A carbohydrate is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O)

atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atomratio of 2:1 (as in water); in other words,
with the empirical formula Cm(H2O)n (where m may be different from n).[1] This formula
holds true for monosaccharides. Some exceptions exist; for example, deoxyribose, a
sugar component of DNA,[2] has the empirical formula C5H10O4.[3] The carbohydrates are
technically hydrates of carbon;[4] structurally it is more accurate to view them
as aldoses and ketoses .[5]
The term is most common in biochemistry, where it is a synonym of 'saccharide', a
group that includes sugars, starch, and cellulose. The saccharides are divided into four
chemical groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides,
and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides and disaccharides, the smallest
(lower molecular weight) carbohydrates, are commonly referred to as sugars.[6] The
word saccharide comes from the Greek word σάκχαρον (sákkharon), meaning
"sugar".[7] While the scientific nomenclature of carbohydrates is complex, the names of
the monosaccharides and disaccharides very often end in the suffix -ose. For
example, grape sugar is the monosaccharide glucose, cane sugar is the
disaccharide sucrose, and milk sugar is the disaccharide lactose.

An essential structural component of living cells and source of energy for animals;
includes simple sugars with small moleculesas well as macromolecular substances; are
classified according to the number of monosaccharide groups they contain.

In chemistry, a glycosidic bond or glycosidic linkage is a type of covalent bond that

joins a carbohydrate (sugar) molecule to another group, which may or may not be
another carbohydrate.

Formation of ethyl glucoside: Glucose and ethanolcombine to form ethyl glucoside and water. The reaction often
favors formation of the α glycosidic bond as shown due to the anomeric effect.

A glycosidic bond is formed between the hemiacetal or hemiketal group of

a saccharide (or a molecule derived from a saccharide) and the hydroxyl group of some
compound such as an alcohol. A substance containing a glycosidic bond is a glycoside.
The term 'glycoside' is now extended to also cover compounds with bonds formed
between hemiacetal (or hemiketal) groups of sugars and several chemical groups other
than hydroxyls, such as -SR (thioglycosides), -SeR (selenoglycosides), -NR1R2 (N-
glycosides), or even -CR1R2R3 (C-glycosides).
Aa
Proteins (/ˈproʊˌtiːnz/ or /ˈproʊti.ɪnz/) are large biomolecules, or macromolecules,
consisting of one or more long chains of amino acidresidues. Proteins perform a vast
array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA
replication, responding to stimuli, and transporting molecules from one location to
another. Proteins differ from one another primarily in their sequence of amino acids,
which is dictated by the nucleotide sequenceof their genes, and which usually results
in protein folding into a specific three-dimensional structure that determines its activity.
A linear chain of amino acid residues is called a polypeptide. A protein contains at least
one long polypeptide. Short polypeptides, containing less than 20–30 residues, are
rarely considered to be proteins and are commonly called peptides, or
sometimes oligopeptides. The individual amino acid residues are bonded together
by peptide bonds and adjacent amino acid residues. The sequence of amino acid
residues in a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene, which is encoded in
the genetic code. In general, the genetic code specifies 20 standard amino acids;
however, in certain organisms the genetic code can include selenocysteine and—in
certain archaea—pyrrolysine. Shortly

Amino acids are organic compoundscontaining amine (-NH2) and carboxyl (-COOH) functional
groups, along with a side chain (R group) specific to each amino acid.[1][2][3] The
key elements of an amino acid are carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N),
although other elements are found in the side chains of certain amino acids. About 500 naturally
occurring amino acids are known (though only 20 appear in the genetic code) and can be
classified in many ways.[4] They can be classified according to the core structural functional
groups' locations as alpha- (α-), beta- (β-), gamma- (γ-)or delta- (δ-) amino acids; other
categories relate to polarity, pH level, and side chain group type (aliphatic, acyclic, aromatic,
containing hydroxyl or sulfur, etc.). In the form of proteins, amino acid residues form the second-
largest component (water is the largest) of human muscles and other tissues.[5] Beyond their
role as residues in proteins, amino acids participate in a number of processes such
as neurotransmittertransport and biosynthesis.

A peptide bond is a chemical bond formed between two molecules when the
carboxyl group of one molecule reacts with the amino group of the other
molecule, releasing a molecule of water (H2O).
This is a dehydration synthesis reaction (also known as a condensation reaction), and usually occurs
between amino acids.
The resulting CO-NH bond is called a peptide bond, and the resulting molecule is an amide.
The four-atom functional group -C(=O)NH- is called an amide group or (in the context of proteins) a
peptide group.
Polypeptides and proteins are chains of amino acids held together by peptide bonds, as is the
backbone of PNA
The lipids are a large and diverse group of naturally occurring organic compounds that are
related by their solubility in nonpolar organic solvents (e.g. ether, chloroform, acetone &
benzene) and general insolubility in water. There is great structural variety among the lipids, as
will be demonstrated in the following sections. You may click on a topic listed below, or proceed
page by page.
Triglycerides are a type of fat (lipid) found in your blood. When you eat, your body converts any
calories it doesn't need to use right away into triglycerides. The triglycerides are stored in your
fat cells. Later, hormones release triglycerides for energy between meals. If you regularly eat
more calories than you burn, particularly "easy" calories like carbohydrates and fats, you may
have high triglycerides (hypertriglyceridemia

Glycerol (/ˈɡlɪsərɒl/;[4] also called glycerine or glycerin; see spelling differences) is a

simple polyol compound. It is a colorless, odorless, viscous liquid that is sweet-tasting and non-
toxic. The glycerol backbone is found in all lipids known as triglycerides. It is widely used in the
food industry as a sweetener and humectant and in pharmaceutical formulations. Glycerol has
three hydroxyl groups that are responsible for its solubility in water and its hygroscopic nature

Fatty acids: Molecules that are long chains of lipid-carboxylic acid found in fats and oils
and in cell membranes as a component of phospholipids and glycolipids. (Carboxylic
acid is an organic acid containing the functional group -COOH.)
Fatty acids come from animal and vegetable fats and oils. Fatty acids play roles outside
the body; they are used as lubricants, in cooking and food engineering, and in the
production of soaps, detergents, and cosmetics

Phospholipids are a class of lipids that are a major component of all cell membranes. They
can form lipid bilayers because of their amphiphilic characteristic. The structure of the
phospholipid molecule generally consists of two hydrophobic fatty acid "tails" and
a hydrophilic "head" consisting of a phosphategroup. The two components are joined together
by a glycerol molecule. The phosphate groups can be modified with simple organic molecules
such as choline.
Nucleic acids are biopolymers, or small biomolecules, essential to all known forms of life. They
are composed of nucleotides, which are monomers made of three components: a 5-carbon
sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base. If the sugar is a simple ribose,
the polymer is RNA (ribonucleic acid); if the sugar is derived from ribose as deoxyribose, the
polymer is DNA(deoxyribonucleic acid
Nucleotides are organic molecules that serve as the monomer units for forming the nucleic
acid polymers deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), both of which are
essential biomolecules in all life-forms on Earth. Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic
acids; they are composed of three subunit molecules: a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon
sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), and at least one phosphate group. They are also known
as phosphate nucleotides

Abstract
The template-directed synthesis of a single phosphodiester bond by highly purified calf
thymus RNA polymerase B is not inhibited by high concentrations of alpha-amanitin
(10(-6) M). However, a subsequent internucleotide bond is not synthesized in the
presence of alpha-amanitin. These results suggest that translocation of the nascent
RNA and RNA polymerase B along the DNA template is the enzymatic process inhibited
by alpha-amanitin. It is also shown that the formation of a single phosphodiester bond
by RNA polymerase B results in a stable ternary transcription complex, i.e., between the
enzyme, the DNA, and the nascent RNA. Under reaction conditions which normally
favor the elongation of RNA, the transcriptional process is arrested at initiation by alpha-
amanitin. Such ternary initiation complexes have been isolated by agarose gel
electrophoresis

AMPHIPHILIC
: of, relating to, or being a compound (such as a surfactant) consisting
of molecules having a polar water-soluble group attached to a water-
insoluble hydrocarbon chain; also : being a molecule of such a
compound

A hydrophilic molecule or substance is attracted to water. Water is a polar

molecule that acts as a solvent, dissolving other polar and hydrophilic
substances. In biology, many substances are hydrophilic, which allows them
to be dispersed throughout a cell or organism. All cells use water as a solvent
that creates the solution known as cytosol. Cytosol contains many
substances, most of which are hydrophilic on at least part of the molecule.
This ensures that that can be transported about the cell easily.

The word hydrophobic comes from the Greek roots hydro- (meaning water) and -
phobia (meaning fearing or hating). The word hydrophobic describes the fact that nonpolar
substances don't combine with water molecules. Let's take a closer look at that definition. Water
is a polar molecule, which means that it carries a partial charge between its atoms. Oxygen, as
an electronegative atom, draws the electrons of each bond closer to its core, thus creating a
more negative charge. Therefore, any materials with a charge, be it negative or positive, will be
able to interact with water molecules to dissolve. (Think of how salt dissolves in water. This is
due to the charges of the ions sodium and chlorine
In organic chemistry, functional groups are specific groups (moieties) of atoms or bonds
within molecules that are responsible for the characteristic chemical reactions of those
molecules. The same functional group will undergo the same or similar chemical reaction(s)
regardless of the size of the molecule it is a part of.[1][2] However, its relative reactivity can be
modified by other functional groups nearby. The atoms of functional groups are linked to each
other and to the rest of the molecule by covalent bonds. Functional groups can also be charged,
e.g. in carboxylate salts (–COO−), which turns the molecule into a polyatomic ion or a complex
ion. Functional groups binding to a central atom in a coordination complex are called ligands.

A carboxylic acid /ˌkɑːrbɒkˈsɪlɪk/ is an organic compound that contains a carboxyl

group(C(=O)OH).[1] The general formula of a carboxylic acid is R–COOH, with R referring to the
rest of the (possibly quite large) molecule. Carboxylic acids occur widely and include the amino
acids (which make up proteins) and acetic acid (which is part of vinegar and occurs
in metabolism).
Salts and esters of carboxylic acids are called carboxylates. When a carboxyl group
is deprotonated, its conjugate base forms a carboxylate anion. Carboxylate ions are resonance-
stabilized, and this increased stability makes carboxylic acids more acidic than alcohols.
Carboxylic acids can be seen as reduced or alkylated forms of the Lewis acid carbon dioxide;
under some circumstances they can be decarboxylated to yield carbon dioxide.

In chemistry, an alcohol is any organic compound in which the hydroxyl functional group (–OH)
is bound to a saturated carbonatom.[2] The term alcohol originally referred to the primary
alcohol ethanol (ethyl alcohol), which is used as a drug and is the main alcohol present
in alcoholic beverages.

In organic
chemistry, amines(US: /əˈmiːn, ˈæmin/,[1]UK: /əˈmiːn, ˈæmin, ˈeɪmin/)[2][3] are compoundsand fu
nctional groups that contain a basicnitrogen atom with a lone pair. Amines are
formally derivatives of ammonia, wherein one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by
a substituent such as an alkyl or arylgroup[4] (these may respectively be called alkylamines and
arylamines; amines in which both types of substituent are attached to one nitrogen atom may be
called alkylarylamines). Important amines include amino acids, biogenic amines, trimethylamine,
and aniline; see Category:Amines for a list of amines. Inorganic derivatives of ammonia are also
called amines, such as chloramine (NClH2); see Category:Inorganic amines.[5]

The Fischer projection, devised by Hermann Emil Fischer in 1891,[1] is a two-

dimensionalrepresentation of a three-dimensional organic molecule by projection. Fischer
projections were originally proposed for the depiction of carbohydrates and used by chemists,
particularly in organic chemistry and biochemistry. The use of Fischer projections in non-
carbohydrates is discouraged, as such drawings are ambiguous when confused with other types
of drawing.[2]

A Haworth projection is a common way of writing a structural formula to represent the

cyclic structure of monosaccharides with a simple three-dimensional perspective. Organic
chemistry and especially biochemistry are the areas of chemistry that use the Haworth
projection the most.
The Haworth projection was named after the English chemist Sir Norman Haworth.
A Haworth projection has the following characteristics

DNA and RNA, the nucleic acids, are the molecules responsible for the
hereditary information that controls the protein synthesis in living organisms.
The name “nucleic” derives from the fact that they were discovered (by the
Swiss biochemist Friedrich Miescher, in 1869) within the cell nucleus. At that
time, it was not known that those substances contained hereditary
information.