Multispecies*Infrastructure:* *

Infrastructural*Inversion*and*Involutionary*Entanglements*in*the*Chao*
Phraya*Delta,*Thailand*
*
Atsuro'Morita'
Osaka'University'
morita@hus.osaka6u.ac.jp'
'
Abstract*
This'paper'aims'to'elucidate'the'central'role'floating'rice'has'played'in'the'formation'of'
water'management'infrastructure'in'the'Chao'Phraya'delta'in'Thailand.'Operating'in'the'
background'of'everyday'activities,'infrastructures'often'remain'overlooked'by'the'actors'
that'rely'on'them.'However'at'certain'moments,'such'as'breakdowns,'infrastructures'
make'visible'usually'hidden'connections'between'humans'and'nonhumans.'In'recent'
years,'the'infrastructural'role'of'floating'rice'has'become'a'matter'of'concern'for'many'
actors'in'and'around'the'Chao'Phraya'delta.'This'paper'examines'the'particular'
multispecies'relations'between'water'management'infrastructure,'farmers'and'rice'in'the'
delta.'In'particular,'the'paper'traces'moments'of'infrastructural'inversion'that'shed'light'
on'rice’s'involutions'as'part'of'a'multispecies'infrastructure.'Attention'to'these'involutions,'
the'paper'argues,'facilitates'a'reconsideration'of'infrastructure’s'relationship'with'nature.' '

*
Keywords:*multispecies'relations,'infrastructural'inversion,'involution,'water,'
floating'rice,'Thailand'
*
If#they#scatter#seed#before#the#coming#of#the#water,#the#sprouts#will#grow#as#the#
water#rises;#and#finally#the#rice#reaches#as#high#as#one#jo#(3meter)#and#keeps#up#
with#the#rise#of#the#water.#Since#rice#is#grown#so#easily#there,#the#price#is#much#
lower#than#in#other#countries#and#there#is#little#danger#of#famine'(Hayashi'and'
Hayashi'1958:'1279;'cited'from'Ishii'1978:'27)'
*
Introduction*
As'the'huge'floods'of'2011'made'abundantly'clear,'the'Chao'Phraya'Delta'is'an'
amphibious'place'located'between'land'and'sea'(see'also'Ishii'1978b).'At'

1
Ayutthaya,'located'100'km'upstream'from'the'estuary,'the'elevation'is'only'two'
meters.'For'this'reason,'the'sea'tide'interferes'with'river'flow'all'the'way'to'this'
old'capital.'Moreover,'river6tide'interaction'and'massive'rainfall'in'the'wet'seasons'
create'the'conditions'for'perennial'flooding'(Takaya'1987).'For'the'traditional'
kingdoms'in'Southeast'Asia'such'marshy'deltas'were'ideal'places'for'building'
trade'ports'precisely'due'to'their'location'at'the'intersection'of'inland'and'
seaborne'watercourses.'In'the'Chao'Phraya'Delta,'Ayutthaya'and'Bangkok'were'
thus'central'to'the'export'of'precious'forest'produce'to'China,'Japan,'the'Middle'
East'and'Europe.' '
' Since'the'pre6modern'era,'many'foreigners'who'traveled'through'the'intra6'
Asian'trade'network'to'Thailand'were'impressed'by'the'sight'of'rice'growing'in'the'
deep'flood6water'of'the'Chao'Phraya'Delta.'This'paper'focuses'on'the'central'but'
largely'unnoticed'role'‘floating'rice’,'as'it'is'called'now,'has'played'in'the'formation'
of'the'amphibious'infrastructure'of'the'delta.'We'might'repeat'about'rice'what'
Hugh'Raffles'has'argued'in'the'case'of'insects:'‘There'are'other'worlds'around'us.'
Too'often'we'pass'through'them'unknowing’'(Raffles'2010,'12).'Attentiveness'to'
the'particular'multispecies'relations'between'people,'rice,'and'other'things,'
facilitates'a'reconsideration'of'infrastructure’s'relationship'with'nature.' '
' Under'ordinary'circumstances,'many'people'do'not'pay'any'particular'
attention'to'their'entanglements'with'other'species.'This'is'why'much'of'the'
recently'emerging'multispecies'ethnography'(see'Kirksey'and'Helmreich'2010)'
adopts'the'method'of'following'scientists'as'they'engage'with'animal'and'plant'
others.'This'strategy'is'further'premised'on'the'observation'that'the'experimental'
systems'of'science'are'amongst'the'most'powerful'tools'for'eliciting'relations'
between'humans'and'nonhumans'(Haraway'2008;'Helmreich'2009;'Myers'2015).' '
' Analogously,'this'paper'focuses'on'infrastructure’s'capacity'for'rendering'
multispecies'relations'explicit.'Tying'together'a'wide6ranging'set'of'entities,'from'
organizations'and'institutions'to'machines'and'artifacts,'infrastructures'are'
conventionally'seen'as'technical'systems'‘upon'which’'various'activities'are'
performed.'Operating'in'the'background'of'those'activities,'they'remain'largely'
outside'the'focus'of'everyday'attention'of'the'actors'that'rely'on'them'(Star'1999).'
However,'at'certain'moments'infrastructures,'like'the'experimental'systems'of'
science,'can'make'explicit'usually'hidden'connections'between'humans'and'
nonhumans'(Jensen'and'Morita'in'this'issue).' '
' Unusual'events'such'as'breakdowns'and'accidents'make'the'workings'of'
infrastructure'highly'visible'to'the'observer'(see'Ishii'this'issue).'The'science'
studies'scholar'Geoffrey'C.'Bowker'calls'the'analytical'strategy'that'foregrounds'
such'circumstances'‘infrastructural'inversion’'(Bowker'1994).'However,'

2
infrastructural'inversion'is'not'only'a'strategy'deployed'by'the'researcher.'During'
moments'of'breakdown,'many'people'are'directly'affected'by'the'unpredictable'
behavior'of'infrastructure.'Under'such'circumstances,'they,'too,'may'begin'
exploring'its'ramifications'(Star'1999).'Additionally,'infrastructures'are'often'
highly'visible'to'travelers'and'foreigners'who'are'not'familiar'with'them,'and'
therefore'cannot'navigate'them'smoothly'(Edwards'2003).'In'the'Chao'Phraya'
delta,'for'example,'travelers,'scientists'and'state'officials'have'repeatedly'
performed'infrastructural'inversions'involving'the'canal'network'and'adjacent'
floating'rice'fields.'One'thing'that'has'been'rendered'visible'during'these'moments'
is'the'central'role'played'by'floating'rice'in'supporting'infrastructure.' '
' Deploying'infrastructural'inversion'as'an'analytical'strategy'entails'sorting'
out'not'only'the'technical'relations'inherent'to'the'system,'but'also'the'relations'
between'these'‘components’'and'their'‘environment’'(Jensen,'Ishii,'Chalfin,'Hervey'
in'this'issue).'Such'relations'are'central'to'Ashley'Carse’s'(2012)'analysis'of'the'
shifting'boundary'between'the'Panama'Canal'and'its'surrounding'forests.'In'his'
case,'the'canal'depended'on'water'supply'from'its'watershed,'and'growing'
concern'over'this'supply'led'concerned'US'experts'to'conceive'of'the'watershed'
forest'as#part#of#the#canal#infrastructure.' '
' In'the'Chao'Phraya'delta,'too,'the'boundary'between'infrastructure'and'its'
environment'has'become'increasingly'blurred.'In'contrast'with'the'Panama'Canal,'
however,'these'gradual'transformations'have'not'resulted'in'the'encompassment'
of'‘nature’'by'infrastructure.'Instead,'it'has'revealed'the'existence'of'multispecies'
relations'within'the'infrastructure.'At'the'core'of'this'multispecies'infrastructure'is'
what'can'be'called'an'involutionary'relation,'between'farmers'and'rice'species.'In'
the'words'of'Carla'Hustak'and'Natasha'Myers'(2012:'96)'these'are'affectively'
charged'relations'‘that'brings'distinct'species'together'to'invent'new'ways'of'life’.'
' In'this'paper,'I'trace'moments'of'infrastructural'inversion'that'allow'me'to'
shed'light'on'various'dimensions'of'this'multispecies'infrastructure.'These'
moments'are'found'at'the'intersections'where'travelling'people,'technologies,'
farmers,'state'bodies'–'and'rice'66'meet'(cf.'Morita'2013).'Depending'on'material'
circumstances'as'well'as'conceptual'relations,'these'different'actors'have'engaged'
the'multispecies'infrastructure'as'quite'different'matters'of'concern.'Doing'so,'they'
have'also'imagined'and'attempted'to'impose'on'it'quite'different'boundaries.'Since'
infrastructures'are'almost'never'rebuilt'from'scratch,'past'attempts'at'
modification'and'reconceptualization'remain'part'of'the'present'configuration'
(Star'1999).'In'this'sense,'these'infrastructural'inversions'rather'than'as'
endeavors'to'simply'know'infrastructure,'they'must'be'seen'as'eliciting'ontological'
experiments.'Such'infrastructural'experiments'reconfigure'the'relationships'

3
between'farmers,'rice,'canals'and'water'management'practices.'Over'time,'they'
have'created'and'recreated'the'material'and'conceptual'spaces'of'people'and'
floating'rice.'
'
A*Traveler’s*Gaze*on*A*Curious*Plant*
In'September'2014,'I'was'in'a'field'of'floating'rice'with'Chit,'my'friend'and'
research'assistant,'and'a'seasoned'farmer,'Sanguan.1' The'location'was'one'of'the'
remaining'floating'rice'fields'in'the'Bangban'District'of'Ayutthaya'Province.'Chit'
and'Sanguan'both'live'in'this'area,'the'most'flood6prone'in'the'entire'delta.'The'
flooding'had'not'yet'begun'and'the'field'was'filled'with'only'shallow'water.'
* To'me,'the'field'looked'more'like'marshy'grassland'than'a'paddy'field.'The'
rice'stocks'were'of'quite'uneven'height,'and'some'were'lodged'even'at'this'early'
stage.'Furthermore,'a'variety'of'weeds'grew'among'the'rice'plants.'This'disorderly'
appearance'is'a'consequence'of'the'farming'method'particular'to'floating'rice,'in'
which'the'farmer'basically'does'nothing'aside'from'rough'plowing'(thai#da)'and'
the'broadcasting'of'seeds'(wan#met).'The'seeming'chaos'contrasted'sharply'with'
the'neighboring'field,'planted'with'non6floating'rice'stocks'of'even'height,'and'
without'weeds.'Looking'at'the'field'with'smile,'Sanguan'explained'that'the'weeds'
would'drown'in'the'coming'floodwater.'Only'the'rice'would'be'able'to'survive.' *
'
[Figure'1'around'here.'Caption:'Floating'rice'field.'Photo'by'author.]'
'
Early'travelers'to'the'Southeast'Asian'deltas'might'have'shared'my'impression'of'
the'strangeness'of'floating'rice.'The'epigram'of'this'article'is'taken'from'the'17th'
century'Reports#from#Chinese#Vessels#Entering#Japan#(Tosen#FusetsuIgaki),'in'which'
the'Chinese'captain'of'a'Siamese'vessel'wrote'to'Japanese'port'officers'about'the'
geography'and'industry'of'Siam.2' Since'the'14th'century,'Siam,'China,'Japan'and'
other'Southeast'Asian'countries'had'had'close'trade'relationships.'Among'this'
inter6Asian'trade'network,'the'peculiarity'of'floating'rice'in'Siam'and'neighboring'

1' All'the'names'in'the'ethnographic'descriptions'are'pseudonyms.'Following'the'
convention'in'Thailand,'in'the'main'text'I'cite'the'name'of'Thai'people'by'their'first'names.' '
2' The'reports'from'1644'to'1724'were'compiled'under'the'title'‘KaiIhentai'(Chinese:#
HuáyíIbiàntài)’#(Hayashi'and'Hayashi'1958).'The'cited'report'was'submitted'to'the'
Japanese'officers'in'1690.'At'the'time,'it'was'common'for'Chinese'sailors'and'traders'to'
work'on'Siamese'ships.' '

4
countries'regularly'roused'travelers’'curiosity'and'written'comments'(Ishii'
1978a).' '
' This'commonality'contrasts'with'the'extreme'difficulty'of'finding'
descriptions'of'floating'rice'cultivation'in'local'sources.'The'chronicles'of'the'
Ayutthaya'and'Bangkok'dynasties'are'full'of'descriptions'of'wars,'events'at'court,'
and'the'great'deeds'of'kings,'but'they'rarely'pause'to'elaborate'on'the'mundane'
aspects'of'agriculture'and'ordinary'village'life'(Terwiel'1989).'To'the'Thai'elites'
who'left'these'records,'agriculture'and'floating'rice'was'apparently'a'taken'for'
granted'background'to'life,'a'dimension'to'which'they'had'no'reason'to'pay'any'
particular'attention.'To'perceive'the'landscape'as'unfamiliar'and'its'species'as'
strange'thus'required'the'traveller’s'curious'gaze.' '
' However,'this'gaze'was'far'from'neutral.'Whereas'travelers'might'notice'
details'usually'overlooked'by'the'locals,'their'interpretations'of'such'details'were'
regularly'framed'by'implicit'comparisons'with'the'infrastructure'they'knew'from'
home'(Mohácsi'and'Morita'2013;'Morita'2013).'Among'the'travel'records,'one'
finds'the'work'of'comparison'in'play'in'the'emphasis'on'the'ease#with'which'
floating'rice'was'grown.'The'Chinese'captain'cited'above,'and'other'sources'too,'
noted'that'rice'could'be'grown'without'toil'(Zhou'1992).'The'contrast'was'with'
rice'growing'in'Asian'intermountain'basins'such'as'those'of'Northern'Thailand,'
Japan'and'China,'where'rice'was'usually'transplanted'to'the'irrigated'paddy'field'
(Bray'1986;'Ishii'1978b;'O'Connor'1996).'The'maintenance'of'these'irrigation'
systems'was'very'labor6intensive,'and'keeping'the'paddy'field'tidy'required'
meticulous'care.'It'was'therefore'astonishing'to'travellers'that'rice'farming'in'the'
Southeast'Asian'deltas'lacked'any'form'of'water'control'infrastructure'and'
involved'only'minimal'farm'work'(Catling'1992;'Tanabe'1994).' '
' As'described'above,'the'visual'contrast'between'these'forms'of'rice'growing'
is'indeed'striking.'Familiar'with'the'toil'of'irrigated'rice'cultivation,'the'relaxed'
and'disorderly'practices'of'floating'rice'farming'must'have'made'a'strong'
impression'on'Chinese'and'Japanese.' ' '
' Given'this'situation,'it'is'perhaps'little'surprise'that'the'first'scholars'to'pay'
attention'to'the'infrastructural'role'of'floating'rice'were'Japanese.'In'the'1960s,'the'
amphibious'character'of'the'delta'and'its'enormous'scale'had'overwhelmed'an'
early'generation'of'Japanese'Southeast'Asian'area'specialists.'Among'other'things,'
this'led'to'an'extensive'exploration'of'floating'rice'cultivation.' '
' Ishii'Yoneo,'the'project'leader,'argued'that'Thai'people,'supposed'to'have'
migrated'from'northern'intermountain'basins'where'they'had'grown'irrigated'rice,'
had'adapted'to'the'watery'environment'of'the'delta'by'making'use'of'the'biological'
features'of'floating'rice'varieties.'He'saw'floating'rice'as'a'functional'equivalent'to'

5
irrigation'infrastructure'since'both'contributed'to'turning'the'natural'environment'
to'productive'use.'Ishii'further'referred'to'the'use'of'floating'rice'as'‘agronomic'
adaptation’'to'the'environment,'and'he'contrasted'it'with'the'engineering'mode'of'
adaptation'employed'when'building'irrigation'dams'and'ditches'(Ishii'1978b).'
Thus,'Ishii'saw'floating'rice'as'analogous'to'irrigation'infrastructure.'While'
irrigation'infrastructure'organizes'water'flow'by'physically'enclosing'
watercourses,'floating'rice'cope'with'the'unruly'water'by'biological'means.'
' The'analogy'between'floating'rice'and'water'infrastructure'were'not'the'
only'interesting'aspect'of'Ishii’s'project.'Anthropologists'found'that'the'cultivation'
of'floating'rice'was'interlocked'with'extensive'canal'networks'in'the'delta'(Ishii'
1978b;'Takaya'1987).'These'were'the'same'canal'networks'and'‘aquatic’'lifestyles'
that'had'impressed'earlier'travelers.'A'typical'early'description'can'be'found'in'the'
travel'record'written'by'George'Finlayson,'who'visited'the'delta'in'the'1820s:'
'
The'Siamese'may'be'said'to'be'aquatic'in'their'disposition.'(…)'(T)he'
greater'number'of'them'are'floating'on'bamboo'rafts'secured'close'to'the'
bank.'The'houses'that'are'not'so'floated'are'built'on'posts'driven'into'the'
mud,'and'raised'above'the'bank,'a'precaution'rendered'necessary'both'by'
the'diurnal'flow'of'the'tides,'and'the'annual'inundations'to'which'the'
country'is'subject.'(...)'To'every'house,'floating'or'not,'there'is'attached'a'
boat,'generally'very'small,'for'the'use'of'the'family'(Finlayson'18826:'212)'
'
Until'the'1960s,'similar'impressions'were'shared'by'travelers.'Even'today,'the'
riparian'townscape'described'by'Finlayson,'with'its'configuration'of'canals,'levees,'
and'houses'on'stilts,'can'be'found'in'old'districts'in'Bangkok'and'provincial'cities.'
' In'the'flood'prone'environment'of'the'delta,'inhabitable'space'was'limited'
to'natural'levees'along'rivers'and'canals.'These'locations'were'also'essential'to'the'
access'to'water'in'dry'seasons.'Because'of'the'extremely'flat'topography,'water'
evaporated'from'every'corner'of'the'delta'in'dry'seasons,'and'drinking'water'was'
only'available'from'rivers'and'canals'(Takaya'1987).'Due'to'these'harsh'
hydrological'conditions,'most'of'the'delta'was'scarcely'populated'in'the'19th'
century'(Homan'van'der'Heide'1903).'However,'because'of'growing'demand'for'
export'rice,'human'settlements'gradually'expanded'across'the'delta'since'the'end'
of'19th'century.'Canal'digging'by'private'investors'and'by'the'state'played'a'
central'role'in'this'massive'transformation'(Tanabe'1978).'Not'only'has'these'
efforts'created'access'routes'to'inland'areas,'it'has'also'made'higher'grounds'
inhabitable,'since'soils'excavated'from'the'canal'bed'were'used'for'embankments'

6
upon'which'immigrant'farmers'could'build'villages.' '
' Farmers'who'lived'on'the'levees'cultivated'floating'rice'in'the'depressions'
in'their'hinterlands.'Because'of'the'high'floods'of'the'delta,'the'water'in'these'
fields'were'two'to'four'meters'deep'during'peak'flooding'periods.'Hence,'it'was'
impossible'to'use'the'rice'varieties'common'to'the'intermountain'basins.'Floating'
rice'provided'the'only'means'to'turn'this'watery'landscape'into'productive'paddy'
fields'(Takaya'1987;'Tanabe'1994).' ' '
' The'aquatic'infrastructure'that'expanded'across'the'delta'from'the'end'of'
the'19th'century'to'the'early'20th'century'has'cast'long'shadows'on'subsequent'
infrastructure'projects.'Later'highways'and'Western'style'buildings'did'not'
completely'replace'the'canal'networks'and'floating'rice'cultivation.'As'
infrastructural'visions'have'begun'to'change'once'again,'in'tandem'with'the'
increase'in'massive'floods'since'the'end'of'the'20th'century,'the'importance'of'
floating'rice'in'the'amphibious'infrastructure'has'become'increasingly'visible'to'an'
increasing'array'of'actors.' ' '
*
Floating*Rice*as*Part*of*Water*Infrastructure*
When'Ishii'and'his'colleagues'began'to'study'the'delta,'it'was'already'changing.'In'
1957,'the'Chao'Phraya'Dam,'a'huge'barrage'across'the'Chao'Phraya'River,'was'
constructed'with'massive'financial'support'from'the'World'Bank'(Takaya'1987).'
The'dam'was,'and'remains,'the'central'construct'of'the'irrigation'system'that'
delivers'water'to'the'entire'delta.'The'completion'of'the'Chao'Phraya'dam'
dramatically'changed'the'delta'environment.'Aside'from'its'main'purpose,'the'
irrigation'system'also'functions'as'a'drainage'network.'It'has'significantly'
contributed'to'creating'dry'land'upon'which'roads'and'Western'style'buildings'can'
be'built.'However,'one'consequence'of'this'modernization'of'infrastructure,'was'
that'Thailand,'and'particularly'Bangkok,'began'to'experience'flood'problems.'
Modern,'terrestrial'infrastructures'proved'far'more'vulnerable'to'floods'than'the'
traditional'amphibious'ones'(Morita'forthcoming).' '
' The'emergent'flood'problems'have'occasioned'new'forms'of'infrastructural'
inversion.'Given'the'scale'of'the'water'volume,'the'protection'of'Bangkok'has'
required'large6scale'water'management'capable'of'encompassing'the'entire'river'
basin,'and'including'the'operation'of'dams'500'km'away'(Japan'International'
Cooperation'Agency'1999).'Understanding'the'upstream'water'flow'was'relatively'
simple'because'the'Royal'Irrigation'Department'had'already'installed'discharge'
gauges'in'the'major'rivers.'However,'assessing'the'water'flow'in'the'delta'was'far'
more'complicated.'There,'water'flows'in'numerous'tributaries,'canals'and'

7
irrigation'ditches.'It'flows'not'only'upstream'to'downstream,'but'also'laterally'and'
sometimes,'due'to'the'influence'of'the'sea'tide,'in'the'opposite'direction.' ' '
' These'complexities'makes'the'water'flow'in'the'delta'unpredictable.'For'
example,'after'the'completion'of'the'irrigation'system,'drainage'water'from'the'
irrigation'network'has'unexpectedly'concentrated'in'depressed'areas'including'
the'Bangban'District'where'Chit'and'Sanguan'live.'In'these'areas,'flooding'is'
therefore'exacerbated'(Takaya'1987).'In'response'to'these'problems,'in'the'1990s'
Kasesart'University'in'Bangkok'and'the'Royal'Irrigation'Department'started'a'new'
project'to'understand'the'delta'hydrology.'They'acquired'the'help'of'the'French'
irrigation'engineer'François'Molle'and'deployed'cutting'edge'remote'sensing'
technology.'What'they'found'was'complex'entanglements'of'the'irrigation'
infrastructure'and'floating'rice'cultivation,'not'unlike'what'Ishii'and'the'colleagues'
had'observed'in'an'ethnographic'register.' '
' Specifically,'Molle'and'his'colleagues'found'that'delta'land'was'divided'into'
hydrological'units'they'called'‘boxes’.'Boxes'are'bounded'by'dikes'or'
embankments'along'the'irrigation'canals,'and'their'drainage'is'controlled'by'sluice'
gates.'They'identified'12'such'boxes'in'the'upper'delta'stretch'from'Ayutthaya'to'
the'Chao'Phraya'dam.'The'import'of'these'‘boxes’'is'that'water'in'the'delta'does'
not'follow'the'‘natural’'terrain'but'rather'the'configuration'of'irrigation'canals,'
dikes'and'sluice'gates.'This'emergent'pattern'resulted'in'new,'artificial'flooding'
patterns'within'each'box.'The'sluice'gate'that'controls'drainage'of'the'box'usually'
keeps'the'water'level'sufficient'for'the'highest'areas.'These'areas'are'usually'
located'near'the'river,'where'water'first'arrives.'But'because'every'box'has'a'
gradient'that'runs'from'upper'to'lower'stream,'this'form'of'water'control'tends'to'
bring'about'much'deeper'inundation'in'the'lower'places,'often'located'close'to'the'
sluice'gates'(Molle'et'al.'1999).' ' '
' In'addition'to'this'box'pattern,'the'new'irrigation'system'also'introduced'
changes'at'the'basin'level.'It'supplied'water'primarily'to'relatively'high'areas'near'
the'river'channels.'In'the'furrow6like'topology'of'the'delta,'these'places'are'located'
along'the'rivers,'whereas'low6laying'depressions'are'found'between'the'Chao'
Phraya'River'and'its'tributaries.'Because'of'this'topography,'not'only'irrigation'
water'but'also'drainage'from'the'higher'areas'flows'into'these'lower6lying'places.'
This'flow'pattern'exacerbates'flooding'in'depressed'areas'like'the'Bangban'District'
(Takaya,'1987:'160).' ' ' '
' Furthermore,'Molle'and'his'colleagues'found'that'the'new'flow'pattern'gave'
rise'to'some'rather'surprising'forms'of'coexistence'between'modern'and'
traditional'forms'of'agriculture.'Modern'irrigation'had'created'the'conditions'for'
agricultural'change'at'higher'elevations'within'each'box.'In'the'higher'areas,'close'

8
to'the'banks'of'the'major'rivers,'the'Royal'Irrigation'Department'thus'ensured'a'
water'level'suitable'for'short'stem'high'yield'rice'varieties'(HYVs),'of'the'kind'that'
lay'behind'the'Green'Revolution.'In'contrast,'farmers'in'the'depressions'adapted'to'
increasing'inundation'problems'in'the'traditional'way:'by'using'floating'rice'
varieties'(Molle'et'al.,'1999).'Thus,'modern'irrigation'did'not'eliminate'the'
traditional'form'of'agriculture'but'instead'rearranged'its'spatial'distribution.'
Because'each'box'had'both'floating'rice'and'HYVs'areas,'the'two'forms'of'
agriculture'came'to'form'a'mosaic'(Molle'et'al.'1999).' '
' Around'this'time,'growing'concerns'over'flooding'led'to'increasing'
recognition'of'the'importance'of'floating'rice'fields.'After'all,'these'were'the'only'
spaces'that'held'sufficient'water'storing'capacity'to'protect'Bangkok,'at'least'from'
medium'sized'floods.'Specifically,'depressions'in'the'middle'delta,'where'drainage'
water'flow'in'from'the'surrounding'areas,'seemed'suitable'for'this'purpose.'At'the'
end'of'the'1990s,'the'use'of'low6lying'areas'as'retention'zones'became'central'to'
flood'management'(Japan'International'Cooperation'Agency'1999).'Henceforth,'
Bangkok’s'safety'depended'on'the'depressed'areas'being'planted'with'floating'
rice.' '
' Around'the'time'when'French'and'Thai'hydrologists'found'floating'rice'in'
the'middle'of'the'water'management'infrastructure,'another'scientific'project'with'
a'much'broader'geographic'scope'had'begun'to'shed'light'on'the'hydrological'
aspects'of'floating'rice.'Whereas'the'Green'Revolution'of'the'1960s'focused'on'the'
introduction'of'a'uniform'set'of'technologies'such'as'HYVs,'modern'irrigation'
infrastructures'and'chemical'fertilizers,'in'the'late'1970s'the'interest'of'
international'agricultural'development'started'turning'to'varied'local'forms'of'
agriculture'adaptive'to'the'environment'(Rerkasem'2007).'Gradually,'it'became'
clear'that'vast'areas'of'South6'and'Southeast'Asia,'and'Western'Africa,'were'
located'in'watery'areas'where'short'stem'HYVs'could'not'be'introduced'without'
massive'infrastructural'investments.' '
' In'this'context,'the'main'institution'behind'the'Green'Revolution,'the'
International'Rice'Research'Institute'(IRRI),'began'doing'research'on'traditional'
varieties'of'floating'rice.'The'IRRI'organized'an'extensive'network'of'breeders'and'
agronomists'from'the'Philippines'to'Bangladesh,'and'from'Indonesia'to'Ghana,'to'
conduct'comparative'studies'of'the'biology'and'ecology'of'floating'rice'(Catling'
1992).'
' Unlike'irrigated'rice'that'grows'in'an'artificial'and'more'or'less'
standardized'environment,'floating'rice'thrives'under'vastly'divergent'
hydrological'and'ecological'conditions.'This'diversity,'and'the'fact'that'the'diverse'
habitats'are'connected'though'complex'water'flows,'turned'the'entire'delta'into'

9
the'appropriate'unit'of'ecological'studies'of'floating'rice.'This'is'why'the'
encyclopedic'companion'of'floating'rice,'written'by'the'IRRI'scientist'David'Catling,'
began'by'describing'the'hydrology'of'large'deltas'rather'than'the'plant'itself'
(Catling'1992).' ' '
' At'this'point'we'start'to'glimpse'the'convergence'of'different'lines'of'
inquiry.'Ishii’s'and'Molle’s'groups'had'each'shown'that'floating'rice'cultivation'and'
water'management'infrastructure'were'deeply'entangled.'Meanwhile,'the'
comparative'study'of'the'IRRI'offered'further'articulation'of'the'rather'strange'
habitats'of'floating'rice,'subject'to'the'unruly'water'flows'of'deltas.' '
' '
Rice*as*a*Matter*of*Care*
The'infrastructural'role'of'floating'rice'rests'almost'solely'on'its'elongation'
capacity;'that'is,'its'capacity'to'grow'its'stem'quickly,'keeping'pace'with'the'swift'
rise'of'floodwater.'Unlike'engineered'infrastructures,'such'as'dams'and'canals,'this'
elongation'ability'cannot'be'designed.'It'can,'however,'be'nurtured'by'farmers.'
More'specifically,'the'evolution'of'elongation'depended'on'the'emergence'of'
particular'relations'of'care'between'rice'and'farmers.'The'Thai'rice'scientist'
Benjavan'Rerkasem'writes'as'follows:*
'
Local'varieties'adapted'to'different'flood'regimes'have'[…]'been'produced'
from'the'long'and'continuing'history'of'seed'selection'by'farmers.'
Painstaking'selection'for'quality'(in'each'seed'selection'cycle'many'farmers'
go'through'tens'of'thousand'panicles,'to'select'for'quality'of'the'endosperm'
by'tapping'a'few'grains'at'the'tip'of'each'panicle'to'break'off'the'husk'[…])'
has'resulted'in'some'varieties'with'the'best'quality'(Rerkasem'2007:'78)'
'
As'Benjavan'writes,'the'selection'of'varieties'is'a'time6consuming'task,'one'lasting'
many'years.'The'varieties'are'historical'products.'Besides'the'painstaking'seed'
selection,'the'nurture'of'rice'varieties'involves'a'distinctive'form'of'care'in'the'field.'
This'form'of'care,'which'might'well'have'been'overlooked'by'the'Northeast'Asian'
travelers'occupied'with'irrigation,'is'a'consequence'of'the'dynamic'characteristics'
of'rice'varieties'growing'amidst'a'heterogeneous'collective'of'other'living'things.' '
' Sanguan,'the'farmer,'waxed'eloquent'about'the'unfolding'changes'in'his'
favorite'floating'rice'variety,'Khău#Mali#(White'Jasmine).'Whereas'farmers'growing'
high'yield'varieties'buy'seed'from'dealers,'those'who'grow'floating'rice'‘make'
varieties'(tham#pan)’'by'themselves.'They'keep'a'portion'of'rice'seed'from'the'

10
harvest,'and'dry,'select'and'store'them.'In'order'to'‘make'varieties,’'seed'selection'
is'central.'As'Sanguan'explained:'‘If'you'stop'selecting'seed'and'just'use'the'seed'at'
hand,'your'field'will'soon'turn'red.'I'also'did'that'before'and'it'turned'red'really'
quickly!’'The'field'turns'red'because'of'the'interfusion'with'reddish'weedy'rice'
(khaw#dit,#khaw#daen)'and'due'to'other'naturally'occurring'changes'in'the'variety’s'
population.'
' Plant'scientists'see'the'constant'change'as'stemming'from'genetic'diversity'
pertinent'to'local'varieties.'Local'rice'varieties'are'usually'genetically'
heterogeneous'because'individuals'in'the'population'have'diverse'genetic'
makeups.'This'heterogeneity'brings'about'dynamic'changes'in'the'composition'of'
the'population'due'to'‘various'natural'population'processes'including'natural'
selection'for'the'local'environment’'(Pusadee'et'al'2014).'Besides'natural'selection'
occurring'at'the'population'level,'another'source'of'variation'is'mutation'at'the'
individual'level,'which'occurs'with'a'small'probability.'Another'important'source'
of'variation'comes'from'crossbreeding,'including'with'wild'and'weedy'rice'
growing'in'the'field,'upon'dikes,'or'in'nearby'irrigation'ditches'(Suga'1998).'Thai'
scientists'think'that'weedy'rice'originally'emerged'from'the'crossbreeding'with'
wild'rice'species'commonly'found'on'dikes'and'in'ditches'(Maneechote,'Jamjod,'
and'Rerkasem'2004).'Such'crossbreeding'occurs'naturally'at'low'probabilities'
(estimated'by'agronomists'to'be'less'than'1'percent)'because'they'are'mainly'
self6pollinating'species.'Though'the'probability'might'seem'small'it'is'not'very'rare'
for'careful'farmers'like'Sanguan'to'observe'a'natural'hybrid'in'their'field'simply'
because'cereals'are'planted'in'large'numbers'(Suga'1998).'Thus,'rice'in'the'field'is'
constantly'changing.'Whereas'seed'dealers'sell'from'strictly'controlled'strains'kept'
for'reproduction,'farmers'select'among'local,'heterogeneous'varieties.'
' Today,'a'new'kind'of'change'is'emerging'from'Thai'rice'fields.'Since'the'
2000s,'the'intrusion'of'weedy'rice'has'become'a'serious'problem'(Maneechote,'
Jamjod,'and'Rerkasem'2004).'Sticking'to'the'tires'of'trucks,'new'forms'of'weedy'
rice'travel'widely,'waiting'patiently'to'sprout.'However,'for'concerned'farmers'
these'weedy'species'do'not'only'pose'problems,'they'also'create'possibilities.' '
' While'discussing'the'problem'of'weedy'rice'with'Chit,'Sanguan'seemed'less'
troubled'than'curious.'‘Some'of'khau#dit'(weedy'rice)'in'the'field'looks'tasty,’'he'
said.'‘These'stocks'are'tall'and'branch'out'nicely.'And'they'have'long'and'big'seed.'I'
think'if'I'can'collect'the'seed'it'might'taste'good.’'Thus,'even'weedy'rice'holds'the'
potential'to'be'of'a'good'variety.'Sanguan'had'so'far'been'to'try'weedy'rice'not'
because'the'seed'is'inedible'but'rather'because'the'seed'sheds'off'from'the'ear'
upon'a'tiny'stimulus.'A'breeze,'a'touch'of'hand,'or'a'nearby'walker'is'sufficient'to'
make'the'weedy'rice'shed'its'seed.'Explaining'this'’shedding'habit’,'widely'seen'

11
among'the'wild'and'weedy'relatives'of'cultivated'crops,'Sanguan'seemed'regretful.' '
' In'the'history'of'the'crop6human'relations,'many'farmers'seem'to'have'
shared'Sanguan’s'interest'in'weeds.'A'few'Japanese'records'tell'of'farmers'who'
created'new'rice'varieties'by'using'weedy'rice'stocks'that'grew'naturally'in'ditches'
(Suga'1998).'It'is'also'known'that'European'oat'and'rye'developed'out'of'weeds'in'
wheat'and'barley'field'(Harlam'and'de'Wet'1963).'Even'as'Sanguan’s'appetite'for'
the'weed'looks'strange,'it'is'thus'also'indicative'of'a'driving'force'behind'the'
evolution'of'crop'species.'
' Among'other'things,'the'elongation'capacity'of'floating'rice'is'the'product'of'
farmers’'close'attention'to'emergent'differences'in'their'fields.'Benjavan'noted'that'
the'evolution'of'elongation'might'have'created'chances'for'the'formation'of'new'
rice'varieties.'During'the'huge'flood'of'2006,'a'time'when'the'water'level'exceeded'
normal'flooding'levels,'researchers'witnessed'the'survival'of'some'stocks'of'
floating'rice'and'the'death'of'others.'This'was'interpreted'as'a'result'of'the'
particularly'strong'elongation'capacity'of'the'surviving'stocks;'a'capacity'not'
visible'under'ordinary'circumstances'(Rerkasem'2007).'If'extreme'situations'serve'
as'occasions'for'making'the'difference'in'elongation'capacity'visible,'farmers'are'in'
turn'likely'to'collect'the'seed'of'stocks'recognized'to'have'this'capacity.' '
' At'first,'weedy,'floating'rice'fields'gives'the'impression'of'disorder.'And'yet,'
these'forms'of'rice'are'“matters'of'care”'for'the'farmers'(Puig'de'la'Bellacasa'2010).'
Rice'farmers'keep'an'eye'on'tiny'changes'and'variations'that'might'suggest'
degradation'or'the'fortune'of'finding'a'new'useful'variety.'Their'affective'relations'
with'rice'are'based'on'keen,'ongoing'observation,'painstaking'seed'selection'and,'
not'least,'an'appetite'for'good'rice.'It'also'involves'curiosity'and'a'sense'of'wonder'
about'the'unknown'worlds'of'plants.'
'
The*State*and*Rice*as*a*Matter*of*Concern*
The'care'of'farmers'for'rice'has'left'a'long6lasting'legacy'in'Thai'agriculture.'In'
spite'of'the'Green'Revolution,'Thai'farmers'have'kept'using'local'varieties.'In'the'
late'1990s,'at'the'time'the'last'rice'varieties'survey'available'was'published,'high'
yield'varieties'originating'from'the'IRRI'strains'occupied'only'18%'of'total'rice'
cropping'areas,'while'local'varieties'maintained'by'farmers'accounted'for'28%,'
and'improved'and'standardized'varieties'based'on'the'local'ones'54%'(Rerkasem'
2007).'The'persistent'use'of'local'varieties'indicated'by'the'statistics'is'impressive.'
Yet'even'the'seed'developed'by'the'government'and'sold'by'seed'dealers'stemmed'
from'the'standardization'of'local'varieties.'Local'varieties'are'thus'the'basis'for'the'
modernization'of'Thai'agriculture.'

12
' The'importance'of'rice'varieties'became'visible'to'the'state'only'around'the'
early'20th'century.'As'a'trade'oriented'kingdom,'the'traditional'Siamese'state'had'
generally'considered'agriculture'to'be'outside'state'interests.'Agricultural'
development'was'left'in'the'hands'of'farmers'(Brummelhuis'2005).'However,'at'
the'turn'of'the'century,'the'growing'economic'dependence'on'rice'export'gradually'
changed'the'attitude'of'the'state.' ' '
' At'this'time,'the'quality'of'Thai'export'rice'had'become'a'serious'problem.'
The'construction'of'canals'and'land'reclamation'in'the'delta'created'a'huge'new'
field'for'export'production.'However,'the'quality'of'the'rice'was'generally'low'and'
the'government'and'exporters'suffered'low'prices'(Homan'van'der'Heide'1903).'
The'government'identified'the'major'causes'of'the'problem'to'be'insufficient'water'
management'and'the'mixing'of'good'and'bad'quality'seeds'sold'to'the'mills'(Anek'
2011).'The'response'to'the'water'problem'was'the'introduction'of'modern'
irrigation,'eventually'realized'a'half6century'later'in'the'form'of'the'Chao'Phraya'
Dam.'As'for'the'seed'problem,'the'government'lacked'even'basic'knowledge.' '
' In'1908,'the'government'led'by'King'Chulalongkorn'held'the'first'contest'of'
rice'varieties'in'Bangkok.'The'judges'of'the'contests'included'not'only'Thai'nobles,'
such'as'the'agricultural'minister'but'also'a'number'of'foreigners,'including'owners'
of'rice'mills'and'government'experts.'The'contest'attracted'324'farmers'who'
brought'with'them'165'rice'varieties.'A'village'headman'from'Thanyaburi'located'
between'Bangkok'and'Ayutthaya'won'the'first'prize'(Anek'2011).' '
' The'contest'illuminates'two'contrasting'matters'of'concern'about'rice.'On'
the'one'hand,'the'noblemen'and'foreigners'who'acted'as'judges'were'mostly'
concerned'with'the'quality'of'rice'as'an'export'commodity.'Yet,'remarks'found'in'
the'exhibition'catalogue'suggest'their'basic'unfamiliarity'with'the'rice'varieties'
that'farmers'brought'to'the'contest'(Barnett'1910).'On'the'other'hand,'the'
enthusiastic'participation'of'farmers'in'the'contest'made'clear'that'Thai'farmers'
were'very'well'aware'of'the'existence'of,'and'difference'between,'numerous'rice'
varieties.'They'were'proud'of'the'quality'of'the'varieties'selected'and'exhibited'
irrespective'of'their'export'potentials.'The'relations'Thai'elites'and'rice'farmers'
had'with'rice'were'fundamentally'different.'
' The'seeds'collected'at'the'rice'contests'became'the'basis'for'breeding'
improvement'by'the'government’s'rice'breeding'station,'established'in'1916.'At'
the'breeding'station,'government'breeders'selected'and'standardized'seeds'
through'a'method'called'‘pure'line'selection’'(Somrith'1997). Pure'line'selection'
was'an'old'method'used'by'breeders'and'farmers'to'homogenize'the'quality'of'
seed.'Each'seed'was'planted'separately'in'a'test'field'so'that'the'differences'among'
stocks,'usually'hidden'by'dense'planting'in'ordinary'fields,'became'visible.'A'

13
homogenous'variety'was'created'by'selecting'the'stock'with'the'most'favorable'
characteristics'(Suga'1998).'These'standardized'varieties'made'up'a'large'portion'
of'the'planted'varieties'in'the'late'1990s'statistics.'KDML105,'one'of'the'world’s'
best'selling'varieties'of'aromatic'rice,'was'developed'in'this'way.' ' '
' Both'the'rice'contests'and'the'attempts'at'developing'the'modern'irrigation'
infrastructure,'which'totally'remade'the'delta'landscape,'were'products'of'the'
changing'political'economy'of'the'early'modern'time.'Emergent'Siamese'
nationalism'was'also'an'important'factor'in'this'historical'shift.'As'Thongchai'
Winichakul'(1994)'has'argued,'the'tense'relations'of'Siam'with'the'French'and'
British'colonial'powers,'and'newly'introduced'cartographic'techniques,'turned'
rural'and'border'spaces'that'had'held'practically'no'importance'for'the'traditional'
trade'centered'polity,'into'matters'of'concern'for'national'security.'The'rice'
contest'and'the'move'toward'modern'irrigation'were'also'part'of'this'effort'to'
construct'national'space,'which'worked'to'turn'the'delta'into'a'productive'space'
for'modern'national'economy.'However,'the'rice'contest'further'illuminates'that'
this'shift'was'about'more'than'the'aspirations'of'the'state'elite.'It'involved'the'
creation'of'new'relations'among'the'state,'rice'species'and'farmers,'whose'concern'
became'visible'to'the'gaze'of'the'state'for'the'first'time.'
' Here,'too,'we'find'a'decisive'moment'of'infrastructural'inversion:'While'the'
extensive'research'on'delta'hydrology'by'the'Dutch'irrigation'engineer'Homan'van'
der'Heide,'who'had'been'invited'by'King'Chulalongkorn,'paved'the'way'for'
subsequent'dramatic'transformations'of'the'delta'(Brummelhuis'2005;'Homan'van'
der'Heide'1903;'Morita'forthcoming),'the'rice'contests'led'to'modern'breeding'
practices.'Additionally,'the'knowledge'gained'since'the'early'20th'century'became'
the'basis'for'Ishii'and'Molle’s'later'explorations'of'entangled'delta'infrastructures.'
The'relations'can'be'pinpointed'exactly:'parts'of'their'work'rested'on'combining'
existing'knowledge'from'the'report'on'the'delta'hydrology'(Homan'van'der'Heide'
1903)'with'the'inventory'of'rice'varieties.'
'
Reconfiguring*Multispecies*Infrastructure*
Since'the'mid61990,'areas'planted'with'floating'rice'have'steadily'declined,'until'
the'present'moment'where'they'are'mostly'limited'to'flood'prone'areas'in'the'
middle'of'the'delta'(Morita'forthcoming).'Sanguan’s'field'is'located'in'one'of'the'
remaining'cropping'areas.'At'this'moment,'low'productivity'and'hard'grain'that'
tends'to'crack'in'the'milling'machine'make'floating'rice'a'commodity'of'decreasing'
attractiveness.'Yet,'because'it'requires'far'less'labor'and'fertilizer'inputs'than'
HYVs,'Sanguan'remains'optimistic'about'the'future'of'the'crop.'Actually,'he'tried'to'

14
cultivate'high'yield'crops'soon'after'the'improvement'of'irrigation'infrastructure'
in'his'area.'But'after'a'few'years'of'trial'and'error'he'realized'that'floating'rice'is'
more'profitable'because'of'its'low'input'cost.'The'rice'scientist'Benjavan,'too,'
remains'hopeful'about'increasing'the'commercial'value'of'floating'rice.'The'source'
of'his'hope'is'new'innovations'in'rice'milling'that'steams'un6hulled'rice'before'
milling,'an'invention'that'has'succeeded'in'preventing'grains'from'cracking.'
Indeed,'the'export'of'parboiled'rice'has'increased'steeply'compared'with'rice'
processed'by'the'conventional'method'(Rerkasem'2007).'
' However,'the'survival'of'floating'rice'is'also'related'to'the'newfound'
appreciation'of'its'importance'as'part'of'water'management'infrastructure.'After'
the'2011'floods,'the'government'quickly'adopted'a'previously'made'proposal'to'
use'depressions'in'the'middle'of'the'delta,'including'the'Bangban'District'where'
Chit'and'Sanguan'live,'for'water'retention'(Sapphaisan,'et'al.'2008).'In'order'to'
prevent'flooding'in'Bangkok,'paddy'fields'in'these'areas'are'to'be'submerged'
under'water.'Farmers'in'the'Bangban'District'accepted'this'plan'because'the'
government'promised'preferential'irrigation'water'distribution'in'the'off6flood'
seasons.'While'those'who'had'adopted'non6floating'varieties'have'thus'had'to'
adjust'their'cropping'schedule,'Sanguan'and'his'floating'rice,'which'was'already'
adapted'to'the'flooded'field,'has'not'been'affected'by'this'‘new'deal.’'
' Other'parts'of'the'delta,'which'were'not'designated'as'retention'zones,'have'
also'seen'signs'of'revival'of'floating'rice.'The'reason'for'this'is'the'expectation'of'
facing'increasing'inundation'problems'in'consequence'of'the'construction'of'
massive'floodwalls'encircling'the'outer'suburbs'of'Bangkok.'Because'farmers'
around'these'floodwalls'are'concerned'–understandably'66'about'the'stagnation'of'
floodwater'in'front'of'the'walls,'many'are'considering'a'return'to'floating'rice.3'
' The'uncertain'future'of'floating'rice'thus'oscillates'between'decline'and'
reemergence'in'tandem'with'the'uncertain'future'of'flood'protection'in'the'delta.'
'
Conclusion*
From'the'1970s'to'1990s,'the'changing'water'flow'of'the'Chao'Phraya'delta'and'
the'interest'in'rice'research'led'Japanese'area'studies'scholars'and'Thai'and'
French'hydrologists'to'view'the'entanglement'of'floating'rice'and'irrigation'
infrastructures'as'a'central'feature'of'the'delta'landscape.'While'their'concerns'
were'embedded'in'different'intellectual'genealogies,'and'involved'allies'as'diverse'
as'Chinese'and'Japanese'philology,'remote'sensing,'and'the'rice'research'of'the'

3' Jakkrit'Sangkhamanee'(personal'communication).'

15
IRRI,'they'were'all'equally'amazed'by'the'remarkable'capacity'of'floating'rice'to'
thrive'in'the'unruly'delta'water.' '
' Infrastructures'are'often'seen'as'illustrative'of'the'human'ability'to'control'
nature.'They'are'exemplary'of'culture,'which,'as'Strathern'(1980:'178)'noted,'is'
often'seen'as'an'end6product'of'human'creative'endeavor.'Seen'thus,'nature'is'
usually'located'on'the'outside'of'infrastructures,'whereas'infrastructures'extend'
into,'or'‘conquer’'it.'However,'as'the'several'moments'of'inversion'in'the'Chao'
Phraya'delta'makes'visible,'multispecies'infrastructure'bypasses'this'distinction.'
Efforts'to'understand'and'redesign'the'delta'infrastructure'led'to'discovery'of'
multispecies'entanglements'not'on'its'outside'but'at#its#core.' '
' At'the'center'of'this'multispecies'infrastructure'is'the'affective'relation'
farmers'have'with'rice'species.'Carla'Hustak'and'Natasha'Myers'describe'
involution'as'an'‘affectively'charged’'relation'‘that'brings'distinct'species'together'
to'invent'new'ways'of'life’'(Hustak'and'Myers'2012:'96).4' Following'their'lead,'we'
might'characterize'the'core'of'the'multispecies'infrastructure'of'the'Chao'Phraya'
as'an'involutionary#entanglement.'As'we'have'seen,'farmers’'care,'and'the'space'of'
field'and'canals'in'the'delta,'makes'it'possible'to'floating'rice'to'thrive'and'evolve,'
while'the'rice'species'in'turn'transform'the'practices'of'rice'farmers.'In'other'
words,'floating'rice'and'farmers'become'co6emergent'parts'of'each'other’s'
infrastructure.'Filled'with'care,'appetite'and'surprise,'this'involutionary'
entanglement'is'one'in'which'farmers'and'floating'rice'share,'and'co6invent,'their'
peculiar'ways'of'cohabiting'in'the'delta.'
' This'entanglement'also'offers'a'fresh'vantage'point'for'considering'
infrastructural'inversion'as'more'than'a'mode'of'knowledge'making.'Farmers’'
knowledge'about'floating'rice'rests'on'what'Hustak'and'Myers'call'‘involutionary'
momentum.’'Akin'to'what'the'sociologist'of'science'Andrew'Pickering'(1995)'has'
called'an'ontological'‘dance'of'agency,’'this'momentum'describes'a'constant'back'
and'forth'between'farmers’'observations'and'modes'of'care,'and'the'unexpected'
response'of'the'crops.'In'this'movement,'farmers'not'only'glimpse#into'the'
unknown'world'of'the'plants'but'also'engaging'in'experiments#to#remake'the'world'
in'collaboration'with'the'plants.' '
' Meanwhile,'for'scientists,'irrigation'engineers'and'state'agencies,'moments'

4' In'anthropology'generally,'and'Southeast'Asian'studies'specifically,'‘involution’'is'
usually'known'via'Clifford'Geertz’s'rather'negative'usage,'which'denoted'a'stagnant'mode'
of'agricultural'development'leading'to'increasing'internal'complexity'while'maintaining'
existing'patterns.'This'is'very'different'from'the'Deleuze'inspired'usage'advocated'by'
Hustak'and'Myers.'

16
of'infrastructural'inversion'were'exhibited'as'defamiliarizing'events'that'
problematized'the'ordinary'manner'in'which'they'grasped'the'delta'as'matters'of'
concern.'From'this'point'of'view,'infrastructural'inversions'have'resulted'in'new'
infrastructural'designs.'In'this'repeated'redesign'and'adjustment,'the'
involutionary'entanglement'between'farmers'and'rice'has'played'an'important'
role.'As'I'have'emphasized,'floating'rice'has'mediated'the'unruly'water'flow'of'the'
delta'and#the'design'of'infrastructure'as'a'technical'system.'In'the'delta,'moreover,'
infrastructural'inversions'have'gradually'revealed'the'complex'interplay'between'
engineered'and'multispecies'parts'of'the'infrastructure,'and'between'the'technical'
design'of'infrastructures'and'what'we'might'call'a'human6rice'assemblage.'The'
outcome'might'be'called'infrastructural#involution.'
' The'notion'of'multispecies'infrastructure'allows'us'to'see'such'involution'as'
constitutive'of'delta'infrastructure.'In'turn,'this'suggests'that'infrastructures'are'
much'even'than'sociotechnical#systems.'In'the'Chao'Phraya'delta,'as'elsewhere,'
they'encompass'unknown,'overlooked,'and'undervalued'worlds'of'nonhuman'
species.'Just'like'farmers'do'not'know'how'the'rice'field'generates'variation,'we'do'
not'yet'know'all'the'participants'that'contribute'to'infrastructural'diversity.' '
'
Acknowledgments*
This'work'was'supported'by'JSPS'KAKENHI'Grant'Number'24251017'and'the'
Institute'for'Research'in'Humanities,'Kyoto'University.'The'initial'idea'of'this'
paper'occurred'to'me'through'the'conversation'with'Natasha'Myers.'I'would'also'
thank'Kregg'Hetherington,'Geofrey'Bowker,'Andy'Pickering,'Hugh'Raffles,'Marilyn'
Strathern'and'Shiho'Satsuka,'Jakkrit'Sangkhamanee'and'the'anonymous'reviewers'
for'their'comments'on'the'earlier'versions'of'the'paper.'My'thanks'also'go'to'
Casper'Bruun'Jensen,'who'commented'on'the'paper'and'corrected'my'English.'
'
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