::i :: \~:
S04~ :,.........i.~...;..~ - - 3 L . . . .
t Pyrite vein
Macanal Black Shale
Stage [ [ ~ Anticline axis
Rb. Cc-Dol. vein ~ ~ Hydraulic
~eccia
B,ag
A A
Salt injection ? Basal thrust plane
I 300 m I
Fig. 3. The two-stage model of formation of the Colombian emer-
alds. Stage l is characterized by decollement plane within the black
shale series, hydrothermal fluid infiltration and wall-rock metaso-
matic alteration. Albitite and fibrous calcite and pyrite veins are
illustrated in Fig. 2a, e. Stratiform albitite layers of stage I are well
preserved in the eastern mining districts (Chivor). Stage lI corre-
sponds to the mineralizing episode. Thrust-related folds syn-
chronous to emerald deposition (Fig. 2b, d) characterize the western
emerald districts whereas stage I structures are better preserved in
the eastern districts
controlled by the kinematics of a thrust-fold system de-
veloped in two stages (Fig. 3). Stage 1 is well preserved in
the Chivor district; it is characterized by a horizontal
shearing episode creating decollement levels at the limit
between the black shale and an underlying conglomerate-
sandstone unit which represents a sharp mechanical
transition. High temperature brines (300 ~'C) of evaporitic
origin at this stage promote the albitization and calcitiza-
tion of the enclosing black shale (kaolin) along the decolle-
ment planes and the development of the fibrous calcite
and pyrite extensional vein network. Stage 2 is the result
of a blocking of the horizontal shearing movement in the
front zone. The resulting structure is a complex fold pat-
tern characterized by propagation anticlines (Fig. 3) as
exposed for instance in the Muzo mines (Lopes 1995).
Thrust faults are highly active at this stage; they develop
stratiform breccia (cenicero), folding and fracturing of
tion. Salt injections could occur at the sole of the thrust
system.
Association of anthracite and emerald mineralization
!::i::
Colombian emerald veins are also characterized by pre
cipitation of a carbon-rich phase synchronous with the
carbonate infilling (Fig. 2f). It has high reflectance values
similar to graphite (R0 = 6.5 8.0% compared with R0 =
2.3 4.5% in shale in general; Ottaway et al. 1994) and has
anthracite-like Raman spectra identical to those found in
I 10 rn I
minute daughter crystals in fluid inclusions of emeralds
(Giuliani et al. 1993b). Thus organic compounds form part
of the hydrothermal reaction products at the site of emer-
ald deposition. Moreover, in the vicinity of the emerald
deposits, the hydrogen index in the black shale measured
0) by Rock Eval analysis ranges between 0 and 9 indicating
that most of the organic hydrogen was lost. Anthracite in
emerald veins represents local remobilization of organic
matter from the black shale which are known to be over-
matured in this part of the lower Cretaceous basin (Fabre
1987; Schamel 1991). Thus, organic matter played an
important role in Colombian emerald deposition and has
~_ to be taken into account in the chemical reactions respon-
sible for the metallogenetic process.
Thermochemical sulfate reduction and emerald
precipitation
The emeraldiferous area are characterized by the synchron-
ous deposition of large quantities of pyrite (Fig. 2g). The
isotopic and trace-element characteristics of the mineral-
izing fluids enforces the reduction of sedimentary marine
evaporitic sulphates to form pyrite. Hydrogen sulphide is
an intermediate product and the chemical reaction known
as thermochemical reduction of sulfate (TSR) is correla-
tively characterized by the oxidation of organic matter.
Ottaway et al. (1994) proposed a solution for TSR taken
from Orr (1975), [SO~ + 3 HzS = 4S + 2H20 + 2OH
and (2) 4S + 1.33(CH2) + 2.66H20 = 4H2S + 1.33CO2],
that needs a large volume of H z S at the start and produces
native sulfur and an increase in pH (OH- is liberated by
the reaction). However, field observations preclude the use
of this reaction for two main reasons: (1) production of
native sulfur is possible only if iron has been eliminated
from the system, as it is frequently observed in carbonate-
rich oil reservoirs, but not in the black-shale series where
chemical reactions yield very large quantities of pyrite; (2)
native sulfur is not the product of TSR during the min-
eralizing process, but the result of pyrite oxidation
through the intense meteoric alteration of the deposits
under the present-day equatorial climate. This also pro-
duces dangerous fumerolic HzS emanations, partial altera-
tion of albitites (kaolin) and stratiform breccia (cenicero)
into secondary native sulfur, kaolinite (Fig. 2h), and gyp-
sum, giving the soft aspect of rocks in many outcrops and
explaining the confusion of Ottaway et al. (1994). We

rather propose (Cheilletz and Giuliani 1995a) to use a for-
mula of Leventhal et al. (1990):
Ra(CH2O)2 + SO4-- = R b + 2HCO~- + H2S (1)
where CH20 represents a carbohydrate and R(a, b) large
organic molecules. This reaction fits with our observa-
tions: (1) it produces large quantities of H2S; (2) organic
matter acts as reactant and product, which corresponds to
the observation of hydrothermal anthracite deposited in
the veins (Fig. 2f); (3) organic hydrogen is consumed (see
Rock Eval data); and (4) HCO~ and H/S produced by the
reaction react with two main cations of the hydrothermal
system to produce calcite and pyrite, that are, in volume,
the two major phases in the emerald deposits following
two classical reactions:
HCO~- + Ca ++ = CaCO3 + H + (2)
7H2S + 4Fe + + + SO2 - = 4FeS2 + 4H20 + 6H + (3)
The transport and deposition of Be by the hydrothermal
fluid is an important point to consider. Ottaway et al.
(1994) proposed low-pH solutions able to transport Be
and to dissolve carbonate in the wall-rock; consequently,
they deduced an increase ofpH in the vein solution during
reaction with the organic matter in the shales, whereas
one might expect lowering of pH during sulfate reduction
(see Fig. 2 in Ottaway et al. 1994). Instead we propose that
the mineralizing brines, highly enriched in Na, Ca, Fe and
Mg, were strongly alkaline when reacting with the
enclosing organic-rich shales. Reactions (2) and (3) pro-
mote a decrease in pH of the solution, which approaching
neutrality, will become less and less active. Little experi-
mental work has been done concerning the transport of
Be in hydrothermal solutions. Alkaline hydrothermal
solutions are known to favour transport of beryllium,
particularly during cogenetic albitization and beryl
precipitation (Charoy and Pollard 1989). Several carbon-
atoberylates (general formula [Be4(CO3)6.(OH)3C118 .
9H20) have been identified (Govorov and Stunhzhas
1963). These complexes are stable in the pH range
6.8-7.2 to 11.3 11.8, and are decomposed during the
precipitation of beryllium, mainly as a result of a decrease
in alkalinity and pressure. This could correspond to the
conditions prevailing at the site of Colombian emerald
formation.
A two-stage model for the formation of Colombian
emeralds
Although separated by 80 km, the Colombian emerald
deposits display remarkable geochemical and structural
similarities. Their formation fits with a general mesother-
real sedimentary model and one must definitively aban-
don the granite-linked hypothesis. However, to be
sustainable, this new genetic model needs some firm geo-
logical background, and integration with the tectonic
scenario and the chemical processes involved in beryllium
mobilization and emerald precipitation. Towards this
aim, we propose a two-stage model (Fig. 3):
363
Stage I
Compressional tectonics provoked the formation of de-
collement levels at the borders of the Eastern Cordillera,
particularly within the Early Cretaceous black shale series
which acted as a sharp mechanical transition with the
underlying more competent units. Hydrothermal fluid in-
filtration is then focused along the thrust planes. These
fluids are expelled from the sedimentary basin where they
dissolved evaporitic layers. They are alkaline, highly en-
riched in Na, Ca, and Mg and able to promote a strong
fluid-rock interaction with the black shale, characterized
by sodium and calcium metasomatism developing al-
bitized and carbonatized layers as well as a leaching of Be,
A1, Si, Cr, V and REE. This is accompanied by the devel-
opment of a widespread extensional vein network filled
with fibrous calcite and pyrite, mostly parallel to the
stratification.
Stage II
Continuation of the general shortening of this portion of
the chain is marked by development of breccias along
thrust faults, and thrust related anticlines where stage
I structures, such as albitites layers, are reworked and
brecciated. Disharmonic folding and hydraulic breccias
due to an increase of hydrothermal fluid pressure charac-
terize the hinges of folded structures (Fig. 3). The
transition from stage I to stage II might correspond to
changes in fluid geochemistry (decrease in alkalinity for
instance) and subsequent emerald precipitation. The
mode of infilling of the extensional vein set is also distinct
during stage II (rhombohedral carbonates). However, the
age of the evaporitic layers, where the hydrothermal
brines originated, remains doubtful. Salt injections
(gypsum or anhydrite) could be associated with thrust
structures and also promote and/or follow detachment
processes in the sedimentary cover (Fig. 3). In that sense,
spatial coexistence of emerald districts and salt deposits is
highly revealing and could be used for further prospection
of new deposits.
Two distinct ages of formation of the emerald deposits
have been obtained by 4~ analysis of synchronous
muscovite for the eastern and western districts, i.e. the
Eocene-Oligocene boundary (38-32Ma; Cheilletz et al.
1994) for the Coscuez-Muzo mines and the Cretaceous-
Tertiary boundary (65 Ma; Cheilletz et al. 1995b) for the
Chivor-Macanal mines. Dating of emerald mineralization
and synchronous thrust-related tectonics at 65 Ma and
38-32 Ma imply that deformation in the Eastern Cordil-
lera is not the result of the only Andean uplift and basin
inversion at the Mio-Pliocene (Cooper et al. 1995); it is
rather the addition of several major contractional events
starting at the end of the Cretaceous, probably in response
to different rates of motion of the South American, Nazca
and Caribbean plates.
Acknowledgements. The authors wish to thank MINERALCOS.A.
and emerald Mining Companies in Colombia for their logistic
assistance during the eight years of field work. This study was
supported by ECOTECH-CNRS (grants ARC 215) and European
Comission DG XII (grant n~CT 94-0098). This is an IGCP 342 and
CRPG contribution n" t207.
364
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