G A S C O M P R E S S I O N:

A PRIMER ON GAS COMPRESSION EQUIPMENT & TECHNOLOGY

BY W. NORM SHADE, PE

21 Compression Losses
And The Real P-V Diagram

C H A P T E R

A basic introduction to gas compression,

intended for operators, maintenance
technicians, supervisors, engineers, stu-
dents, and others who want to gain a fun-
damental understanding of gas compres-
sor rating, application, analysis, and control.

The following is an excerpt from the forthcoming book, Gas Compression: A Primer On Gas Compression Equipment & Technology. Each
month, Gas Compression Magazine will publish approximately one chapter. At a later date, it is planned that all the individual chapters
and sections will be combined into a comprehensive text book that will include sample problems and even some homework assignments.
 Part 1I:
Introduction to Compression: Reciprocating Compressors

21 CHAPTER

Compression Losses And The Real P-V Diagram

s introduced in Chapter 20 (see February 2018 Gas Com-
A pression Magazine, p. 34), the assessment of reciprocating
compressor performance is based on fundamental thermody-
namic theory. The law of conservation of energy states that
the total energy of a closed system is constant. Energy can be
transformed from one form to another, but it can be neither
created nor destroyed. Chapter 20 explained the ideal com-
pression cycle and the corresponding ideal pressure-volume
(P-V) diagram, which assumes that the compression process is
perfect or 100 ef½cient.
In reality, the compression process is never perfect. There
are losses involved and ef½ciency is always less than 100 . The
principal losses are caused by the pressure drops that occur as
gas ¾ows through the valves into and out of the cylinder during
the suction and discharge strokes, respectively. Since the law of
conservation of energy dictates that the total system energy
remains the same, the inef½ciencies result in changes in the in-
ternal energy in the form of gas temperature, kinetic (velocity)
energy, and P x V energy.
This chapter introduces the real compression cycle and
the corresponding real P-V diagram that is fundamental to
the understanding and calculation of reciprocating compres-
sor performance. Chapters 22 and 23 will present and discuss
the detailed equations used for determining real reciprocating
compressor performance in useful terms such as ¾ow rate,
discharge temperature, power, ef½ciency, etc.
the adiabatic ef½ciency of the compression process. Point 1 is the
starting point in both the ideal and real cases as shown in Fig-
ure 20.2 (see February 2018 Gas Compression Magazine, p. 36),
which is repeated as Figure 21.1 for convenience.
Considering the head (or outer) end of the cylinder shown
in Figure 20.1 (see February 2018 Gas Compression Magazine,
p.35), with each revolution of the crankshaft, the piston has a
backward stroke (away from the head end wall of the cylin-
der) and a forward stroke (toward the head end wall of the
cylinder). The compression process begins at the end of the
backward stroke, Point 1 in the P-V diagram in Figure 21.1. This
is where the piston has moved the farthest possible distance
from the head end wall, which is a distance equal to the stroke
of the compressor, and the head end internal volume is mo-
mentarily at its maximum.
With both the suction and discharge valves closed, there is
a trapped volume of gas in the cylinder at suction pressure, Ps.

THE REAL P-V DIAGRAM

As discussed in Chapters 2 (see August 2016 Gas Compres-
sion Magazine, p. 36) and 20, reciprocating compressor cylinders
can be either double-acting or single-acting. The determination
of compressor performance requires that each cylinder end (e.g.,
the head end or the crank end) must be analyzed separately.The Figure 21.1: Similar to the ideal compression process, the real
ideal P-V diagram that was explained in Chapter 20 provides the process begins at the end of the backward stroke, Point 1, in
basis for comparison with the real P-V diagram to determine the real P-V diagram.

gascompressionmagazine.com | MARCH 2018 15


Figure 21.2: As the piston progresses through the forward
stroke from Point 1, with both the suction and discharge valves
closed, the cylinder volume decreases and the pressure of the
trapped gas is increased until it reaches a pressure P2’ at Point
2’, which is higher than the Pd at Point 2. The over-compression
beyond the Pd from Point 2 to Point 2’ is necessary to over-
come the resistance of the discharge valve(s). The portion of
the real P-V diagram from Point 1 to Point 2’ is referred to as
the compression stroke.
Figure 21.3: At Point 2’, the discharge valve opens and gas
¾ows out of the cylinder over the remainder of the forward
stroke. The shaded area of the P-V diagram above the Pd line
and under the line from Point 2’ to Point 3 represents the
discharge valve loss. This loss requires extra thermodynamic
work in the compression cycle to compressor gas from Ps to
Pd. The portion of the cycle from Point 2 to Point 3 is referred
to as the discharge stroke. It ends at Point 3, which is the
end of the piston’s forward stroke as it instantaneously pauses
close to the cylinder end wall before reversing direction to
begin a backward stroke again.
16 gascompressionmagazine.com | MARCH 2018
As the piston reverses direction and progresses through the
forward stroke, the internal cylinder volume decreases, and the
pressure of the trapped gas is increased. As the volume de-
creases further during the forward stroke of the piston, the
internal pressure of the trapped gas reaches discharge pressure,
Pd, at Point 2 in Figure 21.2. However, since the compressor
discharge valve is almost always a passive check valve, in a real
compression process, an internal pressure higher than discharge
pressure is required to force the valve to open. As a result, the
piston continues further on the forward stroke, further decreas-
ing the internal volume and increasing the internal pressure until
the discharge valve opens at Point 2’. The portion of the P-V
diagram from Point 1 to Point 2’ in Figure 21.2 is referred to as
the compression stroke.
For the real compression process, at Point 2’, which is at a pres-
sure higher than the discharge pressure, Pd, the discharge valve
opens and gas ¾ows out of the cylinder over the remainder of
the forward stroke. The portion of the cycle from Point 2’ to
Point 3 in Figure 21.3 is referred to as the discharge stroke. The
discharge stroke ends at Point 3, which is the end of the piston’s
forward stroke at the closest possible distance from the head end
wall. It instantaneously pauses there before reversing direction
to begin a backward stroke again. In Figure 21.3, the additional
shaded area of the P-V diagram under the line from Point 2’ to
Point 3 and above the Pd line represents the discharge valve loss.
This loss requires extra thermodynamic work in the compression
cycle to compress and deliver gas from Ps to Pd.
Figure 21.4: At Point 3, as the piston begins its backward stroke,
moving away from the end wall of the cylinder, the pressure
begins to decrease below Pd. The discharge valve closes and
there is no more ¾ow out of the cylinder. With the suction
and discharge valves once again both closed, there is again a
trapped volume of gas in the cylinder. As the piston progresses
through the backward stroke, the cylinder volume increases
or expands, and the pressure of the trapped gas is decreased
until it reaches a pressure P4’ at Point 4’, which is less than the
Ps. The over-expansion below the Ps from Point 4 to Point 4’ is
necessary to overcome the resistance of the suction valve(s).
The portion of the real P-V diagram from Point 3 to Point 4’ is
referred to as the expansion stroke.
 At Point 3, the discharge valve closes and there is no more
¾ow out of the cylinder. With the suction and discharge valves
once again both closed, there is again a trapped, but smaller
than before, volume of gas in the cylinder at Pd. As the piston
progresses through the backward stroke, the cylinder volume
increases, and the pressure of the trapped gas is decreased to
Ps at Point 4 in Figure 21.4. However, since the compressor
suction valve is also a check valve, an internal pressure lower
than suction pressure is required for the suction pressure to
force the valve open. As a result, the piston continues fur-
ther on the backward stroke, further increasing the internal
volume and decreasing the internal pressure until the suction
valve opens at Point 4. The portion of the cycle from Point 3
to Point 4’ in Figure 21.4 is referred to as the expansion stroke.
As the volume expands further during the backward stroke
of the piston, gas ¾ows into the cylinder over the remainder of
the stroke to Point 1, still at Ps. The portion of the cycle from
Point 4 to Point 1 in Figure 21.5 is referred to as the inlet or
suction stroke. When the piston reaches the end of the back-
ward stroke at Point 1, it again instantaneously pauses before
reversing direction to begin a forward stroke again. In Figure
21.5, the additional shaded area of the P-V diagram under the
Ps line and above the line from Point 4’ to Point 1 represents
the suction valve loss. This loss also requires extra thermody-
namic work in the compression cycle to compress and deliver
gas from Ps to Pd.
This entire P-V cycle repeats with each crankshaft revolu-
tion. Therefore, with each crankshaft revolution, the compres-
Figure 21.5: As the volume expands further during the back-
ward stroke, gas ¾ows into the cylinder at Ps over the remain-
der of the backward stroke to Point 1. The shaded area of the
P-V diagram below the Ps line and under the line from Point 4’
to Point 1 represents the suction valve loss. This loss requires
extra thermodynamic work in the compression cycle to com-
pressor gas from Ps to Pd. The portion of the cycle from Point
4’ to Point 1 is referred to as the inlet or suction stroke. When
the piston reaches the end of the backward stroke at Point 1,
it again instantaneously pauses before reversing direction to
begin a forward stroke again.
Figure 21.6: In a double-acting cylinder, gas is compressed by
both ends of the piston. The crank end’s ideal P-V diagram is
essentially a mirror image of the head end’s diagram, operating
180 degrees out of phase with the head end.
sor cylinder end draws another mass of gas from the suction
line and transfers it to the higher pressure discharge line.
If the compressor cylinder is double-acting, then the crank
end also completes a similar transfer of gas, but the crank end’s
ideal P-V diagram is essentially a mirror image of the head end’s
diagram, operating 180 degrees out of phase with the head
end, as shown in Figure 21.6. Therefore, a double-acting cylin-
der transfers two masses of gas from the suction line to the
discharge line with each crank revolution. Because the head end
and crank end piston areas are different, because of the effect of
the piston rod area, the mass of gas transferred by the head end
is larger than the mass transferred by the crank end. On multi-
throw compressor frames, when higher mass ¾ows are needed,
two or more compressor cylinders may be operated in parallel.
Increasing the speed at which the cycle is completed increases
the capacity or ¾ow rate of the cylinder. In its simplest form, the
capacity of a reciprocating compressor is directly proportional
to the speed at which the piston moves through the cylinder. At
constant speed, a reciprocating compressor is fundamentally a
½xed capacity machine. Various means of changing capacity will
be discussed in depth in Chapters 29 through 32.
COMPRESSION LOSSES
Both the compression cycle and the P-V diagram described in
this chapter represent the real compression process. As a result
of compressor valve and other ¾ow losses within the cylinder,
the thermodynamic or adiabatic ef½ciency is always less than
100 .The ideal P-V diagram discussed in Chapter 20 represents
the perfect compression cycle, and it is useful for comparison
with the real compression cycle to determine the total input
work and power required, as well as the adiabatic ef½ciency,
which will be discussed in Chapter 23. Chapter 23 will also in-
troduce mechanical losses and their effect on the overall ef½-
ciency and the power input required for compression.
In the suction process, as ¾ow occurs from the cylinder suc-
tion ¾ange to the inlet side of the suction valve(s), there are
turning, turbulence, and ¾uid friction losses through the internal
cylinder passages in the plenum and valve cage(s). In the dis-
charge process, there are similar turning, turbulence, and ¾uid
friction losses from the outlet side of the discharge valve(s),
through the valve cage(s) and plenum to the discharge ¾ange.
Although these losses may be signi½cant, the greatest losses
are generally caused by the suction and discharge valve(s).There
are several types of reciprocating compressor valves. Among
gascompressionmagazine.com | MARCH 2018 17

Figure 21.7: There are many types of reciprocating compres-
sor valves, including various types of concentric ring, ported
plate, poppet, channel, straight ¾ow, and replaceable poppet
cartridge valves. Each type has relative advantages and disad-
vantages for particular compression cycles applications.
Figure 21.8: The discharge valve plate is wider than the port that
it covers. When the valve plate is closed, the valve springs and
the P2 inside the cylinder discharge plenum or muff – essentially
discharge line pressure – act on the outside of the valve plate to
keep it closed. The pressure P2’ inside the cylinder must exceed
P2 to overcome the forces holding the valve plates closed.
them are various types of concentric ring, ported plate, pop-
pet, channel, straight ¾ow, and replaceable poppet cartridge
valves, as shown in Figure 21.7. Each type has relative advan-
tages and disadvantages for particular compression cycle ap-
plications. As evident in the valves shown in Figure 21.7, the
¾ow passes through multiple small ports or slots in the valve
seats, guards, or backing plates, and even the plates in some
cases. And, in most types, the ¾ow undergoes sharp changes in
direction as it passes through the valve and around the sealing
elements (i.e., plates, rings, poppets, reeds, etc.). In all cases the
resistance of some type of valve springs must be overcome
before the valve can open to allow ¾ow to pass through it.
All of these factors result in pressure drop as the ¾ow moves
very rapidly through the open valve.
The sketch in Figure 21.8 further shows what happens in a
discharge valve with plates or concentric rings.
The valve plate is wider than the port that it covers. When
the valve plate is closed, the valve springs and the discharge
pressure, P2, inside the cylinder discharge plenum or muff —
18 gascompressionmagazine.com | MARCH 2018
Figure 21.9: Once the discharge valve plate opens, the pressure
on both sides is close to equilibrium however, the spring force
remains. The valve plate closes again when the internal cylinder
pressure is well under P2’, but slightly higher than Pd.
Figure 21.10: Anomalies, such as pulsation and ¾utter of the
valve sealing elements, cause pressure waves in the suction and
discharge plenums. In addition, there can be stiction of the valve
sealing elements caused by the presence of lube oil or other liq-
uids on the sealing surfaces.These effects can result in the valves
opening or closing sooner or later than expected. This changes
the valve losses, the shape of the P-V diagram, the performance,
and even the reliability of the compressor cylinder.
essentially discharge line pressure — acts on the outside of the
valve plate to keep it closed. As can be seen in this ½gure, the
pressure P2’ inside the cylinder must exceed P2 to overcome the
pressure and spring forces holding the valve plates closed.
Once the valve plate opens, the pressure on both sides ap-
proaches equilibrium, nullifying the pressure force. However, the
spring force remains active. As a result, the valve closes again at
Point 3 when the internal cylinder pressure is well under P2’, but
slightly higher than Pd, as shown in Figure 21.9.
Similar behavior occurs with the suction valve during the suc-
tion stroke. In reality, the progression of the discharge event from
Point 2’ to Point 3 and the progression of the suction event from
Point 4’ to Point 1 are rarely the nice straight lines shown in Fig-
ures 21.3 and 21.5, respectively. Anomalies, such as pulsation and
¾utter (i.e., more than opening and closing per stroke) of the
valve sealing elements, cause pressure waves in the suction and
discharge plenums, as shown in Figure 21.10. In addition, there can
be stiction (i.e., overcoming liquid surface tension) of the valve
sealing elements caused by the presence of lube oil or other liq-
uids on the sealing surfaces. These effects can result in the valves
opening or closing sooner or later than expected. This changes
the valve losses, the shape of the P-V diagram, the performance,
and even the reliability of the compressor cylinder.