I.

INTRODUCTION:

With the increasing demand of energy via greener methods and the gradual depletion of
fossil fuels, solar energy conversion has regained the spotlight of the global energy activities.
Our planet receives 160,000TW solar energy, while the present global energy demand is about
16TW. While the solar resource is virtually unlimited, conversion of solar energy to readily
usable form is too expensive to be commercially successful at present. Furthermore, reliable
solar technology has to be complemented by energy storage system to accommodate the daily
and seasonal variations in the solar radiation. From this perspective, many countries have
formulated their long term solar energy utilization roadmap.

Additionally, the conditions for the development of solar energy could not be more perfect:
the Sun bathes the Earth hourly with enough light and heat to fulfill global needs for a whole
year; in other words, solar radiation can satisfy our energy needs 4,000 times over.

As the publication Renewable Energies Info estimates, the Earth’s surface receives 120,000
Terawatts of solar irradiation, “which represents 20,000 times more power than the whole
planet needs”. Backing this argument further, the Union of Concerned Scientists says that as
little as 18 days of solar irradiation on Earth contains as much energy as all the world’s coal, oil
and natural gas reserves put together.

Solar energy is that produced by the Sun’s light – photovoltaic energy – and its warmth –
solar thermal – for the generation of electricity or the production of heat. Inexhaustible and
renewable, since it comes from the Sun, solar energy is harnessed using panels and mirrors.

Photovoltaic solar cells convert sunlight directly into electricity by the so-called photovoltaic
effect, by which certain materials are able to absorb photons (light particles) and liberate
electrons, generating an electric current. On the other hand, solar thermal collectors use panels
or mirrors to absorb and concentrate the Sun’s heat, transferring it to a fluid and conducting it
through pipes to use it in buildings and installations, and also for electricity production (solar
thermoelectric).

Solar power is energy from the sun that is converted into thermal or electrical energy.
Solar energy is the cleanest and most abundant renewable energy source available. Solar
technologies can harness this energy for a variety of uses, including generating electricity,
providing light or a comfortable interior environment, and heating water for domestic,
commercial, or industrial use.
 II. HOW THE ENERGY IS OBTAINED AND HARVESTED

The sun provides energy in two different ways:

 It provides heat tapped by mirrors that focus sunlight on a receiver that contains a fluid
which reaches temperatures up to 1,000 ° C. The heat transforms the fluid in steam
which moves a turbine and finally produces electricity.
 It provides light that is converted into electricity through photovoltaic solar panels.
Photovoltaic panels are formed by groups of cells or solar cells that convert light
(photons) into electrical energy (electrons).

By Solar Panels:

Step 1: Solar panels collect sunlight

Every solar panel contains something called photovoltaic, or PV, cells. PV cells take light (aka
photons) and turn the light into electricity (aka voltage). When sunlight hits the solar panel, PV
cells get to work by producing direct current (DC) electricity. This is all fine and well, but DC
electricity can’t power your home. That’s where some other pieces of equipment come into the
picture.

Step 2: Inverters convert the solar power to usable electricity

On the back of each solar panel is an inverter. The most important thing to know about the
inverter is that it converts DC electricity—the unusable kind of electricity—into alternating
current (AC) electricity—the good stuff. Now we’re getting somewhere.

Step 3: Electricity flows into net meter

AC electricity flows from the solar panels through efficient wires and cables into your net
meter. Your net meter measures both the power you’re drawing from the grid and the excess
power your solar panels are putting back onto the grid.

Step 4: Fire up the toaster

After electricity runs through your net meter, it makes itself comfortable in your home and
powers all of your appliances. If your solar panels don’t produce enough energy to cover all of
your needs, don’t worry. You’re still connected to the power grid, so you can automatically
draw more energy whenever you need.
 III. TOP TEN COUNTRIES PRODUCING SOLAR ENERGY

Over the next few years the global solar energy leaderboard is set to change
significantly. As momentum for solar gathers in large countries like India and the USA, it has
been predicted that these nations will a make massive leap forward on the global stage. Using
data compiled by PowerWeb, we take a look at what the global top 10 energy rankings are
predicted to look like in terms of installed capacity.

Governments across the world have been implementing measures to encourage the uptake of
solar at both a personal and grid level (using incentives such as feed-in tariffs) in recent years,
with varying degrees of enthusiasm and success. Whatever the method, there is much
promising data that suggests to the naysayers that solar can outperform traditional generation
methods in many instances.

Without further ado, here are the top 10 solar-producing countries.

10. Pakistan (10GW)

While Pakistan only became a solar country in 2012 when its first on-grid PV plant came
online, the Southern Asian country has high ambitions. Central to its solar strategy is the Quaid-
e-Azam Solar Park billed for completion this year which, once fully operational, will have a 1GW
capacity and will be the largest of its kind in the world. Due to the recent fall in global tariffs,
Pakistan is set to adopt power auctions which could further push down solar energy prices.

9. Australia (12.2GW)

Since 2009, Australia’s solar presence has snowballed, with its cumulative PV capacity of
a few hundred megawatts growing to a healthy 5.7GW in 2015. To date, the country has nearly
20 solar projects (with a capacity exceeding 1MW) at various stages of completion. But these
promising results don’t show the full picture. Despite high levels of sunshine and economic
development, many have criticised the country’s relatively low global ranking and are
demanding that the government do more to encourage the industry.

8. France (12.8GW)

With a strong economy and well-developed energy sector, it is little wonder that solar
took off in France. In 2016, French President François Hollande stood with India’s Narendra
Modi to lay the foundation stone for the headquarters of the International Solar Alliance (ISA)
in India. The institution aims to develop solar capabilities in countries between the Tropics of
Cancer and Capricorn.
7. United Kingdom (14.2GW)

The United Kingdom overtook France and Spain in 2015 in terms of installed capacity.
Alongside major commercial solar installations, successive governments have supported
initiatives that encourage solar panel uptake among schools and homeowners. Between April
and September 2016, the UK’s solar panels produced more electricity than coal – on one
particularly sunny day solar farms produced six times more energy than coal.

6. Italy (22.6GW)

Italy’s presence in the rankings is atypical since it is a net energy importer and lacks
many of the assets of its peers. In spite of this solar makes up almost 10 percent of the
country’s energy mix and is set to double in the next decade; Eurostat has even suggested that
Italy could exceed its 2020 target. This method of power generation not only represents an
opportunity for Italy to exploit a resource it has in abundance, but also a chance to reduce
dependence on foreign generation.

5. Germany (48.4GW)

Germany has hit the headlines in recent years for making a number of significant
commitments to renewable energy. Its Energiewende strategy aims to ensure that, by 2050,
the country obtains at least 60 percent of its energy from renewable sources as part of its drive
to slash carbon emissions. As Europe’s leading country for renewables, Germany boasts nearly
30 significant PV generation plants, which each generate at least 20MW annually. And, similar
to the UK, the country is breaking its own solar records this year.

4. India (57.4GW)

Entering into the solar game as recently as 2011, India is predicted to make massive
strides in production by 2020, with the World Bank providing $1 billion in lending in this year
alone. And according to PowerWeb, its solar boom has only just begun, with the Modi
government aiming to have an installed capacity of 100GW by 2022. As a developing country,
solar also plays an extended role in heating and purifying water in many Indian regions and
exemplifies the potential to leapfrog generation methods used by more developed countries.

3. Japan (63.3GW)

With long established technology and manufacturing sectors, Japan was a natural early
adopter of solar generation and continues to innovate in the sector, aiming for solar to meet 10
percent of the country’s energy demands by 2050. Japan is notable for its Solar Ark building
completed in 2002 which is one of the world’s largest solar buildings and serves to educate
visitors about sustainability. A Japanese company recently made the world’s most efficient solar
panel.
2. United States (85.3GW)

The USA has the technology, talent and environmental conditions required for large-
scale solar rollout (not to mention the ever-increasing demand). But political support for
renewables has been patchy to say the least, and with Trump threatening to withdraw America
from the Paris Agreement the future for solar in America is far from certain. Nevertheless, the
country’s solar prospects are far from bleak. A number of states have set high renewable
energy goals and solar will inevitably make a significant contribution to these. As it stands, the
US is home to many of the world’s largest solar installations, as well as advanced domestic
capabilities.

1. China (130.4GW)

Frankly, China’s environmental record leaves a lot to be desired. This perception goes a
long way to explain why its recent efforts haven’t received much attention, despite the country
expanding its solar capacity by 81 percent last year. The country is aiming to generate 20
percent of its power using renewable means by 2030 – a feat made all the more exciting given
its previous track record. By 2014 the country accounted for as much as 70 percent of the
world’s total installed solar thermal capacity – a trend it is keen to see continued.
 IV. TECHNICAL STUDY OF THE ENERGY SOURCE

Raw Materials

The basic component of a solar cell is pure silicon, which is not pure in its natural state.

To make solar cells, the raw materials—silicon dioxide of either quartzite gravel or crushed
quartz—are first placed into an electric arc furnace, where a carbon arc is applied to release the
oxygen. The products are carbon dioxide and molten silicon. At this point, the silicon is still not
pure enough to be used for solor cells and requires further purification.

Pure silicon is derived from such silicon dioxides as quartzite gravel (the purest silica) or crushed
quartz. The resulting pure silicon is then doped (treated with) with phosphorous and boron to
produce an excess of electrons and a deficiency of electrons respectively to make a
semiconductor capable of conducting electricity. The silicon disks are shiny and require an anti-
reflective coating, usually titanium dioxide.

The solar module consists of the silicon semiconductor surrounded by protective material in a
metal frame. The protective material consists of an encapsulant of transparent silicon rubber or
butyryl plastic (commonly used in automobile windshields) bonded around the cells, which are
then embedded in ethylene vinyl acetate. A polyester film (such as mylar or tedlar) makes up
the backing. A glass cover is found on terrestrial arrays, a lightweight plastic cover on satellite
arrays. The electronic parts are standard and consist mostly of copper. The frame is either steel
or aluminum. Silicon is used as the cement to put it all together.
The Manufacturing Process

Purifying the silicon

 1 The silicon dioxide of either quartzite gravel or crushed quartz is placed into an electric
arc furnace. A carbon arc is then applied to release the oxygen. The products are carbon
dioxide and molten silicon. This simple process yields silicon with one percent impurity,
useful in many industries but not the solar cell industry.
 2 The 99 percent pure silicon is purified even further using the floating zone technique.
A rod of impure silicon is passed through a heated zone several times in the same
direction. This procedure "drags" the impurities toward one end with each pass. At a
specific point, the silicon is deemed pure, and the impure end is removed.

Making single crystal silicon

 3 Solar cells are made from silicon boules, polycrystalline structures that have the
atomic structure of a single crystal. The most commonly used process for creating the
boule is called the Czochralski method. In this process, a seed crystal of silicon is dipped
into melted polycrystalline silicon. As the seed crystal is withdrawn and rotated, a
cylindrical ingot or "boule" of silicon is formed. The ingot withdrawn is unusually pure,
because impurities tend to remain in the liquid.

Making silicon wafers

 4 From the boule, silicon wafers are sliced one at a time using a circular saw whose
inner diameter cuts into the rod, or many at once with a multiwire saw. (A diamond saw
produces cuts that are as wide as the wafer—. 5 millimeter thick.) Only about one-half
of the silicon is lost from the boule to the finished circular wafer—more if the wafer is
then cut to be rectangular or hexagonal. Rectangular or hexagonal wafers are
sometimes used in solar cells because they can be fitted together perfectly, thereby
utilizing all available space on the front surface of the solar cell.
 After the initial purification, the silicon is further refined in a floating zone process. In
this process, a silicon rod is passed through a heated zone several times, which serves to
'drag" the impurities toward one end of the rod. The impure end can then be removed.
Next, a silicon seed crystal is put into a Czochralski growth apparatus, where it is dipped
into melted polycrystalline silicon. The seed crystal rotates as it is withdrawn, forming a
cylindrical ingot of very pure silicon. Wafers are then sliced out of the ingot.

 5 The wafers are then polished to remove saw marks. (It has recently been found that
rougher cells absorb light more effectively, therefore some manufacturers have chosen
not to polish the wafer.)

Doping

 6 The traditional way of doping (adding impurities to) silicon wafers with boron and
phosphorous is to introduce a small amount of boron during the Czochralski process in
step #3 above. The wafers are then sealed back to back and placed in a furnace to be
heated to slightly below the melting point of silicon (2,570 degrees Fahrenheit or 1,410
degrees Celsius) in the presence of phosphorous gas. The phosphorous atoms "burrow"
into the silicon, which is more porous because it is close to becoming a liquid. The
 temperature and time given to the process is carefully controlled to ensure a uniform
junction of proper depth.

A more recent way of doping silicon with phosphorous is to use a small particle
accelerator to shoot phosphorous ions into the ingot. By controlling the speed of the
ions, it is possible to control their penetrating depth. This new process, however, has
generally not been accepted by commercial manufacturers.

Placing electrical contacts

 7 Electrical contacts connect each solar cell to another and to the receiver of produced
current. The contacts must be very thin (at least in the front) so as not to block sunlight
to the cell. Metals such as palladium/silver, nickel, or copper are vacuum-evaporated

This illustration shows the makeup of a typical solar cell. The cells are encapsulated in
ethylene vinyl acetate and placed in a metal frame that has a mylar backsheet and glass
cover.

through a photoresist, silkscreened, or merely deposited on the exposed portion of cells

that have been partially covered with wax. All three methods involve a system in which
 the part of the cell on which a contact is not desired is protected, while the rest of the
cell is exposed to the metal.

 8 After the contacts are in place, thin strips ("fingers") are placed between cells. The
most commonly used strips are tin-coated copper.

The anti-reflective coating

 9 Because pure silicon is shiny, it can reflect up to 35 percent of the sunlight. To reduce
the amount of sunlight lost, an anti-reflective coating is put on the silicon wafer. The
most commonly used coatings are titanium dioxide and silicon oxide, though others are
used. The material used for coating is either heated until its molecules boil off and travel
to the silicon and condense, or the material undergoes sputtering. In this process, a high
voltage knocks molecules off the material and deposits them onto the silicon at the
opposite electrode. Yet another method is to allow the silicon itself to react with
oxygen- or nitrogen-containing gases to form silicon dioxide or silicon nitride.
Commercial solar cell manufacturers use silicon nitride.

Encapsulating the cell

 10 The finished solar cells are then encapsulated; that is, sealed into silicon rubber or
ethylene vinyl acetate. The encapsulated solar cells are then placed into an aluminum
frame that has a mylar or tedlar backsheet and a glass or plastic cover.
Formulas that are in solar energy concepts

The global formula to estimate the electricity generated in output of a photovoltaic system is :

E = A * r * H * PR

E = Energy (kWh)
A = Total solar panel Area (m2)
r = solar panel yield or efficiency(%)
H = Annual average solar radiation on tilted panels (shadings not included)
PR = Performance ratio, coefficient for losses (range between 0.5 and 0.9, default value = 0.75)

r is the yield of the solar panel given by the ratio : electrical power (in kWp) of one solar panel
divided by the area of one panel.
Example : the solar panel yield of a PV module of 250 Wp with an area of 1.6 m2 is 15.6%.
Be aware that this nominal ratio is given for standard test conditions (STC) : radiation=1000
W/m2, cell temperature=25 celcius degree, Wind speed=1 m/s, AM=1.5.
The unit of the nominal power of the photovoltaic panel in these conditions is called "Watt-
peak" (Wp or kWp=1000 Wp or MWp=1000000 Wp).

H is the annual average solar radiation on tilted panels. Between 200 kWh/m2.y (Norway) and
2600 kWh/m2.y (Saudi Arabia). You can find this global radiation value here : Solar radiation
data
You have to find the global annual irradiation incident on your PV panels with your specific
inclination (slope, tilt) and orientation (azimut).

PR : PR (Performance Ratio) is a very important value to evaluate the quality of a photovoltaic

installation because it gives the performance of the installation independently of the
orientation, inclination of the panel. It includes all losses.
Equations for Photovoltaics

Basic Equations

Density of States in Conduction and Valence Band

Fermi function:

Carrier Concentration in Equilibrium

Law of mass action:

Carrier concentrations:

n-type material:

p-type material:
Carrier Concentration Under Bias

Generation

Number of photons:

Generation rate:

Generation, homogeneous semiconductor: G = const:

P-type:

N-type:

Recombination

General SRH recombination rate:

Under low injection conditions:

For electrons:

For holes:
Basic PN Junction Equation Set

1. Poisson's equaion:

2. Transport equations:

3. Continuity equations:

General solution for no electric eifled, constant generation

Equations for PN Junctions

Built-in voltage pn homojunction:

General ideal diode equation:

I0 for wide base diode:

I0 for narrow base diode:

Full diode saturation currrent equation:

Depletion region recombination:

Solar Cell Equations

 for constant G, wide base

Material Constants and Commont Units

Intrinsic carrier concentration:

Effective density of states:

Intrinsic energy level:

Diffusivity

Minority carrier diffusion length:

Resistivity and conductivity:

Resistance, homogeneous:

Permittivity:

Radiant Energy

Wavelength and energy of a photon:

If E is in eV and λ is in μm:

Spectral irradiance for black body:

Power density of a non-ideal black body:

Photon flux and power density:

 V. SUMMARY

One of the recent technology trends making waves on the globe right now is the significant
use of solar energy systems to generate clean, non-polluting electricity and to also curb other
issues that directly affect the environment. Due to different global warming concerns that are
depleting the Earth’s resources, innovators have found a way to harness the sun’s energy
towards creating sustainable solutions that they hope would eventually replace conventional
sources of energy.

Solar is driven by rapid expansion particularly in developing countries as it is gradually

gaining stance as the most desirable option for securing power. Clean energy investments in
some of these countries rose 36% to $131bn with nations like Brazil, South Africa and India
showing impressive leads regarding the use of solar energy plants.

Solar energy innovations have several impacts in our world today. Most importantly are
their effects on our daily lives and on the environment.

Maximizing Solar Energy in our Daily Lives

One of the most remarkable reports about solar energy solution is that it caters to
basically all the energy needs in a home. From lighting to heating, this can be utilized by first
identifying energy sources and installing the right equipment with solar energy resolutions. The
use of equipment made with such solutions, help reduce a good percentage of your energy bill
through solar panel installation projects on places like rooftops.

Environmental Benefits

Research has shown some of the deadly results of global warming emissions from
sources such as human activities and electrical production, which steadily drive up the planet’s
temperature. The rise of this blistering temperature creates significant and harmful impacts on
the environment, health and climate. With a focus on coal mining and natural gas drilling, they
can pollute sources of drinking water contrary to fossil fuels.

Economical Impact

There are many more ways solar energy benefits the economy, directly and indirectly.
By reducing your home’s use of traditional energy sources, you help keep natural ecosystems
intact, reducing taxpayer funded clean ups and potentially devastating oil spills and natural gas
leaks. If your photovoltaic solar panels generate more energy than your home uses, you can sell
energy back to your local utility company, leaving more money in your pocket to spend at
restaurants, movie theaters, or financial investments.