Modern Nepal College, Bagbazar, Kathmandu.

INTRODUCTION TO NETWORK
A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources (such as
Printers, CD-ROMs, Scanners, etc), exchange files, or allow electronic communications. The
computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or
infrared light beams.

A computer network is an interconnected collection of autonomous computers.

 Interconnected meaning two computers have the ability to exchange information using copper
cabling, fibre optics, or radio.
 Autonomous meaning where no one computer controls any other computer (i.e. no computer can
forcibly start or stop another computer)
 Computers can be PC’s, workstations and other “specialised” computers such as hubs, switches
and routers

BENEFITS FROM NETWORK

1. Resource Sharing:
Resource sharing generally means the availability of the required information irrespective of the
physical location of the resources and the user. The resources can be anything like peripheral devices
(e.g. printers) and other information stored in the computer.
2. For high reliability:
Reliability generally means confirmation with which requires information can be obtained. There
may be many obstructing factors (like h/w failure) that affect data transfer from a computer. If one of
the computers is being obstructed, there should be another computer or any other source providing
the same data. Having a network means having alternative source of providing data. For e.g. all files
could be duplicated on two or three machines, so if one of them is unavailable (due to h/w failure),
the other copies could be used.
3. For simultaneous access:
Simultaneous access means that different users can access the same information or the data files at
the same time.
In organisation, many people may need to use the same data or programs. A network solves this
problem. Shared data and program can be stored on a central network server. A server that stores data
files may be called a file server. Manager may only assign access right to user. Some users may only
be able to read data. Other may be able to make change the existing files.
4. For reducing cost:
The use of network significantly reduces the cost of data processing.
5. For communication medium:
A computer network can provide a powerful communication medium among widely separated
employees. Using a network, it is easy for two or more people who live apart to write a report
together.
6. For accessing remote data/information:
With the help of network information or data stored in a remote computer can be easily accessed.

TYPES OF TRANSMISSION
Communication can be defined as the exchange of information. In earlier days, communication was
mainly restricted to voice via telephone networks. However, with the emergence of the computer and
data communication technologies this changed dramatically. Soon, the existing telephone networks
began to use computer networks as well.
1. Voice Communication:
In simple term, it refers to the very common form of telephonic conversations that we have with our
friends, family members, colleagues and other people. This can be for various purposes. With the
invention of the telephone, this technology emerged since become extremely popular. In addition to
the carrying of the voice conversation, this technology now also includes other services as voice mail.
Using voice mail we can allow the callers to leave a voice message for us in our absence.

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2. Data Communication:
Rather than lying new communication networks for carrying computer data, the technologies decided
to reuse the existing telephone networks to carry computer data. This means that the same telephone
network can carry not only voice, but also computer data (i.e. bits). This is possible because we can
transform the computer data (digital data) into electric signals (analog waves) using Modem, which
can be carried over the existing telephone networks. Data communication is the transfer of data or
information between a source and a receiver. The source transmits the data and the receiver receives
it. The actual generation of the information is not part of data communications nor is the resulting
action of the information at the receiver. Data communication is interested in the transfer of data, the
method of transfer and the preservation of the data during the transfer process.
Data communication model consists of:
1. Source: generates data to be transferred.
2. Transmitter: converts data into transmitted signals.
3. Transmitter system: carries data.
4. Receiver: converts received signal into data
5. Destination: Takes incoming data.

COMMUNICATION MEDIA
An important aspect of the communication is the channel, which is the communication path between
two devices. A communication channel is composed of one or more transmission media.
Transmission media consists of materials or techniques capable of carrying one or more signals.
Transmission media are one of two types Physical or Wireless. Physical transmission media use wire,
cable and other tangible (touchable) materials to send communication signals, wireless transmission
media send communication signals through the air space using radio, microware and infrared signal.

Communication media is the medium through which information usually moves from one network
device to another. There are several types of cable which are commonly used with LANs. The type of
cable chosen for a network is related to the network's topology, protocol, and size.

I. Physical Transmission Media (Guided Communication Channel)

Physical transmission media used in communication include twisted pair cable, coaxial cable, and
fiber-optic cable. Wire cables are the most popular and widely used channel to transmit data from one
location to another. It is cheaper and easier to use so it is extensively use in network. An advantage of
wire cable is that the technology used to transmit data over wire cable is standardized, thus reducing
the compatibility problems. A disadvantage of wire cable is that it is subject to electrical interference
making it less reliable than other type of communication channels. Another disadvantage is that wire
cable must transmit data in analog form. Therefore, digital data must be converted to an analog signal
before they reach the wire cable. This conversion not only needs special hardware that is modem but
also slow down the transmission of digital data. These cables typically are used within buildings or
underground. The following section discusses each of these types of cables.

1. Twisted Pair Cables

These are the type of cables made by inter-twining two separate insulated wires together. This is a
common form of wiring in which two conductors is wound around each other for the purposes of
canceling out electromagnetic interference which can cause crosstalk. The number of twists per meter
makes up part of the specification for a given type of cable. The greater the number of twists, the
more crosstalk is reduced. It is of two types-

i) UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) Cable

UTP cable is not surrounded by any shielding. It is the primary wire type for the local loop of
telephone networks and is very common for computer networking. Unshielded twisted pair is the
most popular and is generally the best option for college networks.

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Fig: Unshielded Twisted Pair

The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to extremely high-speed cable. The EIA/TIA
(Electronic Industry Association/Telecommunication Industry Association) has established standards
of UTP and rated five categories of wire.

Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair

Type Use

Category 1 Voice Only (Telephone Wire)

Category 2 Data to 4 Mbps (LocalTalk)

Category 3 Data to 10 Mbps (Ethernet)

Category 4 Data to 20 Mbps (16 Mbps Token Ring)

Category 5 Data to 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet)

ii) STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) Cable
This cable has a conductive braided or foil casing for each pair and offers good protection from
interference and crosstalk. It was commonly used for token ring networks.

A disadvantage of UTP is that it may be susceptible to radio and electrical frequency interference.
Shielded twisted pair (STP) is suitable for environments with electrical interference; however, the
extra shielding can make the cables quite bulky. Shielded twisted pair is often used on networks using
Token Ring topology.

2. Coaxial Cable
It is also called as Coax. It is an electrical cable consisting of a round conducting wire, surrounded by
an insulating layer, surrounded by a cylindrical conducting sheath, and usually surrounded by a final
insulating layer. Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer provides
insulation between the center conductor and a braided metal shield. The metal shield helps to block
any outside interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and other computers.

It is designed to carry high-frequency or broadband signals like radio signals, video signals, and
measurement signals. The inner insulator, also called the dielectric, has a significant effect on the
cable's properties, such as its characteristic impedance and its attenuation.

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Fig: Coaxial Cable

Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal interference. In addition,
it can support greater cable lengths between network devices than twisted pair cable. The two types of
coaxial cabling are thick coaxial and thin coaxial.

Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet. 10Base2 refers to the specifications for thin coaxial
cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 2 refers to the approximate maximum segment length being 200
meters.

Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thicknet. 10Base5 refers to the specifications for thick
coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 5 refers to the maximum segment length being 500
meters.

3. Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of protective
materials. It transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the problem of electrical
interference. Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than
coaxial and twisted pair. It also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater speeds. This
capacity broadens communication possibilities to include services such as video conferencing and
interactive services. It is more difficult to install and modify the fiber optic cable. 10BaseF refers to
the specifications for fiber optic cable carrying Ethernet signals.

Fig: Fiber Optic Cable

Uses
 They can be used as a medium for telecommunication and networking because it is flexible and
can be bundled as cables.
 They are used as light guides in medical and other applications where bright light needs to be
brought to bear on a target without a clear line-of-sight path.
 Optical fiber is also used in imaging optics. Example: Endoscopy Machines

II. Wireless Transmission Media (Unguided Communication Channel)

Wireless transmission media used in communication include broadcast radio, cellular radio,
microwaves, communication satellite and infrared. Wireless transmission media are used when it is
impractical or impossible to install cable. Many wireless devices that access the internet now used to
the WAP (Wireless Application Protocol) which is a standard set of communication specification that
help to ensure successful communication. The following section discuss several types of transmission
media.
1. Microwaves Systems
Microwaves are electromagnetic radiation with very short wavelengths. As they have short
wavelength, they have high frequencies. Frequencies used for commercial microwave transmission
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typically range between 2GHz and 23 GHz. The frequency at which microwave radio signals are
transmitted is commonly called Radio frequency (RF). Radio frequencies that are used for
commercial microwave transmission are 2,4,6,11,18 and 23 GHz.

Terrestrial microwave systems follow a line-of sight path during transmission. A narrowly focused
beam of Electro-Magnetic Radiation (EMR) is generated by the transmitter. It is then sent from one
microwave tower to the next, until it reaches the final destination. Moreover, the signals become
weaker after travelling a certain distance and require power amplification. In order to overcome the
problem of line-of-sight and power amplification of weak signals, microwave systems use repeaters
at intervals of about 25 to 30 kms.

Microwaves are radio waves that provide high speed signal transmission. Microwave transmission
involves sending signals from one microwave station to another. A microwave station is an earth
based reflective dish that contains the antenna, transceivers and other equipment necessary for the
microwave communications. Microwaves are limited to line-of -sight transmission, which means that
microwave must be transmitted in a straight line with obstructions between microwave antenna avoid
possible obstructions, such as building or mountain , microwave station often are positioned on the
tops of buildings , tower, mountains etc.

Microwaves transmission sometimes called fixed point wireless, is used in environment where
installing physical transmission media is difficult or impossible and where line-of-sight transmission
in available. For example, a microwave transmission is used in wide open areas such as deserts or
lake between buildings in a close geographic area; or to communicate with a satellite. Current users
of microwave transmission include universities, hospitals, city, government, cable TV providers, and
telephone companies.

2. Communication Satellites
Communication Satellite systems use a satellite as a repeater. Satellite systems have receivers and
transmitters located in ground stations. The repeater is the satellite that orbits in space. A
communication satellite is a microwave relay station placed in outer space. In satellite
communication, microwave signal is transmitted from a transmitter on earth to the satellite at space.
The satellite amplifies the weak signal using a device called transponder and transmits it back to the
receiver.

Satellite communication systems have the following advantages

 A satellite can be used for data transmission between any points of a very large area.
 A satellite having many transponders has enormous data communication capability.

A satellite communication system, however, suffers from the following disadvantages

 The initial cost of placing a satellite into its orbit is very high.
 Delay in information delivery due to need for signal to transmit from earth station to space satellite
and then to earth station again.
 Atmospheric disturbance, like thunder and lightening, affect the transmission of a satellite
communication system.

3. Bluetooth
A proposed Radio Frequency (RF) specification that many portable devices will use for short range
wireless communication is called Bluetooth. With Bluetooth devices such as laptop computers, hand
held computers, cellular telephones, pagers, fax machines and printers can wirelessly communicate
with each other, desktop computers, a network or the internet. To use Bluetooth technology each
device must include a transceiver chip and be within a specified range (about 10meters but can be
extended to 100meters with additional equipments)

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4. Cellular Radio
Cellular Radio is a form of broadcast radio that is used widely for mobile communications,
specifically cellular telephones. A cellular telephone is a telephone device that uses radio signals to
transmit voice and digital data messages. Some mobile users connect their laptop or other portable
computer to a cellular phone to surf the web, send and receive e-mail, enter a chat room , or access an
office or school network while away from a standard telephone line.

The broadcast area for cellular radio is divided into honeycombed shaped cells, each of which covers
a specific geographic area and has its own base station. The base stations communicate with a mobile
telephone switching office (MTSO), which sends and receives a voice and data traffic to and from the
public switches telephone network.

Every cellular telephone has a transceiver that spends and receives radio signals from the base station
in a particular cell. As a person with a cellular telephone travels from one cell to another, the radio
signals are transferred from the base station in one cell to a base station in another cell. Occasionally,
this change in base station will cause an interruption or even the loss of the signal.

Personal communication services (PCS) is a set of technologies used for completely digital cellular
devices, which can include handheld computers, cellular telephones, pagers, and fax machines. The
most popular PCS technology today is CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) because of its fast
transmission speed and lower cost.

5. Infrared
Infrared (IR) is a wireless transmitting media that sends signals using infrared light waves. Like
microwaves, infrared transmission requires a line-of-sight transmission that is, the sender and
receiver must be align so that nothing obstructs the path of infrared light wave.

Many computers and devices such as printers, docking station and digital cameras have an IrDA port
that enables the transfer of data from one device to another using infrared light waves. A laptop
computer and printer also can use IR transmission to communicate with other device on the network.

Medium Speed
Twisted pair 1 to 128 Mbps
Coaxial cable Up to 200 Mbps
Fiber-optic 100 Mbps to 2 Gbps
Broadcast radio Up to 2 Mbps
Microwave radio 45 Mbps
Communications satellite 50 Mbps
Cellular radio 9,600 bps to 14.4 Kbps
Infrared 1 to 4 Mbps

Typical speeds of telecommunication transmission media

NETWORK TOPOLOGY
The term topology in the context of communication network refers to the way the computers or
workstations in the network are linked together. According to the physical arrangements of
workstations and

Each computer or device in a network is called a node. The geometrical arrangement of computer
resources, remote device, and communication facilities is known as network topology

A network can be made in one of the five different topologies.

1. Bus Topology
2. Ring Topology
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3. Star Topology
4. Tree Topology
5. Mesh Topology

1. Bus Topology
In a bus network, each computer is connected to a single communications cable and every computer
can directly communicate with every other computer or device in the network. In bus topology all
workstations are connected to a single communication line called bus. This topology is commonly
used along with the Local Area Network. Transmission from any terminal travels the length of the
bus in both directions and can be received by all workstations.

Bus topology

Advantages to the Bus topology

1. It allows a very short cable length to be used so this decreases the installation cost.
2. it is simple, easy to maintain and wiring layout.
3. The architecture of bus topology is simple that makes it very reliable from and hardware point
of view.
4. It is easy to extend that is additional nodes can be connected to an existing bus topology at
any point along its length.

Disadvantages of the Bus topology

1. In bus topology fault diagnosis difficult
2. In bus topology fault isolation is difficult. Once the fault has been located, an entire segment
of the bus must be disconnected.

2. Ring topology
In a ring topology, several devices or computer are connected to each other in a closed loop by a
single communication cable as shown in figure below. A ring network is also called loop network. In
the ring network, data must travel around the ring to each station until they arrive at the required
station.

A ring can unidirectional or bi-directional. In a unidirectional data moves in one direction only and in
a bidirectional ring, data moves in both directions, but in only one direction at a time.

Advantages of the Ring network

1. In ring topology where cable length is used that means less connection will be needed, which
will in turn increase network reliability.
2. Since there is only one cable connecting each node to its immediate neighbors, it is not
necessary to allocate space in the building for wiring closets(storeroom)

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Disadvantages of the Ring topology
1. In ring topology, if one node fails to pass data through it, the entire network has failed and no
traffic can flow until the defective node has been removed from the ring.
2. Since one node affect all others so it is difficult to diagnosis faults.
3. Network reconfiguration is difficult when one decides to extend or modify the geographical
scope of the network.

3. Star Topology
In a star topology several devices or computer are connected to one centralize computer as shown in
figure below. The disadvantage of star network is that node of the other computers can communicate
with each other if the central computers breaks down. If it is desired to transmit information from one
computer to another, it can be done by sending the details to the central computer, which in turn sends
them to the destinations. A star topology is used in banking sector for centralized second keeping in
an on-line branch office environment.

Advantages of the star topology

1. The star topology has a number of concentrations points i.e. at the central node. These provide
easy access fro service of reconfigurations of the network.
2. In star topology, failure of a singe connection typically involves disconnecting one node hat
means it does not affect the whole network system.
3. Since the central node is connected directly to every other node in the network so, faults are
easily detected and isolated.

Disadvantages of the star topology

1. Since in start topology each node is directly connected to the center, it requires large quantity
of cable
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2. It is difficult to expand
3. If the central node in a star topology fails, the entire network is failed.

4. Tree topology
In a tree network, several devices or computers are linked in a hierarchical fashion as shown in the
figure below. Tree topology is also known as hierarchical network. This type of distribution system is
commonly used in the organization where headquarters communicate with regional offices and
regional offices communicate with district offices and so on.

Tree Topology
Advantages of the tree topology
1. It is easy to extend
2. It is possible to disconnect whole branches of the network from the main structure. This
makes it easier to isolate a defective node.

Disadvantages of the tree topology

1. Since tree topology is dependent on the root so failure of root causes the entire network fail to
operate

5. Mesh Topology
A Mesh Topology has point connection between every device in the network as shown in figure
below. Mesh Topology are not usually considered practical.

Advantages
1. Nodes are not affected by media failure.
2. Faults are identity easily and can isolate the affected link.

Disadvantage
1. Mesh topology are difficult to install because each device must be linked directly to all other
devices
2. Mesh topology are difficult to reconfigure for the same reasons that they are difficult to
install.

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Advantages and disadvantages of topologies

Topology Advantages Disadvantages

Bus - Use of cable is economical. - Network can slow down in heavy traffic.
- Media is inexpensive and easy to work - Problems are difficult to isolate.
with. - Cable break can affect many users.
- System is simple and reliable.
- Bus is easy to extend.

Ring - System provides equal access for all - Failure of one computer can impact the rest of the
computers. network.
- Performance is even despite many - Problems are hard to isolate.
users. - Network reconfiguration disrupts operation.

Star - Modifying system and adding new - If the centralized point fails, the network fails.
computers is easy.
- Centralized monitoring and
management are possible.
- Failure of one computer does not affect
the rest of the network.

Mesh System provides increased redundancy System is expensive to install because it uses a lot
and reliability as well as ease of of cabling.
troubleshooting. System is difficult to
expand.

TYPES OF NETWORK
We can classify the computer network into two basis.
1. On the basis of architecture
a. Peer-To-Peer based network
b. Client-Server based network
2. On the basis of geographical location of computer
a. Local Area Network (LAN)
b. Metropolitan Area Network(MAN)
c. Wide Area Network(WAN)

#On the basis of geographical location of computer

1. Local Area Network (LAN)
A local Area Network (LAN) is two or more computers directly linked within a small well defined
area such as a room, office building, or a campus. A LAN can be made up of only micro computers or
any combination of microcomputers and large system. Main benefit of a LAN is the reduction of
hardware and software costs because users can share several computers peripheral devices such as
printers, hard disks, modems etc. Another benefit is that the users can share the same data. Depending
on the needs of an organization and the type of technology used, a LAN can be as simple as two PCs
and printer in someone's whole office, or it can extend throughout a company and include voice,
sound, and video peripherals. LANs are distinguished from other kind of networks by three
characteristics:
 Size
 Transmission technology
 Topology

LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared between personal computers or workstations. The
resources to be shared can include hardware (e.g. a printer), software (e.g. an application program), or
data. One of the computers may be given a large capacity disk drive and become a server to the other
clients. Software can be stored on this central server and used as needed by the whole group. The size
of the LAN may be determined by licensing restriction on the number of users per copy of software,
or by restrictions on the number of users licensed to access the operating system.
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In addition to size, LANs are distinguished form other types of networks by their transmission media
and topology. The most common LAN topologies are bus, ring, and star. Traditionally, LANs have
data rates in the 4 to 16 Mbps range. Today, however, speeds are increasing and can reach 100 Mbps.

Major Characteristics of LAN

 Every computer has the potential to communicate with any other computers of the network
 High degree of interconnection between computers
 Easy physical connection of computers in a network
 Inexpensive medium of data transmission
 High data transmission rate

Advantages
 The reliability of network is high because the failure of one computer in the network does not
affect the functioning for other computers.
 Addition of new computer to network is easy.
 High rate of data transmission is possible.
 Other computers can share peripheral devices like disk drive, printer etc.

Disadvantages
 If the communication line fails, the entire network system breaks down.
 User authority and users identification is poor.

Use of LAN
Followings are the major areas where LAN is normally used:
 File transfers and Access
 Word and text processing
 Electronic message handling
 Remote database access
 Personal computing
 Digital voice transmission and storage

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a network that is larger than a LAN. It is called Metropolitan
since it normally covers the area of a city. Different hardware and transmission media are often used
MANs because they must efficiently cover these distances (a few tens to about one hundred
kilometers). It may be a single network such as a cable television network,, or it may be a means of
connecting a number of LANs into a larger network so that resources may be shared LAN-to-LAN as
well as device-to-device. A MAN may be wholly owned and operated by a private company, or it may
be a service provided by a public company, such as a local telephone company.

One example of a MAN is the Nepal Bank Limited Network located in Kathmandu. It connects all of
the branches situated in Kathmandu valley to a centralized mainframe at the New Road Headquarter
office of the bank by using dedicated phone lines, coaxial cabling, and wireless communications
providers.

3. Wide Area Network (WAN)

Wide Area Network is network in which computers are connected to each other over a long distance;
computers are connected to each other over a long distance, using telephone lines and satellite
communications. In other words, WAN is a large group of computers linked together through
hardware and software in unlimited area. A Wide Area Network is two or more geographic dispersed
computers, linked by communication facilities such as telecommunication or microwave relays. In
short, it used to describe a computer network spanning a regional, national or global area.
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This network may be across the town, between different cities, countries or continents. The purpose
of a WAN is to allow an organization to share data and hardware throughout all its locations in order
to minimize the company's data processing investment. The largest WAN is existence is the Internet.
WAN is usually limited to use by the large organizations and government agencies due to high costs
involved in building and maintaining them. A wide area network provides long-distance transmission
of data, voice, image, and video information over a large geographical area that may comprises a
country, a continent or even the whole world.
In contrast to LAN (which depends on their own hardware for transmission), WANs may utilize
public, leased or private communication devices, visually in communication and can therefore span
an unlimited number of miles. A WAN that is wholly owned and used by a single company is often
referred to as an enterprise network.

Local area networks works well but have physical and distance limitation. Because they are not
adequate for all business communication, there must be connectivity between LANs and other type of
environment. A network can support data communication over a state, a country or even a globe.
When a network does this it is called a Wide Area Network. WAN is expanded over a very big
geographical area. Using a WAN, a person in Kathmandu can communicate with places like Tokyo in
a matter of minutes, without paying enormous phone bills. A good example of a WAN is the Internet.

Fig: Wide Area Network

Difference between LAN and WAN
 LAN is restricted to limited geographical area of few kilometres. But WAN covers great distance
and operate nationwide or even worldwide.
 In LAN, the computer terminals and peripheral devices are connected with wires and coaxial
cables. In WAN there is no physical connection. Communication is done through telephone lines
and satellite links.
 Cost of data transmission in LAN is less because the transmission medium is owned by a single
organization. In case of WAN the cost of data transmission is very high because the transmission
mediums used are hired either telephone lines or satellite links.
 The speed of data transmission is much higher in LAN than in WAN. The transmission speed in
LAN varies from 10 to 100 Mbps. In case of WAN the speed ranges from 1800 to 9600 bits per
second (bps).
 Few data transmission errors occur in LAN compared to WAN. It is because in LAN the distance
covered is negligible.

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NETWORK PROTOCOL
Network Protocol
A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between computers on a network. These
rules include guidelines that regulate the following characteristics of a network: access method,
allowed physical topologies, types of cabling, and speed of data transfer.
Also Network protocol determines the following:
1. The type of error checking to be used.
2. Data compression method, if any.
3. How the sending device will indicate that it has finished sending a message.
4. How the receiving device will indicate that it has received a message.
Protocols are software and must be installed in network components. Computers can communicate
only if the protocol used by a computer in the network is compatible with the protocol used by
another computer.
The most commonly used protocols today are:
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
 IP (Internet Protocol)
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
 POP (Post Office Protocol)
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
 HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)
TCP/IP
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol. TCP/IP is actually a collection of
protocols, or rules, that govern the way data travels from one computer to another across networks.
The internet is based on TCP/IP. TCP/IP has two components: TCP/IP.

IP :The IP component does the following:

1. Envelopes and addresses the data.
2. Enables the network to read envelope and forward the data to its destination.
3. Defines how much data can fit in a single envelope (a packet).
The relationship between the data, IP, and networks is often compared to the relationship between
letter, its addressed envelope, and the postal system as shown in fig below. The top portion of the
figure shows the data being packaged and addressed. The addressed and packaged data is sent over
the network to its destination.\

101010 IP
101010 101010

Data in addressed package

Network

adsasd ----
-----

Letter in addressed Envelope Postal System

Fig: Internet Protocol Vs Postal System.

TCP : The TCP component does the following:
1. Breaks data up into packets that the network can handle efficiently.
2. Verifies whether all the packets have arrived at their destination.
3. “Reassembles” the data.

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 Modern Nepal College, Bagbazar, Kathmandu.
TCP/IP can be compared to moving across country. You pack your house in boxes and put your new
addresses on them. The moving company picks them up, makes a list of the boxes, and ships them
across country along the most efficient route- this may mean putting your dishes and your bedroom
furniture on different trucks.
Your belongings arrive at your new address. You consult your list to make sure that everything you
shipped has arrived (in good shape), then you unpack your boxes and “reassembles” your house.

101010
101010
101010 101010
100100
101010

100100

Network

100100

101010 100100
101010
101010
101010
100100

Fig: TCP/IP

Note: Following is Not Needed for the exam but for your knowledge

NETWORK HARDWARES
Networking hardware includes all computers, peripherals, interface cards and other equipment needed
to perform data-processing and communications within the network.

Network Interface Cards

Network Interface Card is a card that acts as the physical interface or connection between the
computer and the network cable. The cards are installed in an expansion slot in each computer on the
network. The NIC receives incoming data from the cable and translates it into bytes the computer’s
CPU can understand.

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 Modern Nepal College, Bagbazar, Kathmandu.
The role of the NIC is to-
 Prepare Data from the computer for the network cable.
 Send the data to another computer.
 Control the flow of data between the computer and the cabling system.
Most NICs are internal, with the card fitting into an expansion slot inside the computer. Laptop
computers can now be purchased with a network interface card built-in or with network cards that

slip into a PCMCIA slot.

Network interface cards are a major factor in determining the speed and performance of a network. It
is a good idea to use the fastest network card available for the type of workstation you are using. The
three most common network interface connections are Ethernet cards, LocalTalk connectors, and
Token Ring cards.

Concentrators/Hubs
Hub is a device with multiple ports for connecting different computers on the networks. It accepts
data, amplify them and then transmit. It is used to split network segments and propagate signals
through it. Its big disadvantage is that it can’t filter network traffic and it imposes limitation to the
number of computer that can be connected.

A concentrator (also called as a hub) is a device that provides a central connection point for cables
from workstations, servers, and peripherals. In a star topology, twisted-pair wire is run from each
workstation to a central concentrator. Hubs are multislot concentrators into which can be plugged a
number of multi-port cards to provide additional access as the network grows in size. Some
concentrators are passive, that is they allow the signal to pass from one computer to another without
any change. Most concentrators are active, that is they electrically amplify the signal as it moves from
one device to another. Active concentrators are used like repeaters to extend the length of a network.

Concentrators are
 Usually configured with 8, 12, or 24 RJ-45 ports
 Often used in a star or star-wired ring topology
 Usually installed in a standardized metal rack that also may store net modems, bridges, or routers

Repeaters
Since a signal loses strength as it passes along a cable, it is often necessary to boost the signal with a
device called a repeater. The repeater electrically amplifies the signal it receives and rebroadcasts it.
Repeaters can be separate devices or they can be incorporated into a concentrator.

A good example of the use of repeaters would be in a local area network using a star topology with
unshielded twisted-pair cabling. The length limit for unshielded twisted-pair cable is 100 meters. The
most common configuration is for each workstation to be connected by twisted-pair cable to a multi-
port active concentrator. The concentrator amplifies all the signals that pass through it allowing for
the total length of cable on the network to exceed the 100 meter limit.

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 Modern Nepal College, Bagbazar, Kathmandu.
It receives signals, amplifies them and sent it. It increases the distance over which a network can
extend. For example, using a UTP cable, we can send data up to maximum of 100 meters only
without amplification. If the data travel beyond that distance without amplification, then it becomes
weaker and after some time the signal will be destroyed. A repeater provides solution for such
problem.
Bridges
A bridge is a device that allows you to segment a large network into two smaller, more efficient
networks. A bridge monitors the information traffic on both sides of the network so that it can pass
packets of information to the correct location. Most bridges can "listen" to the network and
automatically figure out the address of each computer on both sides of the bridge. The bridge can
inspect each message and, if necessary, broadcast it on the other side of the network.

The bridge manages the traffic to maintain optimum performance on both sides of the network. You
might say that the bridge is like a traffic cop at a busy intersection during rush hour. It keeps
information flowing on both sides of the network, but it does not allow unnecessary traffic through.
Bridges can be used to connect different types of cabling, or physical topologies. They must,
however, be used between networks with the same protocol.

It is a device, which connects different network segments and passes data with the same
communications protocols. It is the connecting device between two or more hubs. Bridges are more
intelligence than hubs because they can see the address and forward data looking at them.

Routers
A router translates information from one network to another; it is similar to a super intelligent bridge.
Routers select the best path to route a message, based on the destination address and origin. The
router can direct traffic to prevent head-on collisions, and is smart enough to know when to direct
traffic along back roads and shortcuts.

While bridges know the addresses of all computers on each side of the network, routers know the
addresses of computers, bridges, and other routers on the network. Routers can even "listen" to the
entire network to determine which sections are busiest -- they can then redirect data around those
sections until they clear up.

If you have a college LAN that you want to connect to the Internet, you will need to purchase a
router. In this case, the router serves as the translator between the information on your LAN and the
Internet. It also determines the best route to send the data over the Internet.

Routers can
 Direct signal traffic efficiently
 Route messages between any two protocols
 Route messages between linear bus, star, and star-wired ring topologies
 Route messages across fiber optic, coaxial, and twisted-pair

MODEM
Modem (modulator and Demodulator) is a device, which has responsibility of modulating (coding)
the data before transmission and demodulating (decoding) the same data with the same rule at the
receiving end. It is used in Internet to transmit data because copper wire can transmit only analog
signals but the signals produced by a computer is digital.

Data communication over analog telephone lines is possible with a device called modem. A modem
simply connects a digital computer with an analog telephone line and establishes a link between two
separate points.

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 Modern Nepal College, Bagbazar, Kathmandu.
In standard telephone service, sound wave is transmitted over a telephone wire as an electric signal.
Both the sound wave and telephone signals (electric signals) are analog signals. Since a computer's
data (text, voice, images, etc.) are digital, the device called modem is needed.

The modem, at the sender's end, translates the digital signals into analog signals that can travel over
standard telephone lines. In its modulation phase, the modem turns the computer's digital signals into
analog signals.

At the receiving end the reverse takes place- called demodulation. In demodulation phase, the modem
receives analog signals from telephone line and translates them back to digital signals. The data, now
in digital form, are compatible for storage in the computer.

Chapter 6/Network and Communication/Page No.17 Er. Subash Dangol