T

his text examines the artistic development of anime,

from its origins as a subset of the Japanese film
industry to its modern-day status as one of the most
popular forms of animation worldwide. Chapter One
provides a discussion of the history of anime and the separate
phases of the artistic process involved in creating a
traditional anime film. There follow nine chapter each

devoted to a single production, exploring the technical and

thematic developments pioneered in works such as NillftJ
Scroll, Perfect Blue, and Howl's Moving Castle. The final
chapter examines changing \\Testern perceptions of anime
and its frequent appearances in \\Testern pop culture and the
fine arts. A complete bibliography and filmograph - are
included.

Freelance writer DAN I C AVALLA R 0 is also the

author of The Allime Art of Hayao l\tliyazaki (2006) and T1,�

Cillema of Mamoru Oshii (2006), both from IcFarland. She

lives in London.

II McFarland

ISBN 978-0-7864-3234-9

On the cover:
Appurushido a_k_a_
Appleseed, 2004,
directed by Shinji
Aramaki (Gencon
Entertainment!
9"780786"432349 Photofest)
Anime Intersections
 ALSO BY DAN! CAVALLARO
AND FROM McFARLAND

The Allime Art of Hayao Miyazaki (2006)

The Cinema of Mamoru Oshii: Fantasy,
Technology and Politics (2002)
 Anime
Intersections
Tradition and Innovation in
Theme and Technique

DANI CAVALLARO

McFarland & Company, Inc., Puhlishers

[efferson, North Carolina, and London
 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGUiNG-iN-PUBLICATiON DATA

Cavallaro, Dani.
Anime intersections: tradition and innovation in theme
and technique I Dani Cavallaro.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN-I3: 978-0-7864-.U34-9
softcover : 50# alkaline paper §
1. Animated films - Japan - Themes, motives.
I. Title.
NC1766.J3C38 2007 791.43'340952 - dc22 2007023573

British Library cataloguing data are available

©2007 Dani Cavallaro. All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced or trammitted in any form

or by any meallS, electronic or mechanical, including photocopyittg
or recording, or by an,Y information storage and retrieval system,
without permission in writingfrom the publisher.

On the cover: Appurusllido a.k.a. Applesecd, 2004, directed by

Shinji Aramaki (Geneon Entertainment/Photofest)

Manufactured in the United States of America

Mcrarland 6- Company, fIlC., Publishers

Box 611, Jefferson, North Carolina 28640
WUJW. mcfarlandpub.com
This, like everything else,
is for Paddy
 Table of Contents

Preface 1

One - Tradition and Innovation in Modern Anime 5

Two -Ninja Scroll 21

Three -Perfect Blue 37

Four - Neon Genesis Evangelion 54

Five -Aletropolis 71

Six -Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within 87

Seven - Ghost in the Shell 2: Innocence 103

Eight -Appleseed 121

Nine -Steamboy 137

Ten -Howl's Moving Castle 154

Eleven - Anime Synergy 169

Filmography 187

Chapter Notes 195

Bibliography 199

Index 207

VII
 Preface

One of the most compelling aspects of animation is its power to remind audiellces of the impor­
tance of play and imagination in a world that increasingly sidelines such necessities.... animation
is one ofthe most popular forms in which the spirit oftrue anarchy and the antic spirit live on. [n
Native American mythology, the coyote figure is a centralforce, playfidly and wilfully at odds with
the established order that it seeks to mock and undermine. Animation plays this same coyote-like
role.... [It} is a liberating force that free associates like crazy and makes audiences see the world
afresh and, cliched though it sounds, with the eyes of a child again. -James Clarke

Th is study is the p roduct of a steadi ly growing i n terest i n the art o f a n i mation , fuelled
by the desi re to celebrate the mediu m's uniqueness . What attracted me most forcefully to a n i ­
mation i n the fi r s t p l a c e , a n d w h a t I soon c a m e t o regard a s its m o s t dist i nctive attribute, i s
t h e u n com p ro mi s i n g made ness o f i ts i mages . On this p remise, I i n i tially harbored a p refer­
ence for 20 cel-based a n imatio n , which I saw as a patently artificial expressi o n o f the medi u m .
However , research i n t o other types o f an i mation , s u c h a s clay-based and stop-motion tech­
niq ues, broaden ed my perspective , as I observed that even ani mational styles that aim fo r 3 D
scu l p t u rality such a s those are fundamentally rooted i n a n aesthetic that squarely prioritizes
the artisanal qual ity of the a n i m ated i mage . The p rinciple of m adeness accordi n gly remains
pivo tal to their ventu res . I becam e interested i n exa m i n i n g the m aterial u nderp i n n i ngs o f all
sorts of animation, be they draw i n gs, p u ppets or m aquettes .
The scope o f my i nq u i ry expanded further as I turned to a n i mated p roductions which ,
while firmly grou nded i n the hand-crafted dimension , i n corporate both 2 0 and 3 D com­
puter graphics for edi t i n g , cinematograph ical and effect-related p ur p oses . I indeed real i zed
that digital ly assisted a n i m ation is not i n i m ical to tradi tional forms and objectives as l o n g
as t h e artist's h a n d persists as the fou nding force and is still palpably evident i n the fi n ished
produ c t .
I n pursu i n g these l eads , I m ethodical ly exa m i ned various types o f a n i mation p roduced
in c u l t u rally, h istorically a nd geograph ically dispa rate contexts, and eventually focused on
a n i m e as a p aradigmatic expression of the p r inciples I sought to fo reground. Th ro ugh close
study o f a broad range o f a n i m e ti tles, I gradually discovered that t h is for m wears its m ade­
ness on its sleeve by overtly s h u nn i n g the aesthetic and ideol ogical p recepts of classic rea l i s m .
This is blatantly b o r n e o ur b y a n i me's tw i n aversion to the natura l i s tic rendition o f mass a n d
to t h e emulation of t h e conventions o f l ive-action c i n e m a i n the representation of movement :
2 PREFACE

goals that Hollywood a n i mation , conversely, has treasu red s i n ce the 1930s . I n keep i n g w ith
Japanese art's inveterate p reference for l i near graphics, a n i m e characteristically del ivers flat ,
relatively simple, yet vibrantly dynamic shapes that self-consciously p rocla i m their artificial
status and lay bare the material substratu m of their constructio n .
I n en deavo ur i n g to identify i ts pri ncipal characteristics, I fo u n d t h a t anime is b y no
means a mon o l i th i c p h enomenon w i t h u n iversally recogn ized c u l t u ra l a n d a ffective
specifications. I n fac t , as recurring traits emerged, as many grey areas crept i nto the for m u l a .
A n i m e , I soon determi ned, entails a s many rules a s i t does exceptions t o those rules . T h i s dis­
covery increased my fascination w i th the form insofar as i t fel icitously matched my existing
belief i n the val ue o f hybridity as fa r more cond ucive to speculation and experimentation than
any notion of artistic self-containedness. Reflections upon varying perceptions of anim e across
the globe rei n fo rced this conviction in the conception of the boo k .
Whereas i n Japan t h e word anime des ignates a n i mation i n general , i n t h e Anglophone
world i t is regarded as coterm i n o us with specifically Japanese ani matio n . The "Japan icity " of
anime cann o t , however, be taken fo r granted. For one th i n g , the form is asserti n g itself w ith
increas i n g vigor as a global p resence . Japa nese studios have been engaging w ith grow i n g fre­
quency i n co-productions with studios from other cou ntries . It is also n o teworthy, i n acknowl ­
edging a n i me's transnational i mp act , that i ts distinctive pictorial style has been i n crem entally
infil trating Western visual registers not m e rely in the real m of animation p e r se bu t also in
the domains o f pop mus i c , advertising, fash ion design and l ive-action cinem a . Puris ts wish­
i n g to establish a nime's essence beyond c u l t u ral cross-pol l i n ation are therefo re l i kely to be
frustrated i n thei r m ission . I ndeed, their quest may ulti mately p rove altogether spurious when
one considers that the father o f modern ani me, Osamu TeZllka, created the style destined to
shape the future of the med i u m l argely by i ncorporating into h i s work the aesthetic tenets of
Western a n imation - w i th F leischer and D isney at the forefron t . Hence, i t could rea l istically
be maintained that the supple amalgamation of d iverse codes and conventions in the ideation
of composite u niverses has constituted an integral part of anime for a long t i m e .
T h i s study seeks t o test , a n d hopefully substantiate , t h e hypotheses del i n eated above
through detailed analyses o f a selection of representative anime titles that i l l ustrate the grad­
ual transition o f the fo rm from cel a n i m ation to the synthesis of hand-drawn graph ics and
i nnovative digi tal tech nology. Concu rrently, the work seeks to extol a n i mation's knack fo r
bringing i n to existence alternate realities that are subj ect to the l aws o f neither p hysics n o r
logic , and m a y therefo re be conceived with unsurpassable degrees o f i nventiveness, audacity
and even irreverence . My objective is to document, in the process, the extent to which n ew
and com pelling aesthetics u l timately result not from the p u rs u i t of p u ri ty b u t from a passion
for blending - not , to borrow Claude Lev i-Strauss's bin ary model , fro m the e ngi n eer s extra p ­ '

olat ion and a p p l i cati on o f s pecial i s t knowl edge b ur from t he bricoleur's eclecti c i nterm i n glin g
o f diverse materials a n d tools.
The fi rst chapter del ineates the book's overarching argu ment with reference to the anime­
making process and to its handling of both hand-drawn and cutti n g-edge i magin g tech n i q ues
and camera work . It then focuses in depth on the theoretical and p ragmatic i m p l ications o f
t h e confluence of t h e o l d a n d t h e new, w ith an em phasis on t h e role p layed therein by the a r t
of draw i n g . I n its closin g po rtio n , t h e chap ter outlines t h e disti nctive roles played b y the fi l m s
here studied with i n a broad developmental curve , reflecting specifically o n their deconstruc­
tive p roclivities . The main body of this study comprises nine chapters, each o f wh ich is devo ted
 P reface 3

to a detai led a nalysis of the chosen productions, co n d ucted along the axes of tradition and
novelty. The tech nical and thematic d i mensions o f both o f those catego ries are systematically
eval uated, in tandem with the col l usion o f indige n o us and global p e rspectives u n folding
there i n . The final chapter exami nes a n i m e's i m pact on Western contexts , with a tw i n focus
on changing perceptions o f the medi u m over time and on synergetic phenomena that bring
anime into fertile co llusion with various aspects of both popul ar c u l ture and the fine arts .
Detailed fil mograph ical and bibliograp h ical i n formation s u p p le m ents the discuss i o n .
 ONE

Tradition and Innovation

in Modern Anime

Animation, in the broadest sense of the term, constitutes a fundamental, possibly unique, means
of represellting dreams: of translating them, at least for a ftw minutes, into something utterly real
and tangible. It is a workshop whose sole limittltions are ofa technical nature.... It is, at this point,
absolutely necessary to underscore an essential element of animation: authentic animation is not
and must I/ot be a mere display oftechniCtlIperftction . It should also be remembered that a char­
...

acter, even when it is drawn in a peculiar way, cannot live without a soul. - Luca Fava 1998 [my
translation}
When you make an art piece, it is not the ''coolest'' media that mtlkes it significant; it is what
you do with it. -Jean 7heberge

The stylistic distinctiveness of anime as both a cinematograph ical medium and a p ictorial art has
traditionally resided with its tendency to foreground the eminently hand-drawn quality of the
animated image . This pred ilection has tenaciously endured in recent years despite the i ncreas i n g
infil tration o f t h e form by com puter-generated graphics, i n contrast with Hollywood animation's
rampant cultivation of eCI at the total expense of the hand-drawn element .
I ndeed, even anime productions that rely substantially on digital tech nology i n o rder to
accompl ish effects that would be u nachievable by more conventional means j udiciously endeav­
o u r to i ntegrate their state-of-the-art tools w i th m a n u a l ly execu ted p ic t u res, n ever q u i te
sacrificing the agency of pencils and brushes . Ani me's endur i n g ded ication to p re-digi tal
methodologies is a corollary of its desi re to remain loyal to the two -dimensionality o f the art
o f drawing even as i t engages i n the rendition of th ree-d imensional effects . Hence , n u mer­
ous produc tions that util ize eCl pervas ively nonetheless strive to retain a cumulatively 2 0
look o r , a t any rare , t o take the 2 0 i mage a s their fo u ndation .
Ani me's com m i tment to l i ne-centred graphics could be said to eman ate from an i n t r i n ­
sically pictographic sensi b i lity, and hence t o m i rror a n aesthetic p roclivity t h a t h as been deeply
embedded in Japanese art for centuries . This is inextricably i ntertw i n ed with a steadfast p ur­
suit o f stylization and o f techniques capable of articulatin g complex storyl i nes and o f dep ict­
ing deep emotions t h ro ugh m i n imalist visual registers . The allegiance to traditi o n o n the
tech n ical plane, moreove r , is paralleled by a n i me's perpetuation o f trad itional subj ects and

5
6 Af'IME I�TERSECTIONS

motifs on the thematic p l a n e . I mportantly, those na rrative e l em ents are not exclusively d rawn
from n ative culture but o ften reveal , in fact, i n A uences of expl ici tly Western derivation . Not
i n frequently, anime's narrative appeal springs precisely from its eclectic hybridization of images
and styles drawn from d iverse cultural milieux . As Pau l Wells has em phasized, the medium's
tendency to both approp riate and reconstellate traditional mo t i fs is essentially a coro l l ary of
the nature of Japanese art as a discourse characterized not by a l i near succession o f trends but
rather by the su perimposition of novel inA uences on establ ished styles, and conco m i tant adap­
tation of foreign elements to domestic parameters (Wells 1997) .
If the use of traditional animation techniques is m irrored by anime's complementary rev ival
of old images and themes, the trailblazing component, conversely, finds a diegetic correlative i n
the representation of fu tu ristic a n d computer-saturated societies, a s wel l a s i n t h e articulation of
contemporary anxieties regarding the fate of the environment, the role played by the media and
by commod ification in the shap ing of identities, and the ever-present p hantom o f war.
The p resent study is structured around the two com p l ementary catego ries of tradition
and i nnovation. With i n eac h , attention is devoted to both tech n iques and themes . I n explor­
ing the specifically techn ical p roperties of the chosen movies, the book concentrates both o n
manually crafted components (w ith a focus on storyboards, character designs, n a t u ral a n d
arch i tectural backgrounds, a n d m echan ical models) , a n d on digital concepts a n d tech n i q u es
depl oyed fo r the purposes of model ling , rendering and compositing (among others) . At the
thematic level , motifs that can be regarded as either dist i n ctively Eastern o r distinctively West­
ern are identified and investigated as such . Globally resonant themes, fo r their part , are exam ­
i ned i n terms of thei r releva nce t o both Eastern and Western contexts . What i s axial t o the
argu ment here p roposed is that trad ition and experi ment , the o l d and the n ew, East and West
are never u l t i mately posited as mutually excl usive polarities i n Japan ese an i mation b u t are i n
fact consistently draw n i nt o tempora l , generic and geograp h ical com posites of kaleidoscop i c
p ro fusion.
As the p resent book was being planned. the 78th Academy Awards n o m i nations fo r " Best
Animated Feature F i l m" unexpectedly - and felicitously - corroborated the a rgument here
p u rsued : whereas com pu ter-generated blockbusters had been antici pated fo r several months
as the most l i kely n o m i nees, digital technology ended up ta king a back seat to clay, p u ppets
and hand-drawn characters, as Nick Park and Steve Box's Wallace and Grornit: The Curse of
the Were-Rabbit (the eventual w inner) , Tim Burton and M ike Joh nson's Tim Burton's The
Corpse Bride and H ayao Miyazaki's Howl's Moving Castle smartly pocketed their respect ive
nomi nations .!
I n o rder to el ucidate the artistic and b roadly cultural sign ificance of a n i m e's incremen­
tal combination of conventional and innovative tech n iques , i t is necessary to assess the a n i m e ­
mak i n g process itself. T h e ensuing pages are acco rdingly devo ted to this t o p i c . The open ing
part o f the discussion focuses on aspects of the production curve which trad itional and cutti ng­
edge exp ressions of the med ium by and large share . D i gital tec h n iques deployed in the anime
i n d ustry for the generation of both 2D and 3D gra ph ics are subsequently l ooked at. F i nal ly,
distinctive cinem atographical strategies characteristic of Japanese a n i mation in virtually all o f
i ts manifestations are evaluated, i n relation t o both typical camera moves and v isual o r s p e ­
c i a l effects .
The actual anime-making process is preceded by the "plann ing phase" (kikaku dangai).
There are two ki nds of plann i n g i n the un iverse of Japanese a n i matio n . O n e consists of the
 One� Hadition ,md Inn01J.1tion ill Modern Anime 7

selection of com ic books or novels fo r rhe p ur pose of screen adaptati o n and i nvolves relevant
negotiations betwee n producers , publ ishers and a ut hors . (The res u l t is com m o n ly designated
gensaku a n i m e . ) The other revolves around the ideation and e1abo rarion of a n utterly origi­
n a l concepr o r story (gen an) by a d i rector or a n i m ator.
S i nce very few a n i mation com pan ies have sufficient financial reso urces to p rod u ce a n a n i ­
mated fil m on their own , a vi ral p a r r of r h e plann i ng p rocess consists of their deal i n gs w i rh
porential spo nsors . A n i mation compan ies customarily present their p roposal i n paper fo rm ,
o fren i n conj uncrion w i r h a rough vers ion of the scri p t i ntended to commun icate as vividly
as possi b l e the world view they aim to p resent to their prospective audiences . Gensaku a n i ­
mations a r e freq uently l uckier t h a n the i r gen an cou nterparts insofar a s t h e m a n ga o r novels
upon wh i ch they arc based al ready enjoy an esrabl ished customer base , and va unt sales records
capable of attract i n g generous sponsorship.
In the i n i tial stages of the production proper, the team focuses on the elaboration o f a
"scenario" i ntended to p rovide specific ins tructions fo r the storyboarders , the character and
mecha designers a n d the backgro und anists, i n o rder both to muster the i r collective i magi­
nation and to abet the i r u nderstanding of the wo rld they are about to create together. I t is
u p to the d i recto r , ultimately, to supply clear a n d conv i n c i n g i nstructions, whi l e focus i n g on
the i mperative to p resent physically and psychologically appeal i n g characters - o ften within
the constrai nts posed by l i m ited b udgets and production schedules .
The a n i m e d i rector holds r h e advantage , compared t o the l ive-act ion d i recto r , of n o t
having t o deal w i th "real" actors a n d actresses, a n d hence w i th a l l manner o f h u m a n i d i osyn­
crasies and eccen tricities. The a n i m e d i rector, however, must be able to conceive of the a n i ­
mators themselves a s performers responsible fo r insti l l i n g l i fe i nto i magi n a ry personae. Ar rhe
same time, the a n im ato rs must also be able to approach their characters as actors i n the i r own
righ r , speculating assiduo usly about nor merely the i r su rface appearances b u t also rheir hypo­
thetical personali ties, cul tural backgro unds, ethics and tastes .
A v i ral ro l e is p l ayed throughout by rhe "storyboards" : seq uences o f pictures a nalogo us
to manga that i n d i cate how the narrative w i l l be developed i n terms o f a disti nctive p ictorial
styl e , dyna m i c effects a n d camera angles appropriate to the capture of specific scenes. The
storyboard is essent ially a visual ized script supplying the blueprint fo r the enr i re p roduction
tea m , detai l i ng the n ecessary frame n umbers , visual effects a n d backgro u nd a rtwork . (A m ere
26-m i n ute sto ryboa rd of the kind requ i red by an average-len gth TV-series epi sode normally
takes at least th ree weeks to draft . ) As the storyboards are being sketched, the character design­
ers develop the d ra m atis personae's physiological and psych ological trai ts t h ro u gh vi rtually
cou ntless sketches o f varyi n g com plexiry.
The actual layo u t , p roduced i n the wake of the sto ryboards, provides more exhaustive
i nstructions abou t fram i n g tech n iques, camera moves and the placement w i t h i n a scene of
particular characters and p rops. In i nvest i n g the a n i mation w i t h a d i s t i n c t ive perso n a l i t y,
scene layo u t plays an unquestionably cru c i a l role . Even at i ts l east dyn a m i c , a n i m e u t i l izes
th is aspect of the p roduction to underscore the impo rtance of visuali z i n g the characters fro m
d iverse angles a n d perspectives, of ideating setti n gs w i th which t h e characters c a n i m ag i na­
tively i nterac t , and of evo k i n g kinetic l i nes consonant with the backgro u n ds' chro m a t i c , tex­
tu ral and perspectival qualities .
Once the storyboard i n g has been com p leted, the production p rocess e nters i ts most dec i ­
s ive s tages a s far as t h e con c rerizarion of r h e team's fou ndarional vision i s con cerned . At this
8 ANIME I NTERSECTI O;-']S

j u ncture, the d i rector is requi red to mon i tor punctiliously the i ntegration of character designs
w i th mecha models executed by mechan ical des igners (where appropriate) and backgrou n d
art p roduced b y t h e a r t d i rectors, all t h e wh ile con ferring with the c o l o r designers, l ayo ut
artists, directors of pho tography and sen ior animators . The drawings are first executed on paper
and then translated into an "an i matic" (or "sto ry reel " ) , a filmed vers ion of the s to ryboards
i nt e n ded to gauge dramatic t i m i n g . At i ts most basic , the a n i matic consists p u rely o f a series
of still i m ages edited and displayed i n a sequential fash i o n . However, rough versions o f the
dialogue and the soundtrack are frequently added to the sequence to test whether the visuals
and the acoustic effects correlate consistently.
When the p rel i m inary draw i n gs have received the d i rector's seal of approval , the actual
frames are eventually created . These comp rise " keyframes" (or "extre m es") , the i mages that
i l l ust rate the pri ncipal poi nts i n an actio n , and " i n -betweens" (or "pass i n g positions" ) , the
i mages s ituated between any two keyframes . I n tradi tional a n i matio n , once a seque n ce has
been draw n , all the i mages except backgro und ones are transferred from paper onto transpar­
ent sheets of p l astic , o r cels . The outline of the i mages are i n ked onto the cels and colours
are later added to the m . When an entire sequence has been transferred onto cels, the p roduc­
tion p rocess enters the pho tography phase. All the cels for each fra m e are s tacked in l ayers,
w i th the backgro u n d i mages at the bottom of the p i l e , and the com posite i mage is p h o ­
tographed . T h e c e l s are th en removed and th e process is repeated fo r the n ext fra m e until
each s ingle frame i n the sequence has been photographed . Vo ice reco rd i n gs, soundtracks a n d
o t h e r sound effects a r e fi n a l l y added t o t h e com pleted fil m .
I n compu ter-assisted a n i mation , fol low ing the co mpletion o f the sto ryboards, model
sheets and character designs, the keyframes are hand-drawn on paper. The i n - betweens are
n ext created . The final draw i n gs are scanned i nto the com puter, digita l ly i n ked and p a i nted,
superim posed over hand-crafted o r CG backgro unds and eventually com p u ter-a n imated . The
movements of i n d ividual p arts of a character's body are d rawn and scanned in separately, as
are the backgrou n ds and any mov ing obj ects . The programs used by many studios today com­
bine all the various l ayers into compos i te scenes, which are then re ady to be burned o n to fi l m.
It is not hard to recogn ize the t i me-effectiveness of this p rocess i n comparison with the tra­
d i tional method .
It is also worth observ i n g , however , that the advent o f cel a n i mation was i tself a revo ­
l utionary development i n the h istory of the med iu m . An imation's pion eers, s uch as Winsor
McCay ( 1 867- 1 9 34) , designed their works frame by fram e , and every d raw i n g requ i red the
repetition of each si ngle m i n ut i a , including backgro und deta i l s . With the i nve ntion o f the
cel , ani mators were able to l i ghten considerably their laborious rou t i ne: the execution o f d raw­
i n gs i l l ustrating change in the characters' movements upon transparent sheets i ndeed enabled
them to superi mpose the variable elements over backgrounds that could remain unaltered over
a n umber o f frames .
Computers can be employed in order to digitize an in dependently existing image (e.g. a
conventional drawing) through scanning. Alternately, i mages may be created directly in the com­
puter in the form of wholly digital models. I n both i nstan ces, the greatest advantage carried by
digital technology for today's anime studios l ies with its provision of faci l i ties whereby an a n i ­
mator may quite effortlessly modify even t h e minutest element of a frame, down t o i n dividual
p ixels (the p ixel constituting the smallest unit of a digitized image) . I n the past , that very same
practitioner wo uld feasibly have had no choice but redraft the entire composition.
 One-Tradition and Innovation in Modern Anime 9

The com p u ter-generated images that are increas ingly i nfiltrat i n g the a n im ated medium
a l l over the globe comp rise 2 D a n d 3 D graphics . 2 D co mputer grap hics , namely com p u ter­
gen erated images based on two-dimensional geometric models, strike their roots in a p plica­
tions o riginally developed in order to assis t tradi tional drafting and printing tech nologies, such
as typography. Such 2D graphics intrinsical ly match anime's p redilection for styles that empha­
size the medium's anti-mimetic m adeness . This is because the 2D image is patently not a rep l ica
of a real -world referent but actually constitutes an autonomous artifact w ith independent
semio tic import . Its val ue cannot be meas u red i n terms o f reportorial , documentary o r pho­
tograp hic accuracy. I t is only qualifiable, in fact, with reference to alternate sig n i fyin g prop­
erties : primarily, the abi l i t y to conj u re up parallel u n iverses u n fettered by the rules o f dayl ight
common sense.
The domain o f 2 D computer graphics comprises "vector graphics" and "raster graphics . "
The phrase vector gra phics refers to the use of geometrical primitives such as points, l i nes, cu rves
and polygons to represent i mages . In the fiel d of raster graphics (also known as " b i tmap") , by
contras t , images are rep resented as arrays of pixels . The h u man eye is s u pposed to cap ture its
env i ronment as a raster i m age , namely a mosaic o f l igh t particles comparable to p ixels . Yet ,
recent research has i n dicated that the brain p rocesses the information i t rece ives thro ugh the
eye as a vecto r i m age - plausibly for the reason that j ust as vector graph ics are easier to store
in the computer insofar as they consist of relatively small files, so a vector-based mental i m age
will be more readily retained in memory. It co uld also be argued that elementary d raw i ngs
such as l ogos designed according to the sim plest geometric shapes or cartoons consistin g p u rely
o f outlines are so automatically grasped and remembered because they closely replicate the
sorts of patterns which the brain instinctively extrapolates from the visual world .
Two-dimensional graph ics, including typeset text , can b e repeatedly m a n i p u lated and
edited by recourse to 2 D geometric transformations such as rotation , scaling and skewing, to
textual tools contro l l i n g type styl e , size and color, and to artistic filters capable o f furnishing
an image with the visual p roperties of waterco lors, mosaics , s tain ed glass, pencil o r charcoal
sketches and neon lights - among myriad other options. The programs u til ized by 2D com­
puter graphics are not designed to engender 3 D solids and 3 D o p tical effects such as light­
ing, shadows, reflections and refractions . They are nevertheless capable o f p ro d ucing multiple
l ayers, of endowing them w i th different ch romatic gradients and levels of o pacity, transparence
or translucence, and of stacki ng them in a certai n o rder to convey an i m p ression o f dept h .
Layers can be regarded a s t h e digital equivalent of the clear cels used i n traditional a n i ma­
tion. I t is possibl e to p l ace both single obj ects and cl usters o f related objects on distinct lay­
ers, alter the order o f the layers, and move obj ects behi n d o r in fro nt o f other o bj ects . Layers
may be locked so as to p revent the accidental shifting of a n object fro m its appointed place ,
as well as turned off or hidden in order to focus on discrete portions o f a d rawing at any one
time . As independently modifiable entities , l ayers constitute exceptionally supple graph i c
mechanisms.
I n the final composite p icture, the layers are "painted" o r "pasted" onto the v i rtu al can ­
vas i n o rder o f decreasing depth . ( A l ayer's "depth" refers t o i ts distance fro m t h e viewer.) As
the terms "painted" and "pasted" intimate, 2D computer graphics lend themselves to the d i g­
ital simulation of both pictorial a n d collage-orien ted traditional tech niques . I n both instan ces,
they s uit ideally Japanese a n i m ation's inveterate p reference for hand-c rafted effects to the
extent that they enable contemporary animators to mimic with extraordin ary p recision sev-
10 AN IMF [�T[RSECTI ONS

eral t i me-honored artistic p racti ces yet they can provide unprecede ntedly ti m e-effective and
�

affo rdable methodologies to wh ich conventional cel ani mation co u l d never have asp i red .
Ongo i n g adva nces i n the field of 2 0 computer graphics have also faci l i tated the produc­
tion o f aesthetically p leas i n g images by perfecting the process o f "a nti-al iasi n g . " This refers
to the incremental b l u rring of sharp edges and corners in order to e l i m i n a te j agged conto u rs
a n d im part the d raw i n g with a smoothly integrated appearance . 2 0 systems s u p p l y a n i m e
studios w i t h fo ur princi pal faci l i ties :

• the scanni n g and p rocessing of visuals both separately and i n batches;

• the coloring o f an i mage's p lanes and trace l i nes (w ith the optional addition o f effects
such as soft shadowed conto urs) by means of digital ink and paint;
• the compositing of various elements of a scene and in cremental m a n i p ulation of the
ensemble ; and
• the creation o f the final i mage from discrete data fi l es contai n i n g i n formation about
palettes, textures and shading thro ugh the "renderi ng" process .

Numerous programs are also equipped with a "frame buffe r , " a memory area devoted to the
sto rage o f the p ixel data for a s i ngle digitized image . This tool makes i t possible to fill digi­
tally various frames w i th recurrent motifs that could not be p lausibly reproduced m a n ually
for each i mage without impairing consis tency o f p resentatio n .
I f 2 0 com puter graphics are aki n t o painting a n d collage , 3 D com p uter grap h i cs are
comparable to scu lpture . Even though an ime studios have been del iberately s lower in adopt­
ing 3 D systems than 2 0 ones, in consonance wi th Japanese art's partial ity to hand-cra fted
visuals with e m i n ently two-dimensional attributes, 3 D elements have featured in the i r p ro­
ductions s ince at l east the late 1990s and have o ften been put to considerable dramatic effect .
The key fu nction o f 3 D systems i n the domai n of anime resi des with the model l i ng process .
This designates the shap i n g o f individual objects to be s ubsequently i ntegrated i n a wider
scene layo u t . O n e o f the most com mo n modell i n g procedu res, known as "con structive solid
geometry, " rel i es on p r i m i tives n amely bas ic sol ids such as cuboids, pyram ids, spheres , cones
�

and cyli nders which it combi nes on the basis of the th ree prim ary Boolean o p e rations : addi­
�

tion , subtraction and i n tersection .

An especially usefu l tech n ique for generating smoothly curv i l i near and undulating s u r­
faces i n 3D is N URB S ("non - u n i form rational B-spl i ne") mode l l i n g . This enables the m a n i p ­
ulation of surfaces by reco u rse to control points located along m u l t i p l e l i nes that behave ,
when "pushed" or "dragged, " as though they we re connected by a rubber band . The construc­
tion o f 3 D structures incl udes the digital creation o f p re l i m i nary geometric versions o f char­
acters , to be subsequently "textu re-mapped" with the addition o f various 2 0 sur faces capabl e
o f simulating specific material and tactile quali ties . Analogo us models underp i n t h e opera­
tions of "mo tion-capture" tech nology, where motion data digitally extrapolated from t h e
actions o f l ive performers are mapped o n t o co m p u ter-gen erated models o f the cha racters .
Such fo rms of 3 D structuring rely substantially on "polygonal model l i ng . " This tech n i q u e
takes 2 0 po lygons a s i ts point o f departure , a n d produces 3 D gro ups o f polygons connected
by shared vertices to rep resent approximately the shapes o f the desi red obj ects . A 3D gro u p
o f t h i s k i n d is generally described a s a "mesh" of connected "faces," and constitutes someth i n g
l i ke t h e s k i n o f an object o r cha racter . A mesh is commonly dep icted i n "w i reframe" mode :
a framework show i n g the faces and overall outline prior to its colorin g and text u r i n g . In the
 One-T radition and InnOl'tltion in hforie rJJ Anirne 11

case o f com p l ex characters, the creation o f a mesh i s fol l owed by a fu rther p rocess known as
"rigg i n g" - the construction o f a v i rtual skeleton o f h i e rarch ically i n te rrelated parts corre­
sponding to bones (rods) and j o ints (pivots) .
S mooth surfaces can be p rodu ced by means of "subdivision s u rfaces . " The fu ndamental
p ri nciple upon which th is method operates is that of repeated refinement : the i n itial mesh
may be a s i m p l e cube, refined th rough the generation of other m eshes contai n i n g an i n c reas­
ingly great n u m ber of faces, u n t i l it ap p roximates a sleek sphere . In the field of 3D co m p uter
graph ics, the render i n g p rocess entails the convers ion o f 3 D models, which are essentially j ust
files conta i n i n g basic data abo ut objects, into 2 0 i mages e ndowed w i th deta iled chromatic
and textu ral qualities, and w ith specific degrees of l u m i nosi ty. An especially realistic method
fo r re ndering i m ages constructed through 3 D systems, known as "ray trac i n g , " is capable of
rep resent i n g accurately any i maginable manifestation o f l igh t. The p rogram traces the path
taken by a ray o f l ight t h ro u gh any one scene and calculates the reflection , refraction o r absorp­
tion of the beam whenever this h i ts a particular surface . The more advanced rendering p ro­
grams also i ncorpo rate m echa n i s m s fo r the generation o f real i s t i c a t m o s p h e r i c and
env i ronmental facto rs such as fog , mist , smoke o r stea m .
T h e dep loyment o f digital tech nology i n a n i m e has been t h e object o f heated debate for
at least two decades . Studios that adop ted some of the p ioneering com p uter-generated 3 D
effects were only moderately successful- i f a t all . 3 D a n i m e s t i l l consti tutes a relatively s m a l l
p roportion o f t h e overall industry, t h o u g h s o m e of i ts rece nt resu l ts have p roved u nquestion­
ably o ut s tanding. I n the early phases o f computer-assisted a n i matio n , even the rendition o f
2 0 effects was h i gh l y problematic, insofar a s t h e digitally a n i mated p a r t s tended t o cl ash with
the b u l k o f the cel a n i m ation. As a res u l t , the i m p l ementation o f digital tools tended to be
l i m ited to scenes where the p resence o f conspicuous comp uter graph i cs was considered desir­
able . Computers, i n this respect , were especially useful i n the execution o f sensational dynamic
effects fo r the more ebull ient action sequences .
Alth o ugh the first atte m p ts to use com p u ter graph i cs i n a n i m e were m ade i n the early
1 9 8 0s, it was not until the m id- 1 990s that CGI we re b rought i n to the m a i n s trea m , largely
thanks to s teady exper i mentation in the field undertake n for a period o f over ten years by
Toe i , the largest a n i m c company in Japan . S i nce that t i m e , studios have in crementally deve l ­
o p e d m o re satisfyi n g p rocedures t o m e s h cut t i n g-edge C G I w i th t raditional cel a n i matio n ,
a n d acco rd i n gly del i vered i m p ressive syntheses o f t h e two forms u n m arred b y stylistic incon­
gruit ies . By the early 2 0 0 0s, abo u t 9 5 percent of the enti re vo l u m e o f TV series, OVAs ( O rig­
inal Video A n i m ations) and theatre-bo und features prod uced in any one yea r were al ready
bei ng made with d i gital assi stance .
These develop m e nts have been largely d ictated by financial co nsiderati o n s : d igi tal tech­
nology enables studios to cut down the cost o f cel p roduction without sacrific i n g artistic qual­
ity. However , i t would be cyn ical to claim that a n i marors resort to com puter-assisted a n i mation
for the sole reason that i t is less expens ive than traditional cel a n i m ation . In fac t , the j udi­
cious i m pl e mentation o f C G I alongside conventional hand-drawn i mages also a l lows for a
more extensive use o f visual and special effects than the tradi tional for m would have ever
affo rded . Furthermore , many p rograms supply d i recto rs with greater flex i b i l i ty i n the han­
dling of camera work and photograp hic com position, allowing them to p revi ew the work w i th
several different sets o f options befo re a final p r i n t is made .
This study, therefo re , is not i nte rested i n assess ing the degree to which Japanese an ima-
12 AN IME I � TERSECTION S

tIon may have resisted the p rogression from analogue to digital , so much as i n eval uating
a n i me's ada ptive disposition to discover what i t can do wi th the blossom i n g methodologies
and how it can harness them to a vision that p reserves a n affil iation to t radition at the same
time as i t embraces novelty. Such a quest is inevi tably open-ended i n s o fa r as science and
fiction ali ke , at their most honest and com m i tted, abhor conclus ive statement s .
Regardless o f the extent t o which a n i m e blends traditional hand-drawn i m a ges w i t h 20
or 3 D com p ut e r graphics ( i f at a l l ) , one of i ts most distinctive strengths is undeniably ca m ­
e r a work . ( S e e also Scott Frazier's article "Japanese Animation Camera Work. " ) T h e m a i n
classic operations encompass : fix , sliding, fairing, pan , t i l t , zip p a n , i m age B G , fol l ow, fol ­
low pan , trackin g , fade i n /fade o u t , dissolve , w i p e , backl igh t i n g .
An ime u s e s far m o r e persistently t h a n Western forms o f anima tion a re generally i n c l i n e d
to do t h e "fix , " the cut where t h e camera does not move . The medium's detractors h ave o ften
denigrated the u t i lization of this strategy as conducive to unexciti ngly stationary cuts . How­
ever, it is p recisely by recourse to the fi x that Japanese a n i mation has t i m e a n d again yielded
memorable moments of reflective i ntensity and wordless pathos . No less com mon in a n i m e
is t h e "sli d i n g" move : t h e s l i d i n g of a frame across t h e fiel d o f vision . A n economical means
of conveying dynamism while cutti n g down on the number of d raw i n gs n eeded, th i s tech­
n ique h as come to be regarded as a veritable trademark of a n i m e cinematography.
In order to accelerate or decelerate the pattern of motion of an eleme nt a t the begi nning
o r at the end of a c u t , camera operators resort to "fa i r i n g" (also known as "cus h i o n" ) : a tech­
nique based on the p l acement and spacing of frames . For instance , to show an i n itially slow
movement speed i n g up at the end of the cut, it is common to si tuate the first few images rep ­
resenting t h e affected object close together a n d t h e n have t h e distance betwee n t h e m i n c rease
with each s uccessive fra m e .
As a m e a n s of p roducing panoramic effects, anime employs the "pan" (an abbreviation
of "panorama" ) . I n this move , the camera i tself remains stationary b u t its focus sw i n gs from
left to right (or vice versa) to capture successive portions of a scene a cross a horizontal p l a n e .
T h e "ti l t" is an a nalogous operation in which t h e focus sw ings vertically i n s tead . A rel a ted
effect , the "zip pan," is based on using backgro unds that consist of l i n es rather th an of defined
i m ages i n order to evoke the i l lusion of movement . For the sake of conti n u i ty, the l i nes a re
executed i n the same palettes as those used for other parts of the sequence i n which the back­
grou n d displays identifiable figures . Backgro und effects also p l ay an i mportant role i n the case
of the " i m age BG" tech n ique , where explosive splatters of d iverse h u es are util ized to convey
a character's emotional s tate or to i nti mate a shift to alternate rea l i t y l evels. In t h is instance,
the palettes a re deliberately made to clash with the chromatic range deployed i n the sequence's
normal backgrou n ds in o rder to induce a vivi d sense of dislocati o n .
I n t h e "fo l l ow" (a move partly akin t o t h e pa n), t h e camera travels a l o n g w i t h t h e act i o n ,
compensating for the fact that the various foreground and backgro u n d l ayers i n a cut tend to
move at different p aces . Deali n g with shorter elements that logically reach the end befo re the
longer ones do, it is common for cinematograp hers to move them back to the beginn i n g a n d
to take t h e m thro ugh t h e cut aga i n (sometimes several times i n succession) . At t h e s a m e t i m e ,
Japanese a n i mation assiduo usly employs t h e "follow pan ," where t h e camera remains steadily
locked onto one si ngle element and follows its motion throughout the cut, a n d "tracki n g , "
where the camera moves with the object bei ng filmed i n a si de-to-side o r forwa rd-backward
motion so as to focus closely on smal l portions of the i m age . " Fade i n /fade o u t , " the grad ual
 Olle-Tradition and Innovation in Modern A nime 13

appeara nce or disappearance of an i mage , p l ays an important dramatic rol e in a n i m e , as do

the "dissolve , " a n editin g tech nique i n which one shot gradually fades o ut while a nother fades
in to take its place , and the "w ipe," a p roced u re whereby one i m age appears to push the p re­
vious i mage off the screen .
A crucial component o f a n i m e i n all its manifestations i s u ndeniably " b ackli ghtin g , " a
strategy customarily employed fo r flares, flashes of l ight and b lasts . To generate backlit effects,
the a n i mators p rod uce "masks," namely cels that are pai nted black except for the regions to
be i l l u m inated. These cels are shot separately and then superimposed o nto the original cut.
Backl ightin g is most spectacular when it is shot through a d i ffusion fi lter capable o f s o ften ­
ing an element's hardest l i n es t o allow t h e l i ght t o spread o ut i n a halo-l i ke effect .
Celebrati ng animation's inherent power to alert p l urigenerational audiences to the endur­
ing importance o f i magination and p l ay, a n i me bri ngs to l i fe prismatic dream wo rlds w ith
both flam boyance and rigor. A n i m ation's potential for delving i nt o profo u nd, or even down­
right unpalatable, aspects o f being h uman is persistently thrown i nto rel ief even as comedy,
romance and wish-fu l fi l l i ng fantasies appear p redomi nant. A n i m e concom itantly rejects the
stylistic and ideological tenets o f m i metic realism , experimenting assiduously w ith hybrid
generic m ixes . At the i r most memorable, these all ude to the poss i b i l ity that real i s m may reside
l ess w ith com monsense-driven m irror-u p-to-nature depictions o f "th i n gs as they a re" than
w ith a dispassion ate exposure o f the abyss on the verge o f which human existence teeters at
all times .
It could, of cour s e , be argued that a l l forms of animation (and not m e rely a n i me) del iver
dream worlds by engenderi n g situations in which the l aw o f cause and effect can never be
taken for granted, and i n congruous occurrences may therefore concatenate in utterly u n p re­
dictable ways . What th is entails is a drastic suspension o f everyday reality markers, whereby
parallel and o ften refresh i ng real ities are hailed into existence . H owever , in e ntering the oneiric
d i mension , a n i m ation is also capable o f disclosing n i ghtmares, visions i m b ued w ith u n set­
tli n g i mages and un palatab l e messages . Live-action cinema does this w ith some regularity b ut
audiences appear p repared to deal w ith the med i u m's darker moments i nsofar as these are
anchored - albeit sometimes p recario usly - to what they th i n k o f as "normal" reality: h u m a n
bei n gs and settings that do not depart so rad ically from real- l i fe referents as to c o m e across
as u n d i l utedly and distastefu l ly b izarre .
Even when actors suddenly shoot up i nto the sky, evaporate i nto thi n a i r o r morph i nto
fabulous beasts, viewers somehow know - or at least sense - that the actual bodies they occupy
remai n , at thei r core , i ntact, and that the actions i n which they are i nvolved amount to wholly
artificial effects enabled by machines. These , moreover, increasi ngly rely for the generation
of VFX and S FX on tech n i ques i nspired by animation o f both the traditional a n d cutti n g­
edge varieties, and may therefore be expediently "separated" from the e m p i rical real m as utterly
fictitious, mechanical adj u ncts . No spectato r , for instance, would seriously doubt the exis­
tence o f a flesh-and-blood Hugo Weaving beh i n d the nauseatin g p l ethora o f "Agent Smith"
clones floodi ng the screen at cl i m actic j u nctures of both The Matrix: Reloaded and The Matrix:
Revolutions.
The a n i m ated m ed i u m , conversely, does not allow for the automatic translation of its
i mages into rea l - l i fe equ ivalents : in fac t , it scrambles both reason a n d l o g i c , upsetti n g all
manner of pragmatic expectations . I n so do ing, i t deliberately m akes u s feel more vulnerable
to fantasy's unwarra nted incursions i nt o reality, ulti mately u rg i n g u s to question the validity
14 A N I M E [:--;T ERSECTI O N S

o f o ur effo rts to differentiate between the two dimensions . Western ani mation's tenden cy to
relegate the form to the category o f a child's toy, supposedly uns u i ted to the exploration o f
serious issues, could be seen a s a n attempt t o keep i ts subversive potentiali ties at bay. I t is as
though a n i mation could be tolerated only as long as i ts most audacious - and yet also most
distinctive - traits co u l d be domesticated by curta i l ing its compass. A n i m ation, th is suggests,
may be safely allowed to wreak havoc with so-called norma l ity only inso far as i ts t ransgres­
sive operations do no t s p i l l into the territory of ad u l t ent e rtainment and adul t p reoccupa­
tions .
Japanese ani mation ado p ts a radically different stance, and this is arguably the prim ary
reason fo r which its particular dream worlds enduringly prove both inv i go rating and discon­
certing fo r disparate viewers across the globe . Where Disn ey-ori ented a n i mation seeks to con­
sol idate the audience's concep t of reality by drawi ng neat bou ndaries betwee n real i t y and
fan tasy, dayl ight common sense and oneiric wonder, anime insi stently p roblematizes the p re­
sumed authority o f the real . In this respect , it articulates to unparal leled extremes a p rocl iv­
ity which , as Wells argues, is l atently p resent in the med i u m of animat ion as a whole : "Many
animations have the tone , style, and su rreal persuasiveness o f the drea m o r nigh tmare , and
the i magery of reco l l ection, recognition and half- recall" (Wells 2 0 0 2 , p. 7 1 ) . Even when a
sense of normality is restored - for example, through the satisfactory ro unding-off of an ani m e
character's quest - t h e resol u tion is never total and t h e action's afterglow is accord ingly per­
meated by loom ing sensations of i n completeness, unce rtainty and loss. For some spectators,
such inconclusive messages may feci dispiriting or even downright frustrati n g . Yet , i t is only
as long as gaps are p rese rved - and indeed treasured - as vital parts o f the cul tu ral fabric that
spaces for further exp loration and creativity w i l l s u rvive, and the powers o f i m agination and
specu l ation thrive unhindered .
The methodologies and tools deployed by the "anime factory" to transpose its dreams
to the screen u l t i mately p l ay no less vital a part than its content-centred p reoccupations . Most
notably, as the case studies conducted i n the fo l l ow ing chap ters hopefu l ly demonstrate , anime
never quite rel inqu ishes the time-hono red legacy of hand-d rawn graphics even as i t engages,
more o r l ess enterpris ingly, with digital practices and w i th the cognate concerns of both actual
and hypothetical technocultures. A purely pragmatic expl a nation fo r the ubiquity and perse­
verance o f this stylistic trend l i es with the fact that sco res of a n i mators employed by studios
l i ke the ones here examined have emerged from em inently artisanal backgrounds . Even w h en
digital technology rises to th e status of a primary creative resource, therefore, th o s e ani ma­
tors carry within their m inds and bodies the indelible vestiges o f a training gro unded in tra­
d i tiona l draughtsmanship. Moreover, it is not uncom mon for ani m ators to supplement the i r
studio -based activities with add i t ional invo lvem ent i n the p roduction o f manga , com ic strips,
adverts and album covers. Thus, participation i n ancillary markets indirectly secures the ani­
mators' ongo i ng com m i tment to a fundamentally hand-crafted art.
As int i m ated through o u t th is study, while it is vital to acknowl edge anime's unfl i nch ing
devo tion to the h and-drawn dimension, it wo uld be p reposterous to deny that its u t i l ization
of cutting-edge com p u ter-assisted techniques has monumentally enhanced i ts p ur v iew. On
the one hand, digital techn ology enables studios to better cope with o ften insanely tigh t pro­
duction schedules and shrinking budgets w ithout having to sacri fice thei r aesthetic i m pera­
tives in the p rocess . On the other hand, that technology is often better equipped than the
so-called " l i m ited animation" o f decades gone by to real ize the artist's vision w i th u n p rece-
 One- Tradition and Innovtltion in Modern Anime IS

dented s moothness and sophistication. As shown, a n i me d i rectors adamantly m a i ntain that

compute rs are essentially tools and should not, therefore, be unquestio n i n gly ideal ized as ends
in themselves. No netheless, no neo-Luddite m isgivings appear to cloud the potion when it
comes to acknowledging the i m mense potent ial ities held by legion i n carnations of state-o f­
the-art tech nology, w ith its p ro fusion of both hardware and software designed to execute top­
notch a n i m atics, backgro unds, characters and special effects.
Rather, what rem a i n s card i nal to the work of the studios discussed i n th is study is an
adoption o f digital technology that never qu ite obfuscates the vital i mportance of some old­
school hands-on trai n i n g fo r all p ractitioners of the art , i f only for the p u rpose o f enabl i n g
t h e m t o appreciate t h e val u e o f each o f the myriad frames w ith w h i c h a l l a n i m ators ultimately
have to grapple. Rel atedly, d i rect experience o f both the blessings and the tri b u lations i n her­
ent i n the art o f draw i n g will help ani mators remember throughout the i r careers - whether
or not they also en gage w ith CGI - the exquisite u n iqueness o f the tactil e , eve n sculptura l ,
sensati on o f carv i n g a draw ing w ith a pencil i nto the textu re o f a sheet o f paper.
The argum e nt i n favo r of animation's ongo i n g fidel ity to trad ition typ ically advocated
by the a n i m e p ractitioners d iscussed in th is study a re echoed by com mitted a n i m ators the
world over, and should not therefore be regarded as an excl usively Japanese "syndrome. " For
Pol i s h fi l m maker Andrzej Czeczot, for example, "Classical a n i m ation will stay around as long
as sensitive people stil l ex ist.... It's not about how we will make a n i m ated films, but for what
and for whom we're tryi n g to cook the perfect ani mated v ision .... A n i m ation should also be
an oasis o f poetry and a more refined sense o f humor. Animated films can also tell much deeper,
but not bori n g , sto ries. I dream about artistic a n i mated fi l ms m ade by artists , not only by
money m akers" (quoted in Ball).
F u rthermore , the gap putatively separati ng animators who a re faithful to traditional styles
and those who e nth usiastically emb race digital tech nology is not as w i de as one may some­
times be led to bel i eve , when one considers that both categories may well be gu ided by the
same fu ndamental mechanism. This, as the professor o f art and design at Columbus College
Sea n Ivory has stated, amounts to no more and no less than "des i re. " Ivory su bsta ntiates h i s
thesis w ith reference t o both h i s perso nal expe rience i n t h e fi e l d and h i s observation o f devel­
oping trends :
I have w i t nessed a l o t o f talented art i sts who were n o t w i l l i ng t o put i n the t i m e a n d e ffort that are a d i rect
resu l t of Des i re . I h ave also seen a lot of shortcomi ngs overcome by a person's Des i re to acco m p l i sh [hi s
ot her] v i s i o n . A n i m a t i o n h as been made a mllch faster a n d eas i e r process d u e t o n ew tech nology b u t i t
s t i l l takes a great d e a l of t i m e , effort a n d experiment a t i o n i n order for i t to be d o n e properly. Desire is
always the d r i v i ng force beh i nd a s t u dent or a profess ional putting i n the timc, e ffo r t a n d cxpe r im e n ta­
tion [Ivory, p. 5 ] .

The ani mato r Marco Valgresy, origi nally trai ned i n traditional a n i m ation a n d s u bsequently
i ntroduced to comp uter-generated 3D animation , persuasively consol idates this po i nt : " Even
i n CG animati o n , you are o b l i ged to have an i nterest in trad itional a n i m ation and i n the peo­
p l e who have developed the necessary skills" (Valgresy, p. 5).
Pixar d i recto r Pete Docter read ily embraces an analogous stand p o i nt :
There are two ways d rawing helps YOll, even i f yo u're work i n g i n stop-motion o r 3 D computer a n i m a t i o n .
Fi rst , d raw i n g he lps you t a k e i n v isual i n tCmna t i o n . eood .l n i m a t i o n i s b a s e d on k e e n observation of
human behavior, movem ent, a n d l i fe i n general. The only way to get this stufr to stick i n your head is to
consciously observe i t-to rea l ly see it, not just rest your eyes on if. The best way I know to wake up your
bra i n and really observe is to d raw. Second, d rawing s t rengthens yo u r a n i m a t i o n , especially your poses.
16 Al': IME I N TERSECT I O N S

I t a l l ows you to know what y o u need to bend, or length e n , or exaggerate . . . . The best a n i m ators at P i x a r
a r e also sol i d draughtsmen , which I t h i n k is no coincidence [ D o c t e r 200 5 a , p p . 5 - 6 J .

Accordi n g to Jean Theberge , teacher at Concordia Un ivers i t y, an "advanced draw i n g educa­

tion" is not only hel pfu l in developi n g a competent grasp of "shap e , vol u m e , space and d i men­
s ion" b u t i s also "essential to those who aim towa rds 3 D software mode l l ing" (Theberge , p.
6) . D igital compos i tor Joe Raasch corroborates this propos i t ion , m a i n ta i n i n g that i n volve­
ment in "the 'creative' s ide" of v isual effects l i kew ise benefits substa n t i al l y from an "under­
s tan d i n g" of "all the trad it ional concep ts" - namely, "compos i tion , color theory, perspective"
(Raasch , p. 6) .
One of the most exhaustive accou nts of the i m portance of hands-on expe r ience firmly
grounded i n the study and p ractice of the art of drawing is undoubtedly Joseph G i l l a n d's Ele­
mental Magic: The Classical Art of Halld-Drawn tlfects A nimation. The follow i n g passage
comes from the second chapter "The Art of Draw i n g and A n i mati ng Special Effects , " and
serves to i l l u m i nate G i l land's entire argument. Concurrently, i t s u p p l ies a val uable com p l e­
ment to the ethos embraced by all of the d i rectors exa m i ned i n this study. Extensive c i tation
seems accordi ngly apposite at this j uncture :
More t i m e i s b e i n g spent teachi ng yo ung artists how to manipulate comp l ex computer grap h ics software,
and l ess time i s spent teac h i n g them how to observe, how to see and i n t u i t the i n credib l e subtleties o f
n a t ure's splen dor i n o r d e r to b e s t represent i t as artists . . . . I n my experience superv i s i n g d i g i t al a r t i s t s over
the l ast 10 years, I have consistently come across i n d ivid uals who h ave developed a h i gh l evel o f design
s k i l l s as well as a h igh degree of p roficiency w i t h t h e i r digital tools, b u r who haven't developed t h e sense
of fleling the physics of what they were trying to a n i mate . . . . Lea rn i n g to see and feel th rough h a n d /eye
coord i nation practice, observ i n g , draw i n g , sc u l p t i n g , a n i mating by hand -all of these are i nval uable if an
effects artist wants to get to that mystical p l ace where time, space, physics and motion become ful l y nat­
u ral and i n t u i tive . . . . Remember that n o matter how wel l you master your draw i n g tec h n ique, i f you can't
flel the efleers you are trying to a n i mate, they w i l l not s i n g w i t h l i fe . An i m ag i n at i o n that is ful l of l ife ,
must i n form t h e well-trained draw i ng hand [ G i llandJ .

I n l ight of the cyberdevelopme nts promoted by numerous Western studios, w i th Pixar

as the vanguard, one m ay be tempted to wonder whether an i mation faces a paperless fu ture2
where i n excel lence can by no means be automatically expected . I n deed, as S teve Rose has
remarked, the comb ination of "cri tical acclai m , com mercial success and technological p rogress"
i n the a n im a t ion sector enjoyed by many "digitally rendered del i gh ts" over the past decade
i ncreas i n gly appears to be lead i ng to "an excess of p roduct and a dearth of quali ty. Eve n P ixar
could only muster m iddli n g revi ews for i ts lates t , Cars [dir. Joh n Lasseter, 2006]" ( Rose) .
Ryan Ball corroborates Rose's v i ew i n mai ntai n i n g that the p r ioritization of 3 D CG p roduc­
tions by the l i kes of " Disney, D ream Works, Sony, Warner B ros . and Twentieth Century Fox"
is no automatic guarantee of artistic cal iber: "One th i n g the phenomenal success of some 3 D
fi l m s has done is open t h e Hood gates fo r p rod u ction o f more o f the same . . . w e . . , m ay also
see the n ewness of 3 D start to fa de l i ke a tee-shirt that's seen one too many was h in gs" (Bal l ) .
Rose has also o p i ned that qual i tative deterioration in the dom a i n of a n i mation a i m ed
p r i marily at kids may expl a i n recent attem p ts i n the Wes t to take the medi u m i nto more adult
territory - as i n d i cated, for exam ple, by the science-fiction thriller Renaissance, d i rected b y
Christian Volckm an , and by the psychodrama A Scanner Darkly, d i rected b y Richard L i n ­
klate r , both of which were released i n t h e s u m m e r of 2006. (Linklater's fi l m i s d i scussed i n
some detai l i n Chapter 6.) Even t h e da rker facets of "vaguely ch i l d-u n friendly an i m ations such
as Corpse Bride [dirs. Ti m B u rton and Mike Joh nson , 2 0 0 5 ]" cou l d be seen as forays i nto
 One - Tradition and Innovation in Modern Anime 17

sem i-adult a n i mation on Hollywood's part (Rose) . I ntrigu i n gly, even though a l l of these p ro­
ductions benefit considerably from advances i n digital tech nology, their tech n i cal u n derpi n ­
n i n gs a r e decidedly traditional : rotosco p i n g i n t h e case of Renaissance a n d A Scanner Darkly,
and stop-motion a n imation in that of Tim Bu rton's The Corpse Bride. This suggests that the
med i u m has not reached a n unsurpassable s u m m i t through i ts com p u ter-generated exp l o i ts
but actually remains engaged i n a p rocess of ongoing evo l ution , cont i n ua l ly sco ut i n g n ew pos­
sible worlds .
According to B e n Fritz, the C G I "glut" w i tnessed by the Western a n i mation i n d ustry
over the past few years is n o t only resulting i n d i m i nishing qual i t y, as argued by both Rose
and Bal l ; in fac t , it is also takin g a financial tol l : " I n 2 0 0 4 , " the critic declares, "the average
box office for an a n i mated pic was $ 1 4 9 m i l l i o n . This year, i t's $ 8 8 m il l i o n . B u t then , there
are 5 0 % more toons i n release this year than i n '04 . . . . The b u l lish s p i r i t o f several years ago ,
when all these p rojects began p roduction , has given way t o i n trospection : H o w m u c h is too
much ? " (Fritz) .
A n i me is here to rem i n d us of the tenacious persistence of tantal izing alternatives to the
autocracy o f CG I , and o f the plaus ibility of bringing to the screen a plethora o f dreams by
cap italizing at once on diverse styles and tech nologies . Flexibility has traditionally operated
as the faculty that enables both a n i m ation as an art and its characters there i n to go on rei n ­
venting i tself� a n d themselves w i t h rubber res i l ience . An i m e's supple i nt egration o f m a n ­
�

u a l and cutting-edge skills � o f paper a n d monitor, of pencil and mouse � constitutes o n e o f

t h e most i ntrigu i n g exe m p l i fications o f that very facul ty.
The movies exam ined here clea rly exh ibit certain recurring thematic p reoccu pa tions: the
i m pact of technology on perceptions and defini tions of h um a n i t y ; visions of the fut u re alter­
nately based o n the exp l ici tly futuristic p u rv iew p romulgated by classic science fiction o r
inspired by a retrofutu ristic steam p u n k sensitivity; and t h e vicissitudes o f the you n g i n t h e
p rocess of enculturement , a s b o t h a personal p redicament and a m i c rocosm i c encapsulation
o f broader societal o rdeal s . However , the fi lms are strikingly diverse, them atically speakin g ,
a n d ins tead o f forci n g s o m e notion of commonal ity upon them at t h i s stage , i t seems more
apposite to focus on the narrative specificity of each i n the i n d ividual chapters .
Nonetheless, a few panoramic observations regarding the tech n ical features o f the selected
movies are n ecessary at this juncture . I n deed, while i t would be quite p reposterous to try to
shove these stylistically and conceptually diverse works i nto a s i n gle thematic mold, there are
viable ways of l i nking them with respect to their techn ical constitutions. To be more p recise,
i t is possible to honor the techn ical distin ctiveness of each, yet also see them as p hases w i t h i n
a cumu lative developmental trajectory i l l u m i nating t h e evo l ut ion o f a n i m ation's rel ationsh i p
w i t h digital tech nology over the space of just over a decade . T h e earl i e r productions d iscussed
i n this study are firmly gro u nded i n tradi tional cel-centred methodologies. Nevertheless, they
also participate in that overall progression by anticipati ng some of the ach ievements o f both
2 0 and 3 D CG I , o r by commenting on the dom inance of digitally mediated experience . Sub­
sequent productions exe m p l i fy, with va rying degrees o f complexity, ongo i n g advances i n the
j u b ilantly hybrid real m o f i ntegrative animation devoted to harmo n i z i n g hand-drawn and
cutting-edge visuals.
Yoshiaki Kawajiri's Nillja Scroll ( 1 9 9 3 ) util izes exclusively traditional cel a n i mation . One
o f the principal reasons behind its selection is the fi l m's ground-breaki ng i n tervention i n the
deve l o p m e n t of the tw i n arts of visual effects and special effects through the deployment o f
18 A N I M E I :-.ITERSECT I U N S

tech n i ques which, tho ugh p re-digital , anticipate the achi evements o f late r works abetted by
varying degrees of computerized assistance . The short a n i mation Program (2003) , briefly
exam i ned in tandem w i th Ninja Scroll, i l l ustrates Kawaj i ri's transition to the domain o f cel­
CGI i ntegration and s i m u l taneously bears wit ness w i th eco nom ical el egance to tremendous
adva nces in a n i me at large between 1993 and 2 0 0 3 .
Satosh i Kon's Perftct Blue (19 97) constitutes a b ridge o f sorts between t h e earl i e r feature
fi l m and subsequent p roductions here explored insofar as i t is firmly installed i n the rea l m o f
the hand-drawn i mage , yet makes important conceptual contri butions t o the debate s u rround­
i n g the growth o f com p u te r tech nology. Thus, the movie complements its tech nical status
with thematic reflections o n the shift from analog to digital media and on the repercussions
o f that s h i ft fo r the l ives o f both i ndividuals and entire cultures.
H i deaki Anno's Neon Genesis Evangelion 0 9 9 5 - 19 9 7) rep resents an u n p recedented leap
forward where the coalescence o f cel ani mation and com p u ter graphics is concerned, p rogres­
sively utilizing classic hand-drawn v isuals in conj unction w i th i n i t ially j ust 20 and s u bse­
quently both 20 and 3D digitally executed effects . Evangelion was one of the first titles to
benefit fro m the grow i n g expertise of Production I . G . Generally hailed as a fo reru nner in the
evo l ution o f di gi tal a n imation , the company is especially renowned for i ts advan ces in d i g i ­
t a l compos i t i n g , storyboard i n g , chromatic grading and special effects . Conco m itantly, t h e
saga boldly e n riches t h e cel/CGI b l e n d through t h e incorporation o f other p i ctorial c o m p o ­
n e n t s , ran ging from monochrome l in e sketches t o children's draw i n gs and col lages . The t h e ­
matic e ndeavor to constellate the psyche's p r i s m a t i c c o m p l e x i t y is th us rep l icated a t the
tech nical level by means o f multifaceted visual mixes .
I t is with Rintaro's Metropolis (2001) that the degree of sophistication o f which contem­
porary anime is capable i n the o rchestration of traditional and p ioneeri n g components becomes
fully evident . Juxtaposing hand-d rawn im ages inspired by overtly carto o n ish , c utesy and car­
icatu ral characters with comp u ter-rendered locations o f dizzying i ntricacy, the film success­
ful ly fu l fi l s i ts c reators' des i re to p revent the CG el em en t fro m stan d i n g o u t as a m e re
addendu m . To ach ieve this objective , t h e animators created t h e i r i n i tial i m ages b y com p u ter
and then drew over them manually to bring them closer to cel-ani mation quality a n d warm th .
Released i n the same year as Metropolis, H. i ronobu S akaguchi's Final Fantasy: The Spir­
its Within offers the first fully developed use of the tech nique known as "motion cap t u re" as
a means o f co nstructing i ntensely photoreal istic virtual actors, or synthespians. Rel iant on tra­
ditional methodologies i n its approach to va rious aspects o f mechanical design and mise en
scene, the film is nonetheless most memorable as an attempt to redefine the very notion of
ani mation . The latter is i ndeed posi ted as an art potentially capable o f generating characters
that can not only exist alongs ide l i ve-action performers but even replace them .
The l ast fo u r fi l ms discussed in the book , a l l released i n 2004 , con s t i t u te as m any d i s ­
t i n ct experiments w i t h a shared a i m : t h e i ncrementally seamless b l e n d i n g o f hand-drawn
and com p uter-generated i mages . Mamoru Osh i i 's Ghost in the Shell 2: Innocence is almost
u nan i m o usly recogn ized as hav i n g attained to that a i m w i th somewhat u n canny e ffective­
ness . Howeve r , what is no less remarkable abo ut the fi l m's overall visual mood is its h a n ­
d l i n g o f the t w o techn iques with defam il iarizing effects. These a r e ach ieved through the
i ro n ical and u nsett l i n g j uxtapos ition o f explicitly hand-drawn and largely styl ized cha rac­
ters and photo realistic archi tectu ral environ ments executed by reco urse to the most advanced
digital tools. The co ntrast causes both the styl ized and the p h o to real istic e l e m e nts to appear
 One - Tradition alld IIlILOvrltion in Modern Anime 19

challengingly u n fa m i l i a r , and hence i n v i tes the viewer to question the rea l i t y level o f virtu­
ally any i mage .
Appleseed has accompl ished what some o f the stricter a n i m e enthusiasts may wel l con­
sider anathema - namely, the medi um's transposition to the realm o f fu l l - fledged 3 D C G I .
W h i l e t h e fil m's glossy scu l p t ur a l i t y may seem at odds with Japanese a n i mation's p roverb ially
flat look, it should be noted that the conventions of traditional hand-drawn a n i m e are fully
respected by the perpetuation o f somatic features and facial exp ressions that have been embed­
ded in the fo rm si nce at least Osamu Tezuka . Concurrently, Appleseed has revo l u ti o n ized con­
temporary a n i mation at large th rough the development o f a style known as " 3 D l ive a n i m e , "
a b l e n d o f motion-cap t u re tech nology, 3 D C G I a n d "toon -shad ing" software capable o f ren ­
dering 3 D C G I i n to 2 0 cel-style i m ages .
Katsuh i ro Otomo's stearnboy and Hayao Miyazaki 's Howl's Mo�'ing Castle, finally, could
be regarded as two cognate - though visually quite distinct - p roj ects i n the ever-expan d i n g
field o f i n tegrative a n i mation insofar as b o t h fi l ms u s e CG I pervas ively, y e t t e n d to temper
and mellow the i r i m p act by means o f tonal and chromatic effects based o n the lessons o f tra­
d i t ional cel a n i mation and p re-digital cinematography. In the case of stearnboy, the pri ncipal
tool consists, i n this respect , of a muted palette of beige , ta n , grey and b rown h ues that aptly
rep l icates the atmos p h e re o f the e ra i n which the story is set . F u rthermore , the d i rector
adamantly defended through o u t the n i n e years o f Stearn boy's l aborious p roduction his inten­
tion not to substi tute the hand-drawn image w i th the com pu ter-generated one b u t rather to
com bine the merits o f cel a n i mation w i th the merits o f C G I so as to transcend some o f the
l i m i tations i n trinsic in the t raditional approach . D igital tools, fo r Otomo , are especially use­
fu l as means o f enhancing the avai lable range of expressions and camera angles.
I n the case o f Howl, the endeavor to transcend the soulless starkness o f ent i rely com p uter­
generated a n imation has rel ied p ri marily on the development o f a digital tool that emulates
the soft focus of a cam era lens. This enables the production of mellow i n g and d i m mi n g effects
aki n to those fo und in tradi tional cel ani mation. The p h ilosoph ical criterion u nderlyin g th is
c h oi c e i s t h a t the h igh degree of photorealism o f wh i ch com p uter-generated graph ics a r e capa­
ble is tech n ically laudable , yet should not be allowed to impair the dis ti n ctive "real ness" o f
cel a n i m ation a s a fo rm o f real ism s u i generis .
By blending a variety of both conventional and experim ental procedu res, these movies
have a l l con t r i b u ted to the elaboration of a colorfu l ensemble o f d i s t i nctive a n i mational
approaches . In their collective i m p o rt , their stylistic messages eloquently demonstrate ani me's
knack of j uxtaposi n g contrasti n g aesthetic pri nciples - p ree m i nently, smoothness and homo­
geneity, on the one hand, and jarring discordance, on the other. At times, the chosen fi l ms
come across as gen u i n e paeans to visual harmony thanks to sequences characterized by o ut ­
standing consiste ncy i n both the atmospheric and the cinematograph ical are n as . At others,
they del i berately cap italize on dissonant effects i n order to j ostle the v i ewer out o f compla­
cency and assault the optic nerve w i th a cacophony of i m p ulses, deformed l i nes and quaint
h u es .
D i gi tal tech nology, this study contends, has been increasin gly supplyi n g the a n i m e i ndus­
try with new opportu n i ties and techn iques for the enhancement o f both harmo n ious and dis­
cordant styles, enab l i n g it to ach ieve what would until rece ntly have been considered fran kly
i m p lausible . As the chosen films document , however , no amount o f state-of- t he-art equ i p ­
m e nt is ulti mately capab l e o f y i e l d i n g authentic pleas ure u n l ess i t is buttressed b y creative
20 AN I M E i l\'TERSECTI O N S

adventurousness . In the p rocess, they also rem ind us that in order to be conv i n c i n g , any for m
o f enterta i n m e nt must be able t o draw u s into i ts s i n gular u n iverse a n d to keep u s there fo r
as long as i ts momentum requ i res . Relatedly, the fi l m s persistently em p h asize that audacious
tools and tech n iques should n ever be adopted and upheld as ends in themselves : u n l ess they
are channelled i nto the maki n g o f thoughtfully entertai n i n g stories and i nto the evocation of
psychologically appeal i n g characters, their p roducts will inel uctably amo u nt to l i ttle more
than frigidly steri le swathes of gl i ttery graphics. It is for this very reason that the case studies
here suppl ied, whi l e selectively assess ing both the traditional and the i nnovative s trategies
deployed by various artists and studios, also seek to document as exhaustively as possible the
nine titles' thematic and narrative dim ensions .
The productions inspected, mo reover, are i n herently deconstructive i nsofar as they har­
bor tantalizingly unresolved tensions. Due to thei r i n tegration o f p ro fou ndly different method­
ologies i n the tech n ical articulation o f thei r respective vision s, the movies appear to be what
they are not, o n one leve l , and appear not to be what they are , on another. Even as they seem
to comply entirely with the time-honored codes and conventions o f cel a n i mation, they are
frequently u n derp i nned by cutting-edge digital tech nol ogy. Conversely, even as they overtly
assert themselves as gro und-breaking interventions i n the development o f daring CG I , they
tend to remain attached to the traditional legacy of hand-drawn , stylized grap h i cs .
The fi l ms' j uxtaposition of i ngredients s o diverse as t o appear ill-suited t o coexistence could
be seen to amo u nt to something of an aporia . I n the realm of logic , this term denotes a concate­
nation of elements which, though individually tenable, deliver an untenable inconsistency when
they are yoked together. An imation , however, is no more tied to the laws of logic than i t is to
those of physics . Hence, it is at l iberty to thrive on the creative energy unleashed by dialectical
oppositions and turn a logical i ncongruity into an aesthetic strength . In this respect, the selected
p roductions are not only deconstructive but also markedly i ronic : their m essages cannot be taken
entirely at face value insofar as they are conveyed by means of i mages that are never u nproblem­
atically themselves but are actually traversed by multiple alter-egos . The two-dimensional cel ,
the two-dimensional drawing evoking the illusion of three-dimensionali ty, the th ree-dimensional
computer-generated image , the hand-crafted frame enhanced by digital technology, and the
computer-generated i mage edited so as to look manufactured - among legion more pictorial pos­
sibil ities - meet and merge in mutual suffusion .
This formally composi te scenario is replicated, thematical ly, by a n i me's q uintessen t i al
hybridity. This trait persistently i n forms the n i n e ti tles' hand l i n g o f thei r cultural and h istor­
ical sou rces, yieldi n g a collusion of the old and the new, on the one hand, and o f East and
West , on the other. I n this respec t , the films co uld be said to encapsulate a transnationally
topical notion o f cultu ral schizophrenia spawned by the amb iguous gains o f global ization . At
the same time, however, they also capture speci fically ind i genous anx i eties i n m i rroring Japa­
nese culture's suspension between nationalist and global val ues. Anime i n deed rev isits w i th
almost obsessive regularity - though not always i n a visually or thematically exp l i c i t fashion -
Japan's preoccupation w i th notions of national integrity and ideology, war and neu trali ty, eco­
nomic growth and economic crisis, env i ron mental depletion and psychological displacement .
I n crisscrossing geograph ical borders and challenging the stab i l i t y o f natio nal identities
through alternately lusty and s i n i ster pastiches o f fantasy and adventure , the fi l ms u l t i m ately
com mun icate a pass ionate des i re to go on stretch ing - perhaps indefin i tely - the styl istic and
narrative boundaries o f ani mation itself.
 Two

Ninja Scroll

1 was trying to explore possibilities in the entertainment genre. And of course, 1 wanted to make
exciting entertainment. That was my goal with the Ninja Scrollflature. - Yoshiaki Kawajiri, 2003
America has uyatt Earp, Britain has Robin Hood, and japall has Yag.Y" jubei. Okay, maybe
it s IlOt that simple, but it s a place to start. When dealing with an icon as vital to japanese cul­
ture and masculinity as the historic samurai, you should start by lookingfor whatever parallels your
own culture has to offer. - Patrick Drazen

Released in Japan in June 1 993 and in the West in December 1 9 96 , Ninja Scroll almost instantly
asserted itself as a hall mark in ani me a i med at mature audiences . Over the ensuing decades,
the fi l m's popu larity s p read across the West , engenderi n g a larger fan base i n the U . S . than
on home turf and i t came to be recognized as one o f the most i n fluential a n i mations ever
made . With its amalgamation o f the codes and conventions o f period d ra m a , the acti o n thriller
and p o l itical allegory - i n an elegantly, yet exuberantly, choreographed p i ece o f ci nematog­
raphy - the p i l m cont i n ues accruing new fans ro this day. I n 2 0 0 3 , a 1 3 -ep isode TV series
titled Jubei Ninpuuchou: Ryuhogyoku-hen and directed by Tatsuo Saro was a i red i n Japan and
subsequently released i n the Wes t on DVD as Ninja Scroll: The Series. Partially penned by
Yoshiaki Kawaj i r i , the show is only a sequel to the feature-length mov ie in the loose sense of
the term and i ts story accordi ngly fu nctions quite autonomo usly.'
In thematic terms, Ninja Scroll is ver i tably steeped in Japanese t radi t i o n i n s o fa r as i t
deals w i th a period o f extraord i n a ry h istorical a n d myth ical richness . Moreove r , i ts protag­
onist , Jubei Kibega m i , is q u i te overtly based on one o f the most charismatic figu res of Japa­
nese lore , Yagyu J u be i . The only h istorically unequ ivocal fact about Yagyu Jubei is that he
was a re nowned bugeisha ( martial artist) o f the early seve nteenth century. H owever , such a
cornucopian abu ndance o f legends, novels, movies and television shows has over the cen­
turies become so entangled w i th real documents that i t has become v i rtually i m poss i b l e to
separate the truth fro m the fict i o n . Recent incarnations o f the Jubei character i nclude the
samu rai featuring in the pseudo -h istorical OVA series Ninja Resu rrection ( 1 9 9 7) , and the
schoolgirl protagon ist o f Jubei-chan the Ninja Girl, a comedic TV series ai red in 1999 and
d irected by Akitaro Daich i . The popular i m age ofJubei is that o f a wanderi n g warrior d ressed
entirely in black who roams the land i n cogn ito, p rotecti n g the i nnocent fro m evildoers . Even
tho ugh Kawaj i ri's Jubei has i n herited some of his worthy p redecesso r's traits, Ninja Scroll

21
22 A� I M E I NTERSECT I O N S

portrays the character p r i marily as a ronin ("masterless samurai" or, l i terally, "wave man")
and as a mercenary.2
The fi l m p resents Jubei as a fighter with a mean eth ical streak, reso l u tely rel uctant to
j o i n the fray as long as he has any say on the matter. At the same t i m e , he never rel ies on
b ravado in his exp l o i ts but rather on a generous dose o f sh rewdness and sheer happenstance .
Jubei's wry sense of h u mor and keenness on rhetorical sparr in g are no less distinctive aspects
o f h is personal ity. John Beachem gives a colorful portrait o f Kawaj iri's hero :
Don't get it i nto your m i n d that Juhei is some invi ncible, sh adowy figure . . . . H e's good, b u t he's not i nd e ­
struct i b l e . H e g e t s p asted i n a few fi g h t s , knocked around, b l o o d i e d , b ru ised . . . . Take , for exam p l e , a scene
i n wh ich Jubei i s recovering from figh t i ng one of the devils. He is i n a p o n d, clean i n g his wou n d s . H e
p u l l s a t o o t h o u t , w a s h e s blood out of h i s m o u t h , and generally looks a m e s s . . . . Yo u n e v e r see H o l l ywood
action h eroes nursing their wounds, because th ey're i n v i nc i b l e [ Beachem] .

Mo reover , i t is by unobtrusively d raw ing attention to Jubei's la tent vulnerab i l ity that the fi l m
su cceeds i n making h i s displays o f finesse more effective than they would otherwise appear to
be. An absol ute gem o f both Kawaj iri's cinematography and Jubei's characterization , where
d i s p l ays o f a p l o m b are speci fically concerned, is provided by the first a c t i o n seque n c e .
Ambushed by th ree enem ies, the protagon ist responds by throw i n g a rice ball u p i nto the a i r ,
drawing h i s weap o n , vanquishing t h e attackers and catch i n g t h e r i c e ball aga i n befo re i t has
a chance o f reaching the gro u nd .
The fi l m's setti ng i s the early portion of the Tokugawa Shogunate ( Tokugawa RIftt k u,
1600- 1 8 68) , the era that wo uld eventually witness Japan's un ification , yet was s t i l l riven , in
i ts i nitial stages, by the same treachero u s feuds, crafty intrigues and clandestine cabals that
had ravaged the co u ntry t h roughout the Warring States Period (Sengoku Jidai) i n the fi fteenth
centu ry. An i l l - fated series o f clan lo rds deemed endowed w ith sufficient creden ti als to u n ify
Japan were ro utinely assassinated by their opponents until the h igh- ranking general H ideyoshi
Toyo tomi ( 1 5 36-1 5 9 8 ) brought the Sengoku Jidai to an end. After h i s death, h owever, civil
u n rest escalated once more as the general Ieyasu Tokugawa ( 1 5 4 2 - 1 6 1 6) claimed contro l over
the entire national territory. Toyotomi's loyalists, fa r from w i l l i n g to merely turn the other
cheek, lau nched repeated and increasi ngly vicious assaul ts upon Tokugawa so as to regain ruler­
ship. Although their army was fi nally vanquished i n 1 6 1 5 , the s u r v i v i n g rebels conti n u ed plan­
n i n g thei r revenge . I t is w i th this background in m i n d that Kawaj i ri's movie ought to be
approached i n o rder to fathom i ts h istorical density - even though most fans would read i ly
mai ntain that lack of fam i l iarity w i th the vicissit udes o f Japan's ancient past is hardly l i kely
to detract from the fi l m's visual sumptuousness and scinr i llating dynam ism .
Central to Ninja Sc ro ll' s plot is a posse of ruthless d issidents know n as the "dev ils o f
Ki mon" (Kimon Hachinin-shuu, w h i c h l i teral l y m e a n s " T h e D e m o n - G a te Eight") . T h i s
demo n i c b a n d is abetted by a l l manner o f terrify i n g ski l l s a n d is l e d b y I-Ii m u ro G e n m a
(Genma " ice-house") o r , "The Shogun of the Dark ," o n e o f Jubei's o l d enem ies w h o m the
=

p rotagonist believes he decap i tated five years earl i e r b u t who has regrettably mastered the
occult art of rei ncarnati o n . Genma's associates include the i m peccably styl ish yo uth Yuri­
maru, who graces h is employer with erotic as well as martial favors, and the scarred beauty
Zakuro , who lu sts vainly for Yurimaru to her b i tter end. The v i l l a i ns' first m i ssion consists o f
t h e massacre o f t h e rural v i llage o f Shimoda, a s part of a grander g a m e plan inren ded to lead
them to a cargo o f gold, which they deftly disguise as the res u l t o f a n o bscu re plagu e . (This
i ncident will be revisi ted later i n the d iscussion.)
 7i£!o � N i n j a Scroll 23

T h e pestilence-centered ruse engineered b y Genma's b a n d , a s i t turns o u t , is merely a

fragment of a much wider poli tical conspi racy which gradu ally discloses the ubiquity o f both
l i teral a n d figurative n ests o f vipers across the fabric o f proto�Nippon i c society. A team of
n i n j a from an adj acent settlement is sent to investigate the puzzl ing even t b u t its members
are waylaid by the dev i l Tessa i , a c reatu re rem i n isce nt of The T h i n g fro m The Fantastic Four
whose ski n is capable of morp h i n g i nto solid rock and defecting all conventional weapons
with the aid o f a double-bladed sword, which he th rows like a boomerang to hack t h rough
every th i n g i n h i s path. Kage ro , an exquisitely beauti fu l and deadly fighter c u rsed by the pos­
sessi o n o f po isonous ski n which renders contact with another l i v i n g creatu re lethal , i s the sole
s u rvivo r . Kagero antici pates the hero ine o f Mamoru Osh i i 's 1995 b lockbuster Ghost in the
Shell, Maj o r Motoko Kusa nagi , in both her physical appearance and her characteristic body
language , even though her character issued from Yu kata M i nowa's pencil whereas the Maj o r
was ideated by H i royuki Okiura . T h i s i s perhaps not entirely s u rprising w h e n o n e considers
that Os h i i 's own character possesses athletic and strategic abi l i t ies redo lent o f those o f the tra­
ditional n i nj a type - traits she has also bestowed upon the character o f Tri nity from the lvfatrix
trilogy which she has clearly i n s p i red.
Captured by the stony demon and most u n pleasantly abused, Kagero is eventually saved
by Jube i , who n i ftily p lltS o u t one o f Tessai's eyes with a dainty dart . Follow i n g the female
n i nj a's rescue , Kagero and Jubei part , see m i n gly w i th no i ntention o f ever meeting aga i n , but
fate soon bonds them i n a common p ur s u i t : out- maneuveri n g the devils of Kimon's n e fari­
o u s scheme to overth row the gove rn m e n t . In Kagero's case, the task is an i nevi table corollary
of her obl igation to ave n ge her dead com rades . Jubei , fo r his parr , is roped into the confl i ct
much against h is w i l l by the m ach i nations of the decidedly u n holy mon k Dakua n , a spy i n
the serv ice o f the Tokugawa Shogun ate who guilefully e n lists the hero to h is side by poison­
i n g him and then withholding the antidote un less he agrees to p rovide u ncon d i t i onal sup­
port . As Dennis H . Fukush ima, J r . has n oted, Dakuan's dubious ethics are overtly encapsulated
by the characte r's name :
The first k,mji is "dt/ku," which means "uncleanness," "mud d i n ess," or " i m p ur i t y . " Obv iously, T h i s is a com­
ment o n h i s character a n d mora l s . The second, "an," means " h e r m i tage" or "ret reat . " T h i s is l ikely con­
nected w i th Dakuan's "p riestly" facade . . . . Spies l i ke this were sent into the p rov i n ces to look out fo r the
threat o f poss i b l e revo l u t i o nary acti v i t y . Safeguards s uch as t h ese m a i nt a i ned the t h ree cellturies o f p eace
i n the Tokugawa period, but at the expense of s t i fl i ng fascism [ Fukush i m a] .

(Dakuan , however , is by no means the only monk w i th shady credentials i n an i m e : Cherry

from the Urusei Yatsu ra TV series and features [ 1 9 8 1--19 9 1 ] a n d Jiko fro m H ayao M iyazaki's
Princess Mononoke [ 1 9 97] would supply Kawaj iri's v i l l a i n w i th s u i table com pany. )
Jubei fi ghts each of h is i n famous enemies in a series of increas i n gl y intense, dema n d i n g
a n d sensational scenes, eventually having to con front o n c e more h i s old foe G e n m a i n the
most b reath taki ng seq uences o f all . Bes ide Tessa i , the hero's foes i n c l u de a seductive fe male
with hordes o f venomous sn akes at her d isposal , a wasp-hosti n g h unchback, a n explosives
freak, a pu ppeteer of l i feless bodies with an u nwholesome appetite fo r electrici ty, a b l i n d
swo rdsman and a demon rendered vi rtually i nvisible by h i s o w n shadow. I ntrigu i n gly, each
preternatural power is referred to as a "tech n i q ue . " As Rya n Donovan has noted,
These dev i l s . . . aren't actu al l y fi re and bri m stone devils, more l ike powerfu l users of n i n j a magic . Those
fam i l iar with the h yperbo l i c a b i l i t i es that H ong Kong cinema can ascribe to kung fu m asters will h ave a
sense of what they are. B u t these a b i l i ties often take physical forms . . . . Each i s u n i q u e a n d creatively exe-
24 AN I M E I NTERSECTI O N S

c u t e d , m a k i n g for s p ectacular b a t t l e s . These battles a r e s o m e of the m o s t el egant , b ru t a l , a n d enthral l i n g

s e t p ieces p u t to cel l u l o i d . A l a rge part of t h e v i olence i s i m p l icative, cutt i n g from a s h o t of a b l ade's t r a i l
past an enemy to a s h o t o f that enemy . . . spl i tt i ng and erup t i n g w i t h blood [ Donovan) .

This type o f violence m ay well be deemed unsavory by viewers that are automatically
p rogrammed to respond to the s p i l l i n g of blood on a screen as cote r m i n o u s w i th lax o r even
downright perverse eth i cal standards . Nevertheless, i t co uld hardly evi nce so u n ivocally con­
demnatory a reaction were one willing to appreciate i ts sel f-consciously staged, i ntentionally
formulaic and u l t imately h u mor-tinged constitution as could also be said o f com p arable
�

dalliances with undil uted b u tchery in productions such as Terry G i l l i a m and Terry Jones's
Monty Python and the Holy Grail ( 1 9 7 5 ) and Quentin Taranti no's Kill Bill (2003) .
Tho ugh e m i nently action -orie nted, Ninja SCI'oll subtly i nte rweaves i ts m a i n p l o t a n d
swirling battles with an understated love story a s Kagero is drawn to Jube i , y e t repels h i m
th rough i nsolent behavior a s a res ult of her cu rse a n d Jube i , i n turn , develops feelings towards
the female n i nj a that clearly t ranscend the professional aren a . J n a rather shocking plot tw ist,
Dakuan reveals that Kagero's poison wo uld work as a powerfu l ant i dote to the noxious sub­
stance co u rsing Jubei's blood. However, Kagero is mortally wounded i n combat and the only
contact between the hapless lovers we ever witness is one fut u reless e m b race . This aspect of
the p l o t posed considerable d i fnculties for Kawaj i r i : "as far as d i recting is concerned," he has
stated, "what I stru ggled with was not the techn ical stuff. B u t how to portray the grow i n g
emotions between Kagero and Jube i . Weaving t h e tender element into t h e fi l m's s t o r y p re­
sented the greatest chal lenge fo r me i n directi n g . "
At t h e s a m e t i m e , howeve r , Kawaj i ri contends that t h e "artistry o f n i nj a" is undoubtedly
the " h igh l i gh t of the fi l m . " S uch p rowess, i t must be emphasized, is rendered especially tan­
talizing by the fact that its actual origins and functions are h ighly e n i gmatic . I nsofar as n i n j a
seldom recorded anyth i n g i n writing or b ragged abo ut t h e i r exp l o i ts , t h e i r h istory is p r i ma­
rily apocryphal and sometimes flagrantly legendary. The d i rector has com mented th us on his
ninja p l ayers :
The ch aracters i n Ninja Scroll are me mbers o f very special ized organizat i o n s . S o I d i d n't i m ag i n e t h e m a s
n o r m a l people ftom that period . They are more a gro up o f people w i th spec i a l powers who were m e m b e rs
of i ntell igence organ izati ons. And their roles i n these organizations were c l e a rl y define d . They would p u t
t h e i r l i ves on the l i n e to accom p l ish t h e i r m issions a n d t h e y a r e extremely d riven towards those ends . B u t
I don't consider them to represe n t l i fe d u r i n g t h e feudal period i n any w a y. . . . I t h i n k t h i s k i n d of power
s t ruggle did happen all over t h e worl d . So if this kind of concept from Ninja Scroll were to b e set in Amer­
ica, the C IA would be the equivalent of t h e Tokugawa spy organ ization w h i c h Dakuan b e l o n gs t o . A n d
the organization w h i c h Kagero belongs to i s a much smaller one , someth i n g l i ke a l ocal s h e ri ff 's d epart­
ment . . . Ninja Scroll j ust happens to take p l ace i n t h e feudal period and I d i d n't i nt e nt i o n a l l y try to por­
.

tray that era's l i festyles [ K awaj iri 2003 [ .

Numero us h istorians contend that ninja were a select gro up o f samurai coached specifically
for assassinatio n , esp ionage or sabotage . Although this hypothesis is e m in e ntly feas ible, i t
should nonetheless b e noted that n i nj a were never renowned for harboring a particularly h i gh
sense of honor a n d that this aspect of their rep utation blatantly contradicts the samurai caste's
utter com m i tment to an exacting eth ical code : bushido (the "way of the warrior" ) . This uncon­
d i tionally demanded the assiduous cultivation of seven cardinal virtues rectitude, co u rage , �

benevolence , respect , honesty, honor and loyalty and advocated the p recept that i f a samu­
�

rai failed to maintain h i s honor he should regain it by com m i tti n g seppuku (ritual s u i cide) .
Wh ile the Japanese warrior's honor depended crucially on openness and truthfu l ness, the ninja
 Tzvo - Ninja Scroll 25

i nevitably relied on secrecy and subterfuge . Their notoriety as p roverbially s h i fty and furtive
characters i ncrementally led to the conviction that they wo u l d a u to m atically resort to uneth­
ical stratagems without even considerin g any righteous alternatives .
While p ro foundly tradi tional , the ethical codes i nvoked by the fi l m t h ro u gh its sustained
references to samurai and n i nj a customs have u n den iable reson ance i n raday's Japan as wel l .
Although bushido originated i n samurai cultur e , i t still permeates contemporary Japanese soci­
ety and i ts heritage is recu rrently evo ked i n manga and anime though a n e m p has is on the
quali t ies o f perseverance , loyalty and dedicati o n . The pop culture person ae who embody these
ideals are rarely hero i c in the traditional sense of the term insofa r as the arenas w i t h i n which
they endeavor to assert their u l ti mate worth are p reemi nently the mundane spheres o f p ro­
fessional l i fe , sports and the educational system . However , those characters' expl o i ts gai n mag­
n i tu de by their e l l i p t ical association with exalted rituals and mores and by the staun c h , albeit
subliminal , conviction that they are somehow perpetuati n g a l o fty legacy. In h i s evaluation
o f the endur i n g hold o f bushido i n Japanese popular culture , Patrick D razen has o bserved :
" Samurai stories are abo ut medieval swordsmen - but they're also abo u t the ethical code the
audience should l ive by. That's why some modern samurai swi n g a baseball bat o r line u p a
perfect purr" ( D razen , p. 1 0 4 ) . I n this l i ght , it co uld be argued that Ninja Scrolts thematic
allegiance to tradition should n o t obscure i ts concomitant connection with modern cultural
perspectives . (The contem porary releva nce o f the n i nja figure will be add ressed later due to
i ts contemporary p ro m i nence i n both Eastern a n d Western contexts . )
Where the fi l m's entanglement w i th trad i tion is concerned, i t is a l s o no tewo rthy that
Ninja Scroll is i nt i mately associated with an established reperto i re o f e m i nently Western der­
ivation in its elaboration o f n u m erous motifs characteristic o f the classi c h orror and western
gen res . Ninja Scroll offers one o f the most satisfactory articulations o f horror eve r seen i n Japa­
nese an imation insofar as it never i n d ulges i n sensationalism as a n end in i tself. Iconograph­
ically, the fi l m derives a substantial p roportion of its overall horror fro m the aforementioned
s u pernatural monsters . These come across as co ncomitantly h ideous a n d fasci n a t i n g entities
that are capable o f eliciting intensely visceral affects , yet also resonate w i t h the eerie i m pal­
pab i l i t y o f del usional voices i n fes ting a hau nted psyche .
S tyl istically, Ninja Scroll m irrors the western's procliv i t y ra keep both the desc riptive and
the dialogical compone nts o f the story somewhat slender, while e n dow i n g the l a n dscape wi th
awesome s u b l i m i t y and a spectacular profusion of details. The m o v i e concu rrently echoes the
western's ethical lea n i ngs i n expl i citly prioritizing c u l t u res o f honor over c u l t u res o f l aw.
(Sign i ficantly, this same vision is also shared by the gangster mov ie - o f both the American
and the yakuza varieties - and by the revenge mov i e . ) Demonstrat i n g o n e's allegiance to a
code of honor is o f paramount importance as a means o f estab l i s h i n g one's identity; paradox­
ically, in the classic western and in Kawaj iri's anim e alike , violence and magnan i m i t y are u l t i ­
mately posited as equally v i a b l e methods i n accomplishing t h a t ai m . T h e cl i m actic sequence
in which a host of val iant riders makes i ts appearance is a clear homage to the western - as
wel l as a n i ronical i nvers i o n o f the rescue theme given that the h o rsemen t u rn out to be i ngen ­
iously d isguised villai ns.
The spectator is thus s i m u l ta n eously rem i nded o f the classic western and o f rev ision ist
manipulations o f that gen re such as Sam Peckin pah's, Sergio Leone's a n d C l i nt Eastwood's.
Like the works o f those Western directors, Kawaj i ri's Ninja Scroll u n ceremo n i o usly redefines
the western by demys t i fying its stodgily conventional approach to the concept o f the "hero . "
26 A N l!vt E I !'J TERSECTION S

Kawaj iri also shares specifically w ith Leone a preference for cinematograph ical tech n iques that
frequently priori tize , as Joshua Kl ein has put it, "p u rely cinematic elements o f fi l mmaki n g . "
T h e critic's comments regarding the Italian director's style co uld i n deed a p p l y no less fittingly
to Kawaj i ri's characteristic m ethodo logies : "He carefully com poses each w idescreen i mage l i ke
he's painting a great landscape, frequently indu lging h i mself i n extreme close- ups - o ften l i t­
tle more t h a n a characte r's eyes . . . . Style d rip s from each face l i ke the sweat p o u r i n g do wn h i s
stars' faces" ( Kl e i n , p. 4 5 8) .
Additionally, Ninja Scroll pays homage to tradition by embracing a cl ass ic na rrative strllC­
t u re to be fou n d in both Eastern and Western heroic mythology. Relatedly, i ts principal char­
acters co rrespond to as many mythical archetypes : Jubei is the hero recalcitrantly spurred into
action by a senior authority figure ; Kagero is the sidekick and hel p e r ; the devils are the tri­
als to be overcom e by the hero in order to accom plish the appoi nted task . As in other arche­
typal m a n i festations o f heroic myth, in Ninja Scroll, too , the j o u rney upon which the
p rotagonist embarks does not merely provide h i m with the adventure o f a l i feti m e , i t also
traces a develop mental trajectory akin to the maturation p rocess common to the Bildu ngsro­
man modal ity. I t is in the rep resentation o f Jubei's commodio usness to emotional and psy­
chological growth that the fi l m most su ccessfu l l y transcends the c l i ches of the action adve nture
genr e , thereby delineating a character that can never be u n p roblematically consigned to the
category o f typ i cal com ic-book avenger.
At the same t i m e , Ninja Scroll emb races contemporary trends to be typical l y fo u n d i n
several o f today's action adventure productions i n both Eastern a n d Western m i l i eux . I ts
meticulously paced and sym phon ically orchestrated figh t sequences , b reakneck chases a n d
athletic escapes rap idly i m p rint the mselves in memo ry with even a si ngle v iew i n g . At t h e level
of action , the fi l m's stylistic disti nctiveness most defin itely benefits from the choreograph i n g
o f the hero's somewhat unorthodox fighting method - an aspect o f t h e sto ry that also serves
to th row i nto rel ie f Jubei's i rreverent deviation from dom inant codes of conduct des p i te h i s
fu ndamental a l l egiance to trad i t i o n . F u kush i m a h a s c o m m e nted o n the p ro tago n i s t's
swo rdfigh t i n g tech n ique as fo l lows :
Jubei uses an unconventional iai [ "swordplay") form. Th i s tech n i q u e was origi nally developed to deal w i t h
t h e spl i t-second, l i fe-and-death situations w h i c h samurai frequently fou n d themselves i n . Jubei , h oweve r ,
o ften h as ample t i me w i t h w h i c h to d raw h i s sword, and thus d oe s not necessari ly ne e d to me t h i s tech­
nique. Sti l l , he l e aves h is sword i n i ts scabbard and when h e finally does attack ... , uses the force of th e air
to i n flict damage to his opponent . Such a style requi res near superh uman strength and speed ... [ Fukushi m a) .

The dazzling swo rdplay del ivered by the crowning duel between Jubei and the diaboli­
cal Muj uro i n a bamboo forest could be said to not on ly antici pate b u t qu ite effo rtlessly m atch
an analogous sequence in the live-action film House ofFlying Daggers (Zhang Yimo u , 2004) .
It could fu rther be s u ggested that Roger Ebert's account o f the l ush visuals o ffered by House
ofFlying Daggers would j ust as fittingly describe Kawaj i ri's fi l m : "There are i nteriors of ornate
elaborate richness , costumes of b izarre beauty, landscapes o f mountai n ra nges and m eadows,
fields of snow, banks o f au tumn leaves and a bamboo grove that fu nctions l ike a kinetic art
i nstallation" (Ebert 2004) .
Ninja Scroll u ndeniably teems w i t h meticulously dep icted costu mes, accessories, fur ­
n i s h ings and a rc h i tectural fixtures typically associated with trad i t ional p re-modern Japan .
Kawaj i r i h as i n deed described the film as h is "period p iece . " He has also stressed, however,
that "yo u don't have to know about Japanese h istory to enjoy it," noting that yo u n g Japanese
 l1uo - N i nja Scro l l 27

audiences are themselves o ften u n fa m i l i a r w i th the history o f the period in wh ich the film i s
set. I n t h e d i rector's eyes, " t h e sheer energy o f t h e fi l m is what appeals to fans," wh ich explains
its i m m ense popularity i n n o n -Japanese m i l ieux . I n exploring the national heri tage for the
sake of both structu ral and decorative accuracy, "the research team rel ied on period d ramas
which are set i ll the 1700s . Num erous period dramas abo u t the 1 7th a n d 1 8 th centu ries have
been made in Japa n . We've used them as the sou rce for bas i c h istorical deta i l s . B u t in tel l i ng
a story abo ut superh u m a n characters i n that period I didn't want to be too restricted . As long
as i t was entertai ni n g , I thought I co u ld take l i berties . Although the basic setti n g had been
determi ned I allowed myself to work freely within i t" ( Kawaj i r i 2003) .
I n assessi n g the cross-pol l i nation of East and West over the terra i n o f Japan ese a n i ma­
tion , i t must be em phasized that n inja appear i n both Eastern and Western fictio n . N i nj a
beca me h ugely fash ionable i n Japan during t h e 1 9 5 0s a n d early 1 9 6 0 s by flood i n g b o t h the
screen and the page , a nd have featu red in anime and manga as a popular subj ect ever s ince . 3
I t is generally accepted t h a t t h e first p rominent u s e of a n i nj a character i n Western p o p u l a r
culture co i n c ides with the James B o n d fi l m You Only Live Twice ( 1 9 67) , where a top - notch
n i n j a is recr u i ted by the Japanese Secret Service to assist the British spy. Western pop c u lt u re
usually rep resents n i nj a as con summa tely wel l- trained martial artists and murderers, garbed
wholly in black and equipped w i th all sorts o f outlandish weapons and gadgets . Western nov­
el ists have for long been i n trigued with the notion of Western ers b e i n g granted access to the
ninja's secret caste, as eloque ntly borne out by Eric Van Lustbader's The Ninja series o f thrillers
( 1 9 8 0 ) , with their half-Japanese , half-Caucasian n i nja p ro tago n i s t . Allusions to n i nja skills
are also evident, as n o ted earl ier, i n the fofatrix movies, in the film Batman Begins ( 2 00 5 ) ,
where B r u ce Wayne receives n inja trai n i n g , and i n Wi lliam G i bson's cyberp u n k fiction - as
exempl i fied by the character o f Molly M i l l ions from Neu romancer ( 1 9 84) and that of Cayce
Pollard from Pattern Recognition (2003) . Comic books, video games and role-playi ng games
popular across the globe have also contai n ed d isparate and extensive references to n i nj a s i nce
at least the 1 9 8 0 s .
An assess ment o f Kawaj i ri 's deft reworki n g of multiple generic sources, fo rmulas and fo r­
mats wo uld not be complete i f attent ion were not also devoted to h is h i ghly original han d l i n g
o f G o t h i c motifs . The afo rementioned sequence s e t i n t h e corpse-ridden and crow- i n fested
v i llage o f S h i moda , c u l m i nating with the spectral figure o f a dyi n g wom a n who has managed
to leave the doomed location and sp read the news regardi n g the ep idemi c , exudes a n over­
whel m i n gly eerie atmosphere o f haunting and decay that aptly exemplifies this aspect of Kawa­
j i ri's oeuvre . Through this sequence, the d i rector appears to be experimenting with what could
be tentatively tagged " Eastern Gothic . " The sequ ence co uld i n deed be said to abide by the
dist i nct ive rhetoric of the Gothic as a cultural disco u rse i ntent on uti l izing tropes o f phys i ­
cal , psychological and eth i cal d isa rray in order t o co m me nt allegorically Oil particular h istor­
ical and p o l i t i cal c i rcums tances . F u rthermo re , the fee l i n g o f both b o d i l y and m e ntal
disintegration com m u n i cated by the scene does n o t merely contribute to the provision o f a
tantalizing p iece o f ci nematic enterta i n ment : no less vi tal ly, it a l l u des to the c l imate o f per­
vasive malaise and ideological confusion characteristic o f the phase of Japanese h i s tory w i t h
which Ninja Sc ro lt s p l o t is i m p l i cated .
Earl ier i n h is career, and most notably i n Wicked City ( 1 9 8 7) , Kawaj i r i had al ready exper­
i m ented w i th the Goth ic or, to be more p recise, with "City Gothic" - a p h rase, as Kim Lind­
bergs explains, "used i n Japan to describe a style of anime set i n a fu turistic wo rld, wh i ch
28 AN I M E I NTERSECT I O N S

features Gothic and cyberpu n k overtones" (Lindbergs) . Packed with grotesque i magery, shape­
s h i ft i n g , twisted sexual i ties, demonic phenomena and a fai r share o f slas h i n gs and gruesome
explosions, the fi l m typ i fies Goth icity at its most i ntractably corporeal . I m mediately hailed
as a lan dmark i n the genre upon its release , Wicked City still retains a c u l t follow i n g among
both Eastern and Western audie nces . As Jasper Sharp has no ted, the mov ie also rem a i n s
notable a s " a fasci nating exam p l e of a n i me's near-obsessive p u rsu i t o f cinematic real i s m t o
portray someth i n g t h a t , i n t h e p re-CG e r a a t l east , wo u ld have b e e n impossible to render i n
l ive-action , and even i f it co uld, wo u l d have been far t o o graph i c to s l i p b y t h e censors . T h i s
b l u rring o f t h e bou ndaries between ani mation and l ive-acti o n c i n e m a appeared to be the
guiding principle o f a generation of ani mators who made their names i n the ' 8 0s" (Sharp) .
This aspect o f Wicked City makes it especially i nteresting in the context o f the overa l l argu­
ment , in that i t bears w i tness to ani me's un ique potentialit ies even in the days when tradi ­
tional eel ani mation was the o n ly game in town.
Kawaj i ri will venture fu rther into typically Gothic terri tory w i th Vampire Huntei' D ­
Bloodlust (2000) , a n a u thentically visio nary ani mated work com b i n i n g gorgeo usly atmos­
pheric settings , begu i l i n g character designs by Yoshi taka Amano and b reath tak i n g sequences
pu nctuated by blood-spurting eruptions that co uld feasibly be desc ribed as a G o t h i c vers i o n
o f Ninja Saol/. Beyond doubt one of th e most beautifu l a n i m ated fi l m s ev er made, Bloodlust
is partly a sequel to the a n i m e OVA Vampire Huntei' D d i rected by Toyoo Ash ida a n d released
i n 1 9 8 5 . This was i tself a n adaptation of a 1983 horror novel by H ideyu ki Kikuch i , an extre mely
prolific and acclaimed writer whose rep utation in Japan is comparable to that o f H. P. Love­
craft or Stephen King i n the Wes t . Bloodlust is ent i rely appreciable for audiences u n fam i l i a r
w i th t h e earlier work, which Kawaj i ri's fi l m is unan imously h e l d t o have smartly su rpassed a t
t h e levels of b o t h tech nique and storytel ling. Furthermore , a s Jason Myers pers uasively argues,
"yo u need not . . . be a fan of Japanese animation" i n o rder to enj oy the mov i e . "Those of yo u
who refuse to watch a n i m e because yo ur i ntroduction to the gen re happened to i nvolve e i th e r
wide-eyed ya p p i n g p re-teen g i r l s o r tentacles and demon phall uses : i t's t i m e to give Jap a n i ­
mation another chance" (Myers) .
Kawaj i ri 's fi l m is based on the third of the twelve vo l u mes contai ned i n Kikuch i's vam ­
p i re series, namely D : Demon Deathchase ( 19 8 5 ) . This is set i n a pseudo - medieval i magi nary
world i n the year 1 2 , 0 9 0 A . D . , in the wake of a n uclear and bioche m i cal con fl ict of apoca­
lyptic proportions. In o rder to survive , the scanty n u mbers of extant h u mans have no ch o i ce
b u t to engage i n fierce confrontations with a powerfu l race of blood-d rinking monsters whose
aristocratic p rovena nce and mo res are instantly recogn izable as q u i ntessentially D racu l i a n .
Grad u ally enfeebled b y a decadent l i festyle over several m i llennia, t h e blood-dri n kers even ­
t u a l l y become u n p recedent edly vul nerable t o h u m a n attack s . The p rotago n i s t , D , is a p ro­
fess i o n a l vamp i re h u nter whose perso n a l i t y and motives re m a i n i n t ractably a m b i gu o us
throughout due to his hybrid status as the half-breed child of a h u man mother a n d a vam ­
p i re father. T h e narrative cons istently gai ns substa nce a n d al l u re fr o m the coexistence o f both
d issonances and harmon ies between those two natures at the heart o f D 's composi te identity.
I n Kawaj i ri's fi l m , the vam p i re hu nter is rec ruited by a wealthy fam i l y whose daugh t e r ,
Charlotte, h a s ostensibly been abducted b y o n e of t h e mightiest remai n i n g vam p i res. D i s
p ro m ised a reward of t e n m i l l ion doll ars fo r Charlo tte's safe retu rn o r fo r clear ev i de n ce o f
h e r execu tion i n case s h e hersel f has been transformed into a blood-dri n ker. A t t h e sa m e t i m e ,
D 's employers rely on t h e effo rts of a band of five u n scru p ulous bounty h u nters e ndowed w i th
 Tiuo � N i n j a S c r o l l 29

n i nj a ski l l s . Both the p ro tagonist and the band are relentl essly p u rsued by the vam p i re deemed
responsible for the kidnap p i n g and by the demonic m e rcenaries i n h is service . (In D 's cas e ,
m atters a r e further com p l icated b y t h e b o u n t y hunters' steady atte m p ts to remove h i m fro m
t h e competition altogether.) Most i mportantly, D is fo rced to face a troublesome di l em m a
t h a t c a l l s his eth ical values as bo t h a p ro fess ional vam p i re h u nter and a h u ma n -vamp i re cross­
breed seriously into question. I ndeed, there are overt i n dications almost from the start that
Charlotte has w i l l ingly eloped with her charm i n g , though lethal , capto r and that even though
this may be s i m p ly a ruse staged by the vampire, it is also possible that the co u p l e are gen­
uine self-ex i l i n g lovers a n d should, i n this case , be peacefu l ly allowed to l ive .
Thus, ech o i n g Ninja Scroll, Bloodlust endeavors to mesh i m agi natively the most charac­
teristic elements of n u merous gen res, hence delivering an intrigu i n g blend of traits typical o f
the horror mov i e , o f the western , of romance, o f the epic saga a n d o f t h e samura i action fi l m .
Kawaj i ri's vam p i re tale also echoes Ninja Scroll b y i ntermi n g l i n g the essential req u i rements
of action-driven c i n e m a to graphy - with i ts chase sce nes, fights a n d exp losions - a n d the
reflective and personal subplots dramatizing the plight of a man tormented by h is inner demons
and that of a co uple locked in a fo rbidden l iaiso n .
T h e p l o t of Bloodlust is not , however, what ultimately makes it t h e memorable experience
it undeniably is . In fact, as Fred Patten has observed, the film's vigor resides primarily with the
pictorial component : "The movie has some clever dialogue , but i t relies so heav ily on its v isual
impact that it would not matter much i f it were shown as a silent film. The suspenseful direc­
tion by Kawaj iri (who also wrote the screenplay) is backed li p by beautiful graph ics . Most o f the
chase takes place by day, th rough bright forest settings fi lled with trees and flowers . The vam­
pires' sumptuous palaces and court costumes are rococo marvels o f fi l igree and lace and sparkl i n g
gold t r i m ( n o cobwebs or emaciated corpses here)" (Patten 2000) . Myers evocatively rei n fo rces
th is proposition : "The a n i mation is orn ate and sumptuous, almost tacti l e - the visual equ iv­
alent o f crushed velvet" (Myers) .
I n the case o f Ninja Scroll, Kawaj iri's abil ity to intermingle the principal codes and con­
ventions o f diverse gen res, wh i l e concu rrently experi menting adventuro usly w i t h their for­
mulae, is largely a coro l l a ry o f the great creative freedom enj oyed by the d i rector throughout
the movie's executio n :
1 was all owed t o work o n t h e fi l m w i thout any restrai nts. S o 1 had a very p leasant experience maki ng the
film. The t h i ngs I real ly wanted t o d o and element s from movies t h a t I l oved e n ded up in i t . For exam­
ple, The Sting and Mission: Impossible have absorbing p l o t l ines. There's the excitement of can games a n d
one-upmansh i p . An d the excitement of a c t i o n . All t h e s e element s t h at I l ove w e r e i n j ected i n t o i t . I was
excited and real l y had fun making Ninja Scroll. "I want to do t h i s . H ow can I make i t exc i t i ng?" were con­
stantly on my mind. 1 t h i n k t h e audience can feel t h at when they watch t h e film l Kawaj i r i 2003] .

The lati tude o f move m e n t afforded by Kawaj i r i was unquestionably i ns t r u mental to the
ach ievement o f a un iquely eclectic m i x , and to a cinematic experience that assiduo usly com­
m u n i cates the sense o f "fu n" which the d i rector experienced in its production - whether or
not Ninja Scroll happens to comply with one's personal preferen ces and tastes .
This p roposition is upheld by M i ke Pinsky, who argues that even tho ugh Ninja Scroll
held the potential for go i n g down i n h istory as yet another p iece o f formulaic a n i m e , its i n fec­
tious energy i m m ediately asserted i ts standing as a riveti n g cinematic experience :
By al l rights, Ninja Scroll should fai l . It is, after a l l , ful l of the cl iches of th e fi gh t i ng a n i m e : a r eticent hero
b a r d i n g supcrpowered bad g uys(who a l ways seem a m u s e d by t h e i r o w n ca p aci t y fo r ev i l ) i n excessively
30 A N I 1-&, I NTERS ECTI O N S

gory sple ndor. Th row i n a tough hero i n e (who still needs periodic rescui n g ) , a n i n destructible final boss,
some gratuitous (and borderl i n e tasteless) sexual violence, and enough arterial s pray to p ower a downtown
c i t y fountain . But Ninja Scroll works . . . . I t m a nages to succeed at what i t tries to b e : a t h ri l l i ng ride. Part
o f this is due to its i nteresting a rray of action sequences . . . . D i rector Yoshiaki Kawaj i ri . . . man ages to keep
t h in gs mov i n g w i th a few visual surprises and some gen u i ne scares and suspense [ P i n sky 2002a] .

Makosuke ( Marc M a rshall) has l i kew ise commended the fi l m's performative verve :
Ninja Scroll is more t ha n j us t a n i nj a hack and s l ash fl ick that's got i t a l l - by taking a l l the earmarks of a
tried a n d true formula and nail i ng every one of them , it has disti nguished itself as t h e qui nressent i a l entry
i n i ts gen re . Although its qual i t y, depending on your defi n i tion , is debatab l e , one th i ng i s certai n : . . Ninja
.

Scroll i s abour as good as i t gets - a true i nstant cl assic . To i ts cred i t , Ninja Scroll deserves i ts rank as a n
i n stant c l a s s i c because i t g o e s a b i t farther t h a n j ust rehas h i ng the formula perfectly - the m a i n characters
aren't entirely fam i l i a r and the i nterplay hetween Kagero a nd Jubei is both more creative a nd has more
emotional complex i t y than you might expect [Makosuke 2000] .

No less axial to Ninja ScroLls graphic vigor than Kawaj i r i 's d i rection is the i n p ut o f char­
acter designer Yu kata M i nowa - an artist so receptive and alert to h is environment as to d raw
fruitfu l i n s p i ration from even the most p rosaic facets of h i s quotidian worl d . Asked by Lau­
ren Synger o n behal f of the o n l i n e j o u rnal D VD Vision Japan w h eth er any p a r t i c u l a r
" in fl uences" have shaped h is "unique" style, Mi nowa h a s rep l ied :
That's a tough o n e . Basically I am i n fluenced by every t h i n g around m e . Every t h i n g in t h i s room h e re .
T h e water bottl e , that desk, t h e scenery outside a n d of course some t h ings that a ren't even seen a n d I take
a l l these t h ings I h ave seen or h eard and experienced and pur them i nt o this ball or artwork, a n d then t hey
just kind o f take shape as t h es e characters . . . . If I had to boil i t down 1 0 the very basics I wo ul d say take
somet hing from every t h i n g . B e able to look at a water bottle and appreciate i t or the cap and a p p reciate
i t a n d use i t somehow. Take every t h i n g i n and m ake i t a parr of you . Yo u h ave to work a t i t . For exam­
p l e , i f you want to draw a cert a i n p ictu re d raw i t ten times . . . . Of course th ere are people that ... are j us t
naturally tal ented . But basically yo u h ave to g e t y o u r muscles to work and to g e t y o u u s e d to draw i n g . . . .
D raw someth i n g one-hundred, two-hundred, th ree-hundred ti mes, b u t you h ave t o draw i t , a n d some
people ask m e i f I act u a l l y h ave to d raw i t that many t i mes . I t e l l them o f course . You h ave to go through
a p rocess, you can't j u s t go from p o i nt A to point Z . You have to go through al l the l etters .

Furthermore , M i n owa's app roach to ani mation offers a paradigmatic example o f a n i m e's alle­
gia nce to hand-drawn graph ics, as the fo l lowing pithy exchange demonstrates :
SYN G E R -- When designing a character what mediullls do you work with and what medium is your favorite?
M I NOWA - Pen c i l s . Just pencils (he l aughs) [Minowa 2004] .

Although the han d-crafted d i m ension irrefutably p l ays a p i votal rol e , i t should also be
noted that at the techn ical leve l , Ninja ScroLL participates i n both tradition and i nnovation no
less than at the thematic level . Accordi ngly, while the com m i tment to revered p ractices on
the part o f Kawaj i r i , M i n owa and their team deserves due recogn ition , i t is equally i m por­
tant to acknowl edge the mov ie's experimental thrust . Before em bark i n g on an exa m i nation
o f t h i s aspect, i t seems u seful to reflect upon the film's ori g i nal title, a s this enca psulates the
thematic motifs discussed in the p receding pages at the same t i m e as i t evocatively a l ludes to
Ninja ScroLls tech n i cal m akeu p . The film's Japanese designatio n , Jubei Ninp uuchou, lends
i tsel f to d iverse i nterpretations. As seen above , Jubei is the hero's nam e .
T h e second kanji compound is more problematic . The first character is read a s " nin,"
which can mean "to endure" o r "to h i de . " (The same character is used fo r the word " ninja . " )
T h e second cha racter , "fuu" (also readable a s "fu") , carries an array o f poss i b l e m e a n i ngs,
including "w ind," "stor m , " "style" or "custo m . " The t h i rd characte r , "chou," means "registe r , "
"notebook" o r "screen . " F i rstly, it is a matter of interpretation whether " ninpuu" { p l ease note
 Tiuo - N i n j a Scroll 31

that "fuu" becomes "puu" fo r pu rely phono logical reasons) should be take n to mean "n i n j a
style" o r "n i n j a w i n d . " Whereas t h e fo rmer may refer to a b road c o d e of con d u ct , t h e latter
co u l d b e seen to allude specifically to the p rotagonist's disti nct ive swordfighting tech n ique .
The final character may refer to a log book, such as a chronicle, a pai nted screen or a p icture
scroll . " Chou" denotes, strictly speaking, Aat obj ects such as quires of paper and folding screens
and does not automatical ly refer to a scro l l that can be rol l e d up and is therefo re cyl i n d rical .
(The Japa nese language is very sensit ive to such d isti nctions i n so far as d i fferent d i mensional
attributes are accorded s i g n i ficantly different counters) .
The word "scro l l " is normally rendered by a total ly d ifferent kanji to the one used for
" chou." O n a p u rely l i teral plane, therefore , the i n c l usion of the wo rd "scro l l " i n the transla­
tion o f the fi l m's title m ay seem somewhat arbitra ry. O n the figurative p l a n e , however , that
wo rd describes the movie most faithfully, and acco rdingly const itutes a h ighly apposite choice,
i nsofar as the wo rk's ove rall co mposition is vi vidly redolent of traditional Japanese scroll pai nt­
ing and of th is art's kn ack o f i nt e rspersi ng i mages and tex t . (The art of manga as a whole is
profo u ndly i n debted to that p i ctorial fo rm .) The entire experience of watch i n g Ninja Scroll
is comparable to w i t ness i n g a Japanese scroll painting i n motio n .
An a r t form tha t has p l ayed a pro m i nent part i n both Ch i na a n d Japan fo r centuries,
scro l l painting ten ds to feature Aora l , an i m al , landscape and social m o t i fs , as well as short
poems or stories i nt e r m i ngled with v i sual images . (Often described as one o f the o l dest fo rms
of painti n g , horizontal scrolls are cal led cmakimono [e "picture" + maki "rolled" + mono = =

= "th ing"J - tho ugh they a re also known simply as makimollo o r emaki- and were tradition­
ally produced by past i n g s i ngle sheets together i nto a len gthy ro l l . The i mages were viewed
from right to left . Vertical scrolls mo u nted on rollers, known as kakemono [kakeru "to hang" =

+ mono = "thi n g"J , are a more recent art form that became especially popular d u r i n g the Edo
period [1600- 1 8 6 8 J as a n ideal way of decorati n g the walls o f small Japanese ho uses .) Ninja
Scroll features p rom inently the key themes conventionally associated w i th scro l l p a i n t i n g as
i n tegral to i ts recu rrent visual i magery.
Usi n g consistently the simp lest visual vocab ulary in the depiction of both the natural
environ ment a n d domestic interiors, Kawaj iri makes us sen se the p o i gnancy of each l iv i n g
creatu re , p i ece o f weapon ry, household accessory or garment. At t h e s a m e t i m e , even a s blood
fi l ls the screen , one cannot fai l to be touched by the smoothn ess and refinement w i th which
the figu res move t h ro u gh the elegantly del i neated landscap e . Details such as l ush blades of
grass and p l u m p roses, the su n's reflection i n a puddle, craggy a n d j u t t i n g rocks, a moth d rawn
to candleligh t , a spider at the center of an i ntricate web, flecked koi in a pond, the silhouettes
o f i m p os i n g tree trunks against a colossal fu ll moon , snow- blanketed lanes, and crepuscular
sett i n gs traversed by harsh shadows would look perfectly at home i n the context o f a scroll
painting or i ndeed other fo rms of traditional Japanese art.
I n i ts elaboration of tropes and motifs inspired d i rectly by a keen sensitivity to the n at­
u ral env i ronment in all its rich ness and complexity, Kawaj i r i's style co u l d be sa i d to epito­
m ize a n essentially h o l istic a p p roach to the concept of "Nature," consistently u p held by
Japanese art and confirmed by l i nguistic usage . Hayao Kawai's semi nal work on this subj ect ,
and especially his contention that in Japa nese lore there is "no d i s t inct demarcati on" between
"man and Nat u re , " are especially apposi te , i n this regard :
Throughout European h i s t o ry, N a lllrc has becn a concept w h i c h s t a n d s i n o p p os i t i on to c u l t u re and civ­
i l izati o n , and cont i n l l c s to b e o b j c c t i fied by h ll m a n bei n gs . The word " N a t ure" was t ra n s l ated into Japa-
32 A N I M E I NTERSECT I O N S

nese as shizen. P r i o r to t h i s we did not h a v e a concept of Natur e . Whe n we Ja p a ne se wish to talk a b out
"Nature , " we use s uch expressions as sansensomoku, w h i c h l i terally means "the m ounta i ns, rivers, grasses,
and trees" . . . before the encounter with the West . . . [shizen] is not even a noun . . . [bur rather] an adverb
or adj ective . . . that expresses a state i n wh ich every t h i ng flows spontaneously. There i s someth i n g l ike a n
ever-changing fl o w i n wh ich every t h i ng - sky, earth , and man - is cont a i n e d . Because it is l ike a contin­
ual process, i t can never be grasped spatio-tem poral ly, and strictly speak i n g , cannot be na m e d [ Kawai , H . ,
pp. 2 5 - 7 1 .

I n acknowledging the movie's affil iation with traditional paint i n g , i t should also be n o ted
that at one point Ninja Scroll all udes self-referentially to i ts allegiance to Japan's ti me-hon­
o red arts by means o f a map - used by Kagero's clan i n the plann i n g o f the i r fatefu l expedi ­
t i o n - that displays all t h e distinctive graph ic trai ts of classic i n k sketches . Moreove r , Ninja
Scroll echoes the more recent b u t no less popular art o f the ukiyo-e (the woodblock prints rep­
resenting " i m agcs o f the float i n g world") , espec ially in i ts wordless evocation o f h u m a n mor­
tal ity through shots o f volatile l i fe forms such as firefl ies . Kagero is the character most exp l i c i tly
associ ated with transience - an aspect o f her complex persona which h e r very name corrob­
o rates : " He r name is the standard word for 'sh immer (of the a i r) ' or ' heat haze . ' . . . Two other
homonyms (with d i fferent kanji) mean 'd ragonfly, ' and ' M ay fly' o r 'som eth i n g ephem eral .'
In the fi l m , Kagero d ies during the summer. Her you n g l i fe is extremely fleeti n g" (Fukush i m a) .
The proposition that the term "scro l l " is a legiti mate and i l l u m i n a t i n g ren d i t i o n o f the
fi l m's original title desp ite its semantic looseness is v i tal to the exp l o ration of the tech n ical
and stylistic d i mensions o f Kawaj i r i 's fi l m here offered . Tec h n i cally speak i n g , the mov i e is
resol utely grounded in the medium of the 20 hand-drawn cel - a flat object - and yet i s capa­
ble o f yielding a sense o f spatial i t y often associated with 3 D sol ids . I t is at this level , as elab­
orated below, that Ninja Scroll could be said to both cultivate tradition and embrace i nnovative
approaches to the art of animation .
The fi l m undeniably constitutes a ground-breaking i n tervention i n the execu ti o n of pre­
digi tal visual and special effects . Especially remarkabl e , i n this regard, is its flai r for i m part­
ing certa i n i mages w i th a potent feel o f spatial density eve n as i ts cumulative aesthetic is
guided by an u n fl i nching devotion to 2 0 graph ics. A str iking exam p l e is s u p p lied by the
sequence i n which the reptilian creature adorn i n g a go rgeo usly tattooed dev i l , B e n i sato , see m ­
i n gly detaches itself from t h e dermal surface a n d gradually u nco i l s i n the surrounding space .
The visual i m pact o f this scene is u n i que, as the prodigy appears to articulate a 3 D space , yet
remains tenaciously rooted in the realm of the hand-drawn i m age . The sequence's c l i max ,
moreove r , offers an i nstance of i n s p i red p re-digi tal morp h i n g . (This term refe rs to the smooth
metamorphosis o f an i mage or object into another.) When Jubei grabs Benisato's arm to put
an end to her bewitch i n g tactics, the diabo l i cal femme fatale's e nt i re body appears to turn to
rubber and then metamorphoses into the h u man equivalent o f a sn ake's cast-off ski n . ( Mor­
phing is employed again in the u n forgettable sequcnce where a tree branch reveals itself to be
Oakuan i n chameleo n - l i ke disguise, as h is n i mble body gradually u n folds o u t o f the origi­
nally rigid and motionless objec t . ) B e n isato's association w i th repti l es is spectacularly rei n ­
fo rced later i n t h e movie in a further sequence attesting t o Kawaj i r i 's knack o f evoking a sense
o f spatial densi t y out o f 2 D draw i ngs . I n this sequence , where the seductive dev i l conj u res
up legion poisonous snakes capable o f mov ing freely in and o u t o f her own body, the a n i ma­
tion deftly juxtaposes the si nuo usly l inear motion of each creature with a mounting i m p res­
sion o f 3 D vo l u me yielded by the composite mass o f expone nt ially p ro l i ferat i n g beasts .
At another key j uncture i n the fi l m , the hyperkinetic sequence po rtray i n g an i n vasion
 7loo - N i nj a S c ro l l 33

of oversized hornets o ffers a textboo k illustration of t h e dexterity o f traditional animation.

Fluid and stirri n g , the sequence was necessa rily executed entirely by hand and each o f the
thousands o f i nsects was hence d rawn individually. The director has com mented as fol l ows
on the arduous tasks facing his team : "The scenes i nvo lving cou ntless snakes and bees were
physically very demandi n g . I drew q u i te a few of those bees mysel f. Now, we can easily dupli­
cate them digitally" ( Kawaj i ri 2 0 0 3 ) . F u rthermore , b o th the d i zzyi n g swirls of h o rnets
unleashed from the h u mp-cum -beeh ive of the dev il Mushizo (literally, " i nsect s to reho use")
and the vortices o f anaesthetic-im bued petals p rojected by Kagero to keep them at bay con­
vey a striking i m p ression of t h ree-dimensionality i n spite o f their essentially flat nature .
N o less memorable i s the moment i n the early sequence dramatizi ng the fight between
Kagero's clan and Tessai i n which the ninja fling a host o f t h row i n g s tars (shuriken) at the
devil : attention is d rawn to the specificity of each individual star down to the t i n iest facet of
i ts graphic com position . Additionally, the choreograph ing of the ensu i n g sequence man ages
to ach i eve in one s i n gle movement startl ing beauty and haunting artistry, desp ite i ts u n d i ­
l u ted and undeniable brutali ty. Donovan h a s effectively summarized i t as follows : "The stone­
skinned giant is massacring the band o f n i njas with his double-bladed t h rowi n g sword . There
is a distant whirring sound, a slash of ligh t , and then the n i nj as' torsos split i n the m iddle to
float suspended briefly befo re fal l i n g from the trees . Cut to a shot o f several severed l i m bs and
bod ies drifting to the gro und, horrified still faces settling into the grass below to be sprinkled
with fine raindrops o f blood" (Donovan) . Kawaj iri's painstaking attention to details is fur­
ther confirmed by the following examp l e , aptly fo regro unded by Beachem as stylistically rep­
resentative o f the d i rector's distinctive signature : " I n one scene, Jubei's shirt gets cut o n the
sleeve by one o f the devils o f Kimon. In all future scenes, Kawaj i ri makes certain that the cut
is always present on the same sleeve , and that it's the same size cut" (Beachem) .
All of the canonical camera moves typically evi nced by classic anime are generously artic­
ulated th rougho ut Ninja Scroll. The opening frames cont a i n handbook instances o f the type
o f camera work described i n this book's first chapter. The "pan" is first employed to capture
from a d istance the b ridge which the protagon ist is crossi ng. The " fix" is then used to iso late
portions o f the natural environment surro unding the structure , with its lovingly ren dered b i rds
and lush wa terside vegetation. The impress ion of movement is subtly conveyed by frames dis­
playi ng stationary backgro und paintings of watercolor-oriented exquisiteness, over which are
superim posed the fl ickeri ng shadows of w i nd-caressed bul rushes . Analogo usly effective are
the frames in wh ich the archi tectural setti ng remains static b u t is concurrently endowed with
atmospheric vibrancy by the "sl iding" o f a bank of fleecy m ist across the picture's m iddle
gro u n d . The meditatively slow pace o f the sequence is suddenly upset as the action switches
to the first of the many skirm ishes i nvolving Jubei : the use of "fairi ng" felicitously abets the
com mun ication of a tantal izing sense of rapid acceleratio n .
" Pan" and "ti lt" shots are utilized assiduo usly througho u t Ninja Scroll, most memo rably
i n the cap ture o f the scenery, while both the "fo llow" and the "fo l l ow pan" con tr i b u te greatly
to the ebull ient dynamism of the sequences dep icting large-scale battles and duels a li ke . C i n ­
ematograph ical centrality is al so repeatedly accorded to "tracki ng" : by recourse to a rack focus,
the camera concentrates on an aspect o f the foregro u n d and then swi ftly s h i fts to an aspect
of the backgro u n d . Such changes o f focus require great tech n ical i n ge n u i t y and cinematic
nimbleness, and serve to i nvest the a n i m ation's series o f static draw i n gs w i th an unequ ivo­
cally " fi l m-l i ke" feel . The movie also makes use of the "zi p pan" tech n i que in the depiction
34 AN I M E I NTERSECT I O N S

o f backgro u n ds by reco u rse to the simplest of l i n es and stro kes to evoke a potent sense o f
energy w i th o u t encumbering the key foregro und i mages with excessive sce n i c baggage . This
i s borne o u t by the storm sequence presented early i n the film, where the vehe mence of the
elements is com mun icated by means of m i n i malist vertical and d i agonal l i n e s .
Equally rem arkab le, i n this res pect, is t h e later sequence i n w h i c h Jubei recal l s , i n a flash ­
back , his p resu med beheadi n g of Genma and the action's savage pathos is both contrasted
w i th and heightened by the elegantly res trained s h i m m e r o f a deluge o f snowflakes . T h i s
sequence a l s o anticipates t h e afo rementioned House of Flying Daggers, whose c l i mactic con­
frontation takes place i n a snow-swept setting. In both films, the w i ntry amb ience clashes
forcibly with the type o f scenery used p redom i n antly throughout the action , cap i tal izing on
atmospheric disp lacement to convey i n metaphorical form the inner turmoil o f their respec­
tive characters at those crucial j unctu res.
At ti mes, Ninja Scrolls storytell i n g may seem excessively ell i p tical o r even fuzzy to West­
ern sensi b i l i t ies -- fo r exam ple, i n the segment where the plot comes to an u n expected halt
fo r the extended flashback dealing with Jubei's first confrontation w i th Genma, or i n scenes
where the conflicting parties' motivations seem obscur e . However, sensit ive spectators w i l l be
captivated by the fi l m's potent i magi native logic and thematic coherence rega rdless o f their
cultural backgro u n d o r geographical p rovenance. They w i l l also al most certai n ly savo r Ninja
Scrolls gorgeo us i magery, w i th i ts magn ificent arch itectu re a n d l uscious landscapes, and a p p re­
ciate the elegance o f the battle sequences, where the dynam i c appeal o f gymnastics and bal­
let are rol l ed seamlessly together , and a powerfu l sense o f rhy th m , poetic grace and h a u nt i n g
beauty are consistently prioritized over martial prowess and bravu ra stuntwork .
The short a n i mation Program - Kawaj i ri's dazzli n g co ntribution to the OVA comp ris­
ing nine shorts i n s p i red by the Wachowskis' un iverse and t itled The Animatrix (2003) - shares
with Ninja Scroll a fascination w i th tradition, evi n ced by the hand l i n g of the conventions of
period drama and by the studious rendition o f martial skills i n a stunning sw i rl of b reathless
samurai action. However , in s i tuating the ti me-honored art o f swordfigh t i n g in the context
o f a cybe rtech nolo gical society, Program also demonstrates the past's ongo i ng collusion w i t h
t h e p resent and the fu t u re . T h i s thematic amalgamation o f trad ition a n d novel ty is m i rro red
by a ni mble com bination of hand-drawn graph ics and eGl. While Ninja Scroll could be said
to mark the zen ith o f 2 0 cel a n imation , Program signals Kawaj i ri's enthro n i n g as one o f the
contem porary masters o f the i ntegrative "tradigital" approach . Developments in the creative
traj ectory o f a n i n d iv i d ual d i recto r over exactly one decade thus also serve to i l l u m i nate
broader reorientations in the art of anime at large .
I n his eval uation o f the evo l ution of digital tech nology, Kawaj iri has stated :

As far as what you can ach ieve w i t h digital tech nology goes I d o n't t h i n k we can surpass Jurassic Park. I t
s i mulated sumc t h i n g v i sually t h a t doesn't exist i n real ity. After t h at ach ievemclll , cven tho ugh tech nology
has i m p roved s i nce then I d o n't think we can m atch the i m p act that h a d . So n ow, com i n g u p w i th a good
idea i s the key whcther YOll llSC digi tal tech nology or not . . . . I n l i ve-action fi l m s computer-generated exci te­
ment and real i s m have reached t h e i r peak . So when they arc transferred i nt o the a n i mation format a few
p roductions may be seen as someth i ng new. They might make a b i t of an i m pact, but after thc n ovel t y
wears off w h a t w i l l m a t t e r i n the c n d are a g o o d story and g o o d v i s u a l i m ages . Which h ave always b e e n
the i mportant e l e m e nt s [ Kawaj i r i 2003] .

The A nimatrix shares the conceptual premises ideated by Larry and Andy Wachowski fo r
The Matrix and i ts sequels, and accord i n gly p u rsues the hypothesis that the h u ma n world is
 Tiuo -- N i n ja S c ro l l 35

a mon umental compu ter-generated simulation progra mmed a n d regi me nted b y h ighly soph is­
ticated Artificial I ntell igences . A motif that squ arely belongs in the domain o f specul ative
cyberp u n k sci-fi, this theme also operates allegorically as an i ndictment o n all-too-real ideo­
l o gical agendas com m i tted to fostering a ubiquitous condition o f false consciousness . Like the
parent mov ies, the nine short a n i mations o f which the collection consists feature characters
that have bravely chosen to transcend the i l l usory pleasu res and vap i d p rom ises of the quo­
tidian world by means o f exacti n g digitally assisted trai n i n g , face up to l i fe's u n p alatable real­
i ties and rebel aga i n s t the n u mb i n g sys te m . Progra m's p rotago n i s t , C i s , i s one o f these
characters, and the action revolves aro u nd her struggle to rem a i n faithfu l to her co u rageous
choice - des p i te the h a rds h i p i t i nev itably entails --- when con fronted w i th the option o f reen ­
t e r i n g the vi rtual real m for the sake o f a trouble-free and grati fying existe n ce .
I n the co u rse o f Program (the fi fth segm e nt i n the anrhology) , C i s engages i n a v i rtual
fight generated by a computer p rogram meant to both test and enhance her sk i l l s . Set i n feu­
dal Japan , the p rogram first requ i res the hero i n e to ann i h i l ate s i ngle-handedly an attacki ng
caval ry - wh i ch she does with aplomb, as well as some tastefu l fla u n t i n g o f gloriously ren ­
dered period garments a n d accessories overtly insp i red b y Kabuki , com p e l l ingly brought t o
l i fe b y cutting-edge d i gi tal tool s . N o sooner have t h e attackers b e e n vanqu ished than a lone
samurai appears on the scene : Cis recognizes h i m as D u o , see m ingly a member o f her crew
and feasibly her l over , who has decided to be reinserted i nto the matrix a n d wants the yo u n g
woman t o j o i n h i m . Exp l a i n i n g t h e sou rces of Program's concep t , the d i rector has stated :
"One o f the insp i rations was the matter of Cyphe r's betrayal in The JMatrix. That was some­
th ing that got m e go i n g , the idea o f that betrayal" (Kawaj i ri 2002) . Cis eventual ly o p ts for
the arduous l i fe o f the real as op posed to the "peacefu l l i fe o f the vi rtual wo rld," as D u o
describes i t . When , at the e n d, she emerges from t h e program and i s t o l d b y a crewmate that
the encounter w i th Duo was deliberately devised to test her steadfastness of p u rpose, she
sternly punches h i m in the face and wal ks away, in a distinctively Kawaj irian flourish o f dry
humor.
Kawaj iri's cont r i b u t i o n to The Animatrix sta nds o u t as a caps u l a ted masterp i ece of
comp u ter-assisted a n i m ation . The extent to which the short fi l m employs digi tal tools not as
ends i n themselves but rather i n order to accomplish effects that wou ld be unth i nkable w i th i n
the parameters o f trad i t io nal a n i mation i s ful ly borne o ut b y the sequences i n which various
aspects of the archi tectu ral scenery with in which the characters execute their stylish wal tz-l i ke
duel divide i nto rapidly multiplyi ng planes that appear to recede ad infinitum. Such settings
are emphatically two-dimensional , yet acqu ire a mesmerizing aura of th ree-di mensionality by
sheer v i rtue of their vertiginous p ropagat ion . The computer-generated v i rtual landscape , with
its o rnately t i led roo fs, is vividly red ol ent of A n g Lee's Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000) .
So are the cha racters' acrobatics, although in the case of Program, a n i mation's flamboyant dis­
engagement from the constrai nts of grav ity did not req u i re the util izat ion o f h idden w i res, nor
i ndeed Yuen Wo -Pi ng's l egendary cho reographing talent (on which both Lee's film and the
Matrix l ive-action p roductions substantially depended fo r their effects) .
The ha nd-crafted element is never totally suppressed, however, s i nce both the buildi ngs
and the natural environ ment - dep icted consistently w i th a preponderance o f traditional Japa­
nese h ues - exh i b i t the palpable markers of manual execll t i o n . In discussi n g his personal con ­
tribution t o t h e creation o f Program i n an i nte rview given at the t i m e o f The A nimatrix's
release, M i nowa has con fi rmed the vital agency of the artisanal component :
36 A :--J IME I NTERSECT I O N S

O r i g i n a l l y I wasn't g o i n g to be i nvolved i n The A nimatrix, but as Kawaj i ri-san w a s h e a d e d to the U n i te d

States w i t h the scrip t , h e asked me to d o a few character draw i n gs to i n c l ude i n the p resent ation materi­
als for Program. So [ started out doing basic concept work based on Kawaj i r i-san's designs. Kawaj iri-san
a n d I h ad talked about doing some i magery and costumes based on Kabuki i mages a n d I ran with that ,
doing some of the first i m ages of the soldiers on horseback rid ing aga i nst a red sky. There's a funny story
attached to that because when I was doing those particular drawi ngs, [ kept runn i n g out o f pai nt - there
was a l o t of red ! . . . At first they weren't sure that the h i gh cont rast style would work , but i n d o i n g those
very first p i eces of concep t art , t h ey realized i t might work after all, and p rov ide a way o f m e e t i n g t h e chal ­
l e n ge of l i v i n g up to The Matrix. They realized that rather than going fu l l out w i t h very detailed render­
i ngs, they could go w i t h someth i n g very simple, someth ing that you could o n l y rea l l y do in ani mation.
After that I d i d a l o t of the animation supervision, making sure t h at scenes worked, but I real l y fee l m y
main contribution were t h o s e fi r s t i m ages w i t h the r e d s ky and b l ack grass, and the sol d iers on horseback
with their s taffs [ M i n owa 2002J .

Program thus eloquently attests to Kawaj iri's conv iction that conventional "an i mation's
appeal w i l l not change" as a result o f the i ncorporation o f d igi tal tech n i ques : " I f the i mage
and also the passion are not conveyed through computer-generated a n i mation , then it w i l l
n o t succeed i n mov i n g people or exciting them . So whether yo u use a pencil or a computer
the i m portant t h i n g is that the passion and the image are exp ressed i n the final p roduct . . . . To
exp ress the passion and the i m age wh i l e using com pu ters is j ust a matter o f fi n d i n g the right
material" (Kawaj i r i 2003) . This is resplendently confirmed by Program , where n o vol u m e of
d igital tricks wou l d ever have risen above the category of gl i tzy enterta i n m e n t had the action
not been i n fused thro ughout w ith the drama of Cis's predicament : an internal battle between
p rivate emotions and col l ective obligations, m i nd l ess pleas ure and stri ngent du ty.
 THREE

Perfect Blue
Anime often gets looked down on I/S being simply animated excuses for violence and sexual gratu­
ity with plots that frequently seem targeted at the teenage audience. There is a great deal of truth
in that but such a view also overlooks films like Perfect Blue where the animated medium is used
to tell a complex and nuanced sto�y.... And the plot of someone caught in the middle of a circle of
dreadful events whilst also questioning their own sanity is a classic staple of more accepted cine­
matic genres. This is a good film to show the nay sayers to demonstrate that anime is capable of
quite sophisticated tales. It also rewards with strong characterization for tbe most part and pro­
vides some musing on tbe price offame. tbe demands offa1ls and the often u/lScyupulous 1Iature of
people quite prepared to exploit tbe unseasoned Mima. - "banksie "
Tbe colollr ofitlusion is perftct blue. - Pt·rftct Blue Tagline. Japancse version

An i nternationally acclaimed and culturally astute psycho-th r i l l e r , Perfect Blue marked Satosh i
Kon's debut as a d i rector through a fusion of spel l b i n d i n g a n i mation tech n iques and harrow­
i n gly matu re themes . The fi l m has i ndeed pl ayed a key part in conv i n c i n g even the most skep ­
tical audiences that a n i mation cannot be u nproblematically relegated to the status o f i n fant i l e
enterta i n ment and t h a t a n i m e , specifical ly, is capable o f prov i n g every b i t as sophisticated a s
a n y respectable c i n e m a t i c fo rm . I n t h e case of Kawaj ir i's Ninja Scroll, as we have seen , th is
goal was reached by means o f an utterly unsent i me ntal exposure o f the evils cours i n g a specific
historical era . Kon's mov i e , for its part , ach ieves the same obj ective thro ugh a sustained explo­
ration of the darkest facets of i n d ividual psyches and of the i mpact thereon o f a p roverbially
perfidious sphere o f cultural production and consumption .
Kon's Perfect Blue was originally i ntended to be a 9 0 -m i n u te l ive-action d i rect-to-video
p roject . Howeve r , as the p roduction h istory presented i n the movie's official site exp la in s ,
Prod uction w a s delayed d u r i n g early 1 9 9 5 d u e to t h e Kobe earthquakel a nd the decision to a n i mate t h e
fi l m w a s m a d e . However, Perftct BIlle deal t w i t h a subj ect n ever befo re addressed b y a n i m e a nd i t was
agreed to e m p l oy the best names cu rrently working i n the i n d us try. A new system o f production would
be adopted that did n o t fal l p rey to the constrai nts of traditiollal a n i m a t i o n . It was fel t that a n i m e had n o t
adopted the eclectic nature of m anga a n d w a s i n danger of con fi n i ng i t s e l f to the same characters a n d sub­
ject matter. Perftct Blue o ffered a real opportu n i t y t o break the mold and create someth i n g d i fferent [Per­
ftct Blue: Production Notes J .

Kon h i msel f had p resumed that the project's rather h umble origins i n the OVA i ndus­
try would make i t i l l - s u i ted to theatrical release , and had certa i n ly never anticipated its sen­
sationally positive reception not only on home turf but p ractically a l l over the globe . Asked

37
38 A N I M E h :TE RSECTIO:"J S

by Tom M i es (on behalf of the online j o u rnal Midnight £.ye) , " What's you r reaction to the
s uccess and the unexpectedly long l i fe o f Perftct Blue?" the d i recto r riposted :
I can only say it was a surprise . Because in the beginn ing this project was i ntended for video. As its creator I
was actually a bit hesitant about Perftct Blue getting shown in theaters . Bur it was, and as a result the film was
invited to a number of fi l m festivals and seen by m any different audiences. I also got to visit m any cou ntries,
so I was happy with i t after al l . The fil m was much more appreciated by those audiences t han I 'd imagi ned,
so I was quite perplexed at the same time.

Altho ugh Perftct Blue is loosely based on the novel of the s a m e t i t l e by Yos h i kazu
Takeuch i , the thematic tw ists and p h i l osoph ical perspectives that are ultimately most p ivotal
to its cumulative identity as a work of art have sprung entirely from the d i recto r's own i mag­
ination. Kon has indeed stressed that the story presented in the film is q u i te different fro m
t h e novel on n u merous counts: " T h e idea of a fi l m w i t h i n a fi l m , and the i d e a o f a b l u rred
border between the real world and imagination , those were my ideas and they weren't in the
novel" ( Kon 2 0 0 1 ) . A l ive-action movie more faithfu l to the parent tex t , t i tled Perftct Blue:
Yume Nara Samete and directed by Toshiki Sato , was produced in 2 0 0 2 .
T h e fi l m's p rotago n i s t , M i m a Kirigo e , is t h e centerpiece o f a trio o f Lol i ta-l i ke pop
s i n gers called Cham who decides to quit the gro up i n order to p u rsue fa m e as a n actress . H e r
agent , Ru m i , is far from sup portive of this career move , believing t h a t M i rna's i mage as t h e
i ncarnation o f squeaky-clea n , Snow-Wh ite i nnocence w i l l be irretrievably i m p a i red b y her
s h i ft to act i ng - especially si nce her first major part is i n a lurid TV soap about a serial killer
enti tled Double Bind. The agent's misgivi ngs are soon corroborated by actual events : the show
req u i res M i rn a to adop t a decidedly sul try persona that is starkly at odds w i th the whi te­
kn ickered p roj ection idol ized by her erstwh ile fan s . Her compliant s u b m i ssion to raunchy
photo shoots fu rther a l ienates the once loyal crowd s .
J u n ko Iwao's personal engagement with the task of l e n d i n g M i m a's character a v o i c e fo r
the original Japanese version o f the movie parallels the p ro tagon ist's experience . To this effect ,
the actress has observed :
When I got t h e storyboard and the scri p t , to tell you the truth, I had some m ixed fee l i ngs abo l l t i t . I had
made up my m i nd t o accep t the role at the time of the aud i t i o n , but I was a l ittle concerned about the
v i o l e nt scen e s . B ecause I did n't have any experience acting violent scenes i n t h e past . . . . I t h i n k I feel exactly
the same as Mima feels i n this story. This was a chal lenging role for me as an actress and I wanted to over­
come as many obstacles as I could, j ust as M i m a does i n the story. I 've p l ayed cutesy roles in the past , but
I fee l that Mima and I are a l i ke . . . . The d i rectors and creators o f this p roject h ave extremely h igh stan dards
and expectations. If my del ivery was less than 100%, they were on to m e right away. . . . The d i fficult scenes
for me were when M i m a shouted loudly or when she was out of breath from chas i ng "vi rtual M i nl a" [ Iwao] .

M i m a's rel i nquishing o f her old sel f is sealed by her i nvolvement as the victim i n a par­
ticularly grap hic rape scene, made additionally disturb i n g by her performance i n a garb mod­
elled o n M i m a's Cham costume w ith an extra soft-porn twi s t . (This sequence will be retu rned
to later in this chapter.) Alternately disappointed and confused by her novel rol e , the p ro tag­
o n ist begins to lose her hold on real ity. Shocked to discover what claims to be her own diary
on a popular website dubbed " M ima's Roo m , " anguished by the real ization that the contents
o f the log are i mpeccably accurate , tortured by phantasmatic halluci nations of her fo rmer self
garbed i n Cham gear, and stalked by the psychotic fa n Uchida (a . k . a . " M imaniac," also ren ­
dered a s " Me-Mania" ) who regards the new M i ma a s an i m p ostor, t h e you n g woman is grad­
'
ually e n g u l fed in a paral l e l u n ive rse where i n fact and fiction seaml essly - and o ft e n
vengefully - coalesce . Most memorab l e , in t h i s respect , is t h e sequence i n which the heroine
 Three - Perfect B l u e 39

wakes up afrer an i ntensely traumatic n ightmare a n d barely has t i m e to draw a sigh o f rel ief
at the realization that the experience was p urely oneiric befo re the very same occurrence starts
rep l aying i n her ostensibly conscious l i fe . A deft visualization of M i rna's psychological p redica­
ment , the sequence also fu nctions sel f-refl e xively as a subtle critique o f the n u m b i n g repeti­
t iveness o f much com m e rcial ani m e .
Ruby Marlow, t h e English voice act ress fo r M i rn a , h a s exp ressively assessed the heroi ne's
intrinsic duali t y :
Tech n ically, w e k e p t t h e two obvious M i m a characters separate . There was t h e "real " M i m a and the "vi r­
tual" M i m a . . . the M i m a that was al most l i ke a phantom , s t i l l d ressed i n her performance olll fir . We d i d
one o f t h e m a l l the w a y t h rough , and t h e n w e went back and d i d t h e other, so w e k e p t t h e m separate a n d
showed cert a i n character t r a its o f each : t h e v i rtual M i m a was l i ghter and brighter all the t i m e , alth ough
she h ad an age n d a . The real Mima was broken d own w i t h i n that character into several d i ffe rent ones . . .
e v cn t h o ugh I d i d n't rea l l y know el'fI" exactly what h e r real i t y was . . . t o me i t was all real i t y - i t had t o be
IMarlow] .

The tech n ical strategy e m b raced by Ko n and h is team has u ndeniably p a id off, insofa r as the
two Mi mas' distinct personalities are palpably appreciable throughout the fi l m . Marlow's own
w i l l ingness to a p p roach each and every si tuation in which the hero i n e is ca ught as potentially
real has contrib u ted significantly to the final p roduct's affective quali ty, commun icating a gen ­
ui n e i m p ress ion o f both uncertainty a n d ingenuou sness which m ight have b e e n o n ly partially
articulated had the actress m ade u p her mind a p riori as to what counted as real ity and what
as i l lusion.
On the tech nical plane, M i ma's displacement is most effectively and succinctly conveyed
by frames that deftly capitalize on intrepid layering techn iques, wh i l e concurrently throw i n g
i nto rel ief t h e hand-drawn component a n d graph ic conventions o f trad i tional a n i m e . An espe­
cially striking exam ple is s u p p l i ed by the extreme close-up depicting M i rn a as she stares with
m i xed horro r , disbelief and grief at the i nexpl icably dead Tetra fish l i m p l y suspended i n her
m i n i -aquariu m . Ko n's sleek choreography conj ures up an eerie space i n which the hero i n e
a n d t h e obj ect o f her stunned gaze appear t o interact a n d even coalesce . No less i m p ressive is
the sce n e , set i n a subway carriage , in which a deso late "real" M i rn a catches her reflecti on in
a window and sees not her cu rrent self but a taunti n gly cheerfu l Mirna i n her pop- idol i n car­
nat ion . This economical i m age co m m u n i cates the yo u n g woman's psychological and sensory
dislocati on more radically than extensive d i alogue ever wo u l d .
K o n utilizes reflections in myriad glass su rfaces th rougho ut t h e fi l m so as to t rans m i t i n
a visually consistent fash ion t h e do u b l i n g , splitti ng, polarizing a n d dissoci ative m echanisms
affiicting the main characters' psyches . Furthermore , Perfect Blue featu res a p lethora o f gl ass
s u r faces of speci fical l y tech nological derivation alongside those p rovided by bas i c archi tectu re
and i nterior design. These are introduced as a means of suggest i n g that v i rtually all the expe­
riences dramat ized in the film are synthetical ly mediated and cann o t , therefo re , be taken as
transparent wi ndows onto a character's real ity - whatever this m i gh t b e . Kon has comm ented
on this motif i n an i n te rv iew for the Perfect Blue official website :

Most of the fi l m is set i n doors . M i m a's roo m , Uch i d a the fan's roo m , even the film s tu d i o . The other M i m a
also makes h e r fi rst appearancc from t h e PC i n M i rna's roo m . To tell the trut h , I thought l o n g a n d hard
abo llt how the other M i m a should besr make her appearance, and i t was Murai [ t h e fil m's scriptwriter]
who came up with the idea o f the I nternet : the hom epage M i nds Roo m . I n this way, we decided to make
all of the rooms evoke the same thing. There arc r h ree "screens" i n the room where M i rn a l ives: a TV, a
PC and a trop i c a l fish tank w i t h the same 3 -by-4 d i mensions as a moni tor. We also shot M i nds room as
40 AN I M E I NTERSECT I O N S

i f i t was being v iewed on a T V screen . Th is is because we wanted to give a d i l uted sense of real i t y, as if all
o f the events were t aki ng p l ace w i t h i n a TV screen of some ki n d . Later, when th e scriptwriter Sh iburani
comes i nto the parking l o t , the entrance i s framed as i f i t were a T V scre e n , w i t h the same 3:4 d i mensions
[Kon 199 8 1 .

I n h is own assessment o f t h e protagon ist's predicament, the English vo ice acto r for M ima­
niac, Bob Marks, suggests that his character favors Mima o u t of the th ree Cham girls n o t
merely because o f h e r p ivotal role in t h e gro up but also, more i mportantly, because o f the
latent sense o f powerlessn ess she transm i ts : "She seemed to be the voice o f the Cham girls, o r
the m a i n focus, altho ugh she was portrayed a s a very gentle , actually more vulnerable char­
acter and not as aggress ive as the other girls and I guess somehow more accessible. So I guess
to this character [Mimaniacl she was p robably more appea l i n g" (Marks) . M i m a is i ndubitably
depicted as a rather n aive and cautious perso n , unequ i p ped with the headstrong a m b i t ious­
ness stereo typically associated with rising stars or the vivaci o us conviv iality that usually dis­
tinguishes the pop idol figure . Nor does she exh ibit the vaguest trace o f the sci-fi glamour
that accrues to other classic anime idols : most notably, Lin M i n m e i from Superdimensional
Fortress Macross (and i ts American version known as Robotech, 1 9 8 2 ) , M i h o Utsuse from Key
the Metal Idol ( 1 9 94) and S haron Apple from Macross Plus - The MOllie ( 1 9 9 4 ) .
I m mersed i n an e nv i ronment that p romotes self-aggrandizement as the n o r m , yet u n able
o r unwilling to play the gam e on her own terms, Mima has no alternative b u t to succ u m b to
the dubious agen das o f an overzealous talent agency ma nager and a suffocatingly m aternal
business agen t . I n a sense, even the decision to q u i t the music wo rld for the screen is never
overtly posited as the p rotagon ist's own personal choice . The yo u n g woman's puppet- l i ke
standing is economically captured by the scene in which the two characters eager to shape her
fu ture career argue about her chances o f success in the television i ndustry i n M i m a's very p res­
ence , as though she were no more sentient - let alone the h ub o f the debate - than a p i ece
of office furniture .
Matters are fu rther, a n d gruesomely, com pl icated b y the m u rder o f key m e m bers o f
Mima's new busi ness and, worse still , b y her suspicion that s h e m ay b e responsible for t h e i r
perpetration. O nce M i maniac h i mself h a s b e e n murdered, the t r u e culprit turns o u t to be
Rum i , the sufferer o f a comp l ex case o f Multiple Persona l i t y Syndro m e . M i m a is eventual ly
acclai med as a talented performer, comes to terms with her adult ro l e , and magn a n i mously
goes on visiting her deluded ex-agent after the latter has been indefinitely hospitalize d . How­
ever, this relatively "neat" ending does not totally erase Perfect Blue's status as a n arres t i n g
v i s u a l experience t h a t leaves m a n y issues o p e n t o interpretation even a s i t h i nts a t partial
explanations .
One possible i nterpretation h i nges on the thesis that the fi l m dramatizes a concatena­
tion of events as seen from the perspectives of th ree varyingly d isturbed characters : M i m a ,
Rum i a n d M i maniac . R u m i wo uld finally appear t o have orchestrated the p l o t i n accordance
with her own maniacal perceptions of real ity and identity, while Rum i and M i man iac are pawns
that easily lend themselves to man ipulation as a result o f their respective experiences of emo­
tional and cul tural dislocation. Another interpretation , here adopted as somethi n g o f a wo rk­
i ng model , p roposes that the delusional web woven by the movie consists p r i m arily of a series
o f parallels and convergences centered on M i m a , Ru m i and thei r both personal and p ro fes­
sional relationship. In this readi n g , Miman iac operates essentially as an i ntermediate and cat­
alyzi n g age ncy, and the TV soap as a metafi l m ic com m entary on the m a i n p l o t .
 Three � Perfcct Blue 41

Correlations between M i rn a's and Rum i's identities and experiences abou n d througho u t .
Both are ex- idol s i n gers and both have difficulties com i n g to terms w i th t h e y o u n ge r wo man's
new rol e : in M i rna's case , due to her perception of the transition fro m pop idol to actress as
a potential descent from a state of purity to a "tarn ished" self- i m age (wh ich co u l d be read as
her reaction to the rift between the p re-adul t and adult domains) ; in Rum i's case , due to her
sub l i m inal conviction that the demise of Mirna as adolescen t pop s i n ge r amou nts to a fad i n g
of h e r own identity - o f what s h e stood for i n t h e days of her p o p u larity and o f w h a t vestiges
of those ti mes she has thus far managed to salvage thro ugh v icari ous identificati o n with her
charge .
Furthermore , i t should be noted that i t is after the execution o f the rape scene that the
film increas i n gly foregro u n ds M i rn a's decl i n e i nto madness, especially as i mages o f her p rev i ­
ous s e l f attired i n t h e o utfit she wo re at her l a s t Cham concert h a u n t her and defiantly c l a i m
t o be t h e "real" M i rn a . Those halluci nations emanate from Rum i 's p syche no l e s s t h a n fro m
M i rna's own , i nsofar as the v i rginally i m m aculate person a they s e e k to enshrine corresponds
to the agent's own yearn i n g to p reserve a van ishing past and a correspond i n gly evaporating
grasp of selfhoo d . This psychological cross-hatch ing is rei n fo rced by the sequence i n which
the character of the photographer is mu rdered and M i rna appears to be com m itting the c r i m e .
I n fact, a s it later becomes patent , i t is effectively Ru m i t h a t is perfo r m i n g the a c t wh ile delu­
sionally bel ieving that she is M i rn a .
I n both instances, t h e ou tcome is a radical mental unanchori n g conducive to paranoi a
a n d sch izoid self-persecution a s far a s Mirna is concerned, and to t h e fabrication o f an intri­
cate slasher yarn rep lete with tech nological props, masquerades and more than moderate a
dose of sheer bloodlust i n Ru m i 's case. The rape scene seali n g M i rn a's s h i ft from pop idol to
soap actress functions as a d ieget ic pivo t , bringing the two characters together thro ugh a v ivid
depiction of sorrowfu l pathos . Rum i's tears at the end o f the shooting i n t i m ate that the pain
she feels is arguably more wrenching than any feel i ng experienced by M i rn a herse l f. After all ,
the older woman has more to lose than the rising starlet does .
The rape sequence as we see i t i n its on -set construction is by no means a p ru rient con­
cession to the dubious p redilections o f anime viewers kee n on erotic titi llation . In fac t , i t fu nc­
tions as an i ronically deconstructive exposure of the ci nematic p rocess and o f both the p leasures
and the tribulations it entails. The Animefu review of Perfect Blue, i n this respect , p raises the
fi l m for its "subl i m e under m i n i n g of the rape scene for the TV show - with the actors caught
in uncomfortable poses between camera angle changes . Qu ite cleverly remov i n g the eroticism
o f the scene and hav i n g a quiet l i ttle j ab at sex scenes in general i n visual m edia" (" ban k s i e" ) .
I t should also b e no ted, however , that even though the sequence is so sel f-consciously
orchestrated, from a formal and tech n ical perspective , as to stand o u t as someth i n g o f a p l ay
with i n a play, i t nonetheless remains deeply disturbing at the affective leve l . (The play w i t h i n
a p l ay i n Hamlet p rovides an apt antecedent, i n t h i s rega rd . ) This is a logical coro l l ary o f t h e
uncom p rom ising realism with w h i c h Kon has chosen t o choreograph M i rn a's e n t i c i n g act , the
mounting l ustfu l n ess o f the strip club clients, the victim's feverish struggle to disengage her­
self from the th i cket o f l ewd hands reaching o u t towards her defenseless body, and her even ­
t u a l col l apse at the edge o f the strip stage l ike a discarded doll . Acco rd i n g to Aaron H. Byn u m ,
while the rape sequence appears t o mark the inception o f t h e p ro tago n ist's ostensibly i rre­
versible descent towards a moral nad i r , there is also, paradoxically, a sense in which i t ach ieves
a diametrically opposite goal : "emblematic of what w i l l occ u r to a person's sensi b i l i ty should
42 AN I M E i !\TE RSECTI O N S

they yield to the damagi ng splendor o f societal abstractions, the glo r ified filth of the rap e , in
a m i raculous way, helps to p u r i fy Mirna . . . . Identifying her television work as 'a h u rdl e , ' . . .
M i rn a constructs her self-worth and sentience" (Byn um 2 0 0 5 a ) .
I n t h e l o g i c o f t h e i nterp retations outli ned above, Perftct Blue's n arrative lead i n g th read
consists of an affective contam inatio n , so to speak, whereby Ru m i 's l u n acy feeds M i rna's
con fl icting emotions to the p o i nt that these , too, acquire the graphic sym ptoms o f ful l - b l own
insani ty. I m portantly, even though M i rna fi ghts back and finally asserts her separateness from
her former agent as a capable professional i n her own righ t , her sense of self remai n s t i ed to
Ru m i , as evi nced by the closi n g scene po rtrayi ng one of the yo ung woman's regular trips to
the institution where i n Ru m i whi les her delusion-laden days away. Communicati n g Rum i's
div idedness throughout the action posed considerable challenges fo r her English voice actress,
Wendy Lee : "Rumi started out as somewhat i nnocent i n her relationsh i p w ith M i rn a and I
knew what the outcome was go i n g to be, that she wo uld turn i n to a very sordid, horrible
monster at the end. The trick really was keeping that u n der wraps from the begi n n i ng and
not giving away the plot" (Lee) . Lee's performance is u n re m i tt i ngly re markable, in this regard :
an exceptionally sympathetic i m agination appears to underp i n the actress's enactment of the
violently con fl icting sides o f Ru m i 's schizoid persona, and abi l i t y to participate i m p l i c i tly i n
the character's pathological outlook.
The TV show Dou ble Bind comments metafict ionally on the fi l m's central concerns ­
its title could barely be more apposite, in this regard . Its ve ry p l o t , moreover, echoes events
seen i n the main narrative by cap i talizing on the actions o f a serial killer, on paranoid visions,
on the haziness o f real i ty's bou ndaries and on the anxious search fo r altern ative identi t i es . A
key scene from the TV show features the character played by M i rn a , Yoko , as a m ental patient
and the ch aracter o f the doctor i n the act o f diagnosing her affliction as Multiple Personal i t y
Syndrome . Although t h e characters look l i ke Yoko a n d t h e doctor from Double Bind, what
the scene p lausibly dramatizes is Ru m i 's own p l i gh t i n the form o f a flashfo rward, alluding to
the diagnosis of the agent's co ndition and resulti n g hospital izatio n . The characters' appear­
ance wo u l d feas ibly res ult from Ru mi's delusional state - and particularly her tendency to
identify w i th her p rotegee so totally as to lose any sense o f her and M i m a's very separa te ness,
let alone o f somatic diss i m i larities .
With t h e sequences i n which M i m a is portrayed a s t h e subj ect o f particular actions, yet
Rum i-as-Mima is the effective performer, Perftct Blue has acco m p l ished what some wou l d
deem cinematically i m poss i ble : i t manages to ascribe one and t h e s a m e action to mo re than
j ust one agent at any one time. The film could simply have shown Rum i perform certa i n acts
as herself, wh i l e i l l ustrating by means of cut-ins the i m aginary contents o f the character's
m i nd, where she ident ifies w i th M i rn a . Such a method would have kept the hero i n e and the
villain discrete , and i n v i ted specific degrees of empathy o r sym pathy w i th either one or the
other. By actually endow i ng Ru m i w i th Mima's semblance as those acts are b e i n g performed,
the fi l m atta i n s to u tterly fresh levels o f com plexity, draw i n g the viewer i nto the ravelled
n igh tmare .
Furthermore , the sequences i n question derive much o f their cinematic v i gor from Kon's
blend o f efficient cuts and poignantly allusive imagery, as wel l as a p redilection for delicately
scattered clues that play coy with the truth rather than stark statement s . Hence, viewers are
gently, even languidly, d rawn i nto the fa ntasy even though the visual and narrative content
of the sequences is downright disturbing i n i ts atrocious authenticity. Arguably, th is feat co uld
 Three - Perfect B l ue 43

never have bee ach ieved w i thout the d i rector's u n fl i nc h i n g com m i tment to an a n i mational
style o f i n co m parable l i n ear neatness, capable o f demonstrating that potently natu ralistic
effects do not automatically depend on the an i m a tor's simulation o f p h o to real istically th ree­
d i mensional local it ies but may actually s t rike the ir most melodious chords when the drawn
l i ne is accorded pride o f p l ace.
Kon is not, howeve r , i m pervious to change and recognizes the i m portance o f c u l tivat­
ing a commodious approach to both ex isting and developing tools and tech n iques : " My m a i n
method of exp ress i o n is t h e drawn i mage . . . . I love t o draw and draw i n gs are my words . . . . I
mysel f i ntend to conti n u e with 20 an imation , but my i nterest i n 3 D a n i mation is i n c reas­
i n g . I think i t's critical l y i m portant to u t i l ize new tech n iques. But . . . I t h i n k i t's also i m por­
tant to perfect yo u r o l d tech nique and make as many works as possi ble by focusing you r
efforts" (Kon 2004) .
The fi l m's interweav i ng of tradition and novel ty i n the tech nological doma i n occurs
p redom i n antly at the l evel o f its consistent a n d subtly va ried j uxtapos i tion o f represen tations
o f long-establ ished med i a , on the one hand, and o f deve l o p i n g electro n i c systems, on the
other. Acco rdi n gly, a l t h o u gh Perfect Blu e does n o t seek to i n tegrate cel a n i m a t i o n and
computer-generated graph ics as several later (and even synch ronous) p roductions do but
actually cultivates a reso l u tely artisanal aesthetic, i t does engineer an i magi n ative encou nter
o f the old and the new on the specifically rep rese ntational p l a n e . I n the cou rse o f the sto ry,
references to l i ve-acti on c i n e m a , television shows, analog record i n g a n d gutter-p ress p h o ­
tography a r e conti nually contrasted w i th im ages o f d i g i t a l tech nology a n d rem i n d e rs o f t h e
i n c reas ingly u b i q u i to us ro le p l ayed b y t h e I nternet i n peop le's l ives a n d dest i n i e s . T h e grad­
ual construction and deconstruction of the p rotagonist's both p rivate and p u b l i c personae
encapsulate that tens i o n . I n deed, her characterization i s a l l the time t rave rsed by more o r
l e s s expl icit a l l usions to the equ ally powe rfu l age ncy o f a relatively o l d - fash i o n ed i ndustry
gro u n ded i n pre-digital tech nology and o f a n emp hatically contempo rary galaxy of bits,
by tes and pixels. Tradi t ional and cutti ng-edge tech nologies, moreove r , are i n ca rnated by the
s p l i t t i n g o f the central characte r , referred to earl ier i n th i s chapter, i nto two contras t i n g
configura tions: t h e flesh -and-bone woman , on t h e one h a n d, and t h e v i rtual co nstruct , on
the other.
A parallel contrast can be observed i n the movie's handl i n g o f quite d i fferent a n i m ational
modalities . N u merous sequences are drawn and shot i n deliberately "non -spectacular" styles
so as to th row i nto relief the humdrum qual i ty o f the characters' l ives o utside the synthetic
gli tter and glamo u r o f the pop i ndustry that varyi ngly defines their identities . The sequences
h i gh l ighting the narrat ive's precarious balancing act between real i t y and i l l usion by means o f
intensely surreal visuals, camera work and edi ting strategies, conversely, cap ital ize on overtly
sensational rep resentations of physical and psych ological displacement , i n c rementally b u i l d ­
ing up to paroxys ms o f cold-blooded brutali ty, rendered i n a dispass ionately p h o to realistic
fashion . The backgrou nds, too, are so reali stically executed as to o ften come across as l ive­
action matte painti ngs .
Profo undly i n fl uenced b y h i s earl ier work a s a manga artis t , Kon overtly i mports the
com ic-book conventions i nto the real m o f a n i m e . Kon's evo l u t ion as a m anga artist demands
some attention , i n this respect , and the di rector's own acco u n t o f the creat ive path lead i n g
from h is i n i t i al encou nter w i th co m i c b o o k s t o t h e perfection o f the disti nctive s t y l e emb raced
in Perfect Blue seems espec ially deserv i n g o f notice :
44 A N I M E hTERSECT I O N S

I d id n't want to j ust read manga ... but h ave a go at writing them myself. I was heav i l y i n fluenced by Ka t­
s u h i ro Oromo's DOn/u ( 1 9 8 0) and Akira ( 1 9 8 2 ) . . . . From the very beg i n n i n g I enj oyed d raw i ng pictures and
my early scribbles event ually developed i nto manga . At length, one story I completed won the " Kodansha
Manga Award," a n d ever si nce the n , I 've been draw i n g manga not as a hobby, but as m y l ivel i h ood . . . . I
can't th i n k of a particular fi l m or a particular d i rector who has real ly " i n fluenced" m e , b u t I d i d grad ually
absorb the t h i n gs I saw. . . . The most i m portant i n fluence on me ... wasn't a s i ngle film hut the works of
Terry Gilliam. Desp ite being fantasy, his depicti ons are q u i r e bitter, h i s narrat i o n also th rows "curve-balls,"
and rather than cove r i n g every p o i nt i n deta i l , he takes t h e s tagi n g off to a completely d ifferent p o i nt and
p l ucks out a s i ngle, v i v i d them e . I especially l ike Time Bandits ( 1 9 8 1 ) , Brazil ( \ 9 8 5 ) and The Adventures
of Baron Munchausen ( 1 9 8 9 ) . When I draw myself, I am quite n atural ly i nterested i n whatever's around
m e , so that there's a feeli n g of starting from a real istic p o i n t o f v iew, w i t h which fantasy i s then m ixed,
and finally fi n i s h i n g with pure fantasy [ Kon 1 9 9 8 ] .

The enduring hold of manga- inspired styles on Kon's visual imagination is fully attested
to by his preference for m i n i m alist character designs, flat figures , tenuous masses and back­
ground characters reduced to i m personal cut-outs or even blobs and splotches o f p a i n t . These
elements gai n visual po tency throughout the film by the i r inters persal w i th j o l ts o f grap hic
complexity and richness emulating the more exuberantly baroque moments i n manga art . The
d i rector has exp l i c i tly acknowledged the i nfluence o f h is backgro u n d upon h i s a n i m e work in
an i nterview inclu ded in the Perfect Blue ova released by Manga Enterta i n ment : "I started
out as a pai nter so I think in terms o f visual ized drawin gs from the begi nn i n g . " (Kon 2 0 0 0 ) .
O n this same to p i c , the d i rector has also stated : " What came to interest me enormously when
drawing manga is o f course the format , but also the layout panel by panel . Yo u d raw six or
seven panels to a page , and when yo u open the page , there's the question o f which p i c t u re
h i ts yo ur eye , and when a double page is open i n front of yo u , there's the flow starti n g from
'this' p icture and climaxi n g i n the end with 'that' p icture. I t has to be 'cut , ' edi ted l i ke a fi l m"
(Kon 1 9 9 8 ) .
I n t h e course o f t h e 2 0 0 0 i nterv iew quoted above , Kon h a s also usefu lly commented o n
h i s distinctive approach t o t h e draw i n g stages of production , emphasizin g t h e need t o s trike
a fine balance between attention to details and com m i tment to the picture's c u mulative design ,
as well as between spectacularity and fluidity: "Coming u p with a story and making detailed
decisions about what type o f a home a certai n character should live in, for exa m p l e , a n d then
sketch i n g it, is a lot o f work . I wo uld get caught up in the details o f the task before m e and
lose sight of the b i g picture . . . . I r isn't that I tried to make the draw i n gs sensational as such,
but I wanted the draw i n gs to effectively flow smoothly during the 8 0 m i n u tes o f the fi l m .
Rather than have one scene stand o u t , I hoped that the story wo uld b e del ivered well over
the entire 8 0 m i n u tes" ( Kon 2000) .
Kon has unquestionably ach ieved h is goal i n Perfect Blue, insofar as each o f the settings
reveals a u n ique blend of meticulously rendered details and overall structural coherence . The
urban locations, additionally, also carry docume ntary val u e . Makosuke has pers uasively p u r­
sued this proposition i n his rev iew of the mov ie for A n ime World:
Even most live action mov ies, let alone ani me, fail to capture the sort o f rich e n vi ron m e nt s that Perfict
Blue is filled w i t h . M inds apartment is the most i m p ressive exam pl e : it has a cramped, l ived - i n look that
captu res the fee l of Japanese city l iv i n g . . . . (For those wondering about M i m a's less-than-glamorous I i v i n g
space , it's n o t unbelievable - m i n or pop s i n gers are a d i m e a doze n , and an apart m e n t i n Tokyo costs a
fort u n e . ) . . . The sense of tangib i l i t y is equally s t rong in lhe backst age v i ew of show b usi n ess t h a t p rovi d e s
t h e fram ework fo r t h e slor y. BOlh t he Po p I d o l scen e t h a t M i ma l eaves a n d th e T V a C l i n g w o r l d she strug­
gles to break i nt o seem believab l e , more so than i n most movies deal i ng with s i m i l a r s u b j ect mattef. . . . All
this isn't just w i n d ow d ress i n g ; the Iess-l han -glamorous (but not exaggeratedly so) beh i n d the scenes vi ew
 Three - Perfect B l ue 45

of act i n g gives the p l o t a l o t of its srrength and tension, and th e concrete backdrop makes M i m a's deteri­
orat i n g reali t y a l l the more palpable [Makosuke 1998] .

I t could further be suggested that the city of Tokyo i n i ts entirety rises to the status o f
a p ivotal character i n Perftct Blue's n arrative , coming across a s sometimes amicable , some­
ti mes hostile, and i nvariably u n p redictable - as the fil m's h uman person ae also are. Alternately
exuding a sense o f colorful o p ulence and a tenebro us atmosphere of engulfing menace, the
urbanscape thus rep licates both the characters' most t reasured dreams and their most d readed
n i gh tmares . To kyo , it should be noted, w i l l p lay an axial role in Kon's later production Tokyo
Godfothers, the tale of th ree homeless people and, via their s i n gular vicissitudes, o f Tokyo's
poverty-stricken underbelly. (Th is fi l m w i l l be returned to later in this chapter.)
In the articulation o f i ts distinctive spatial poetics, barely seen i n anime befo re o r i ndeed
since , Perftct Blue concomitantly cap tures what Paul Sch rader has described as the "restless
and u nstable" space o f film noir. Such a space , by capital izi ng on unsettl i n g com positions and
lighting strategies, radically interrogates its inhabitants' own reliability: " No character can speak
authoritatively fro m a space that is contin ually cut into ribbons o f l ight" (Sch rader, p. 1 7 5 ) .
I n th us destabi lizing i ts spatial organization , Perfect Blue also shatters t h e audie nce's depend­
ence on the screen itself as a supposedly safe space , compell i n g us to look on i t more warily
and in the constant awareness that its coordinates may be arbitrarily violated at any moment .
S i mul taneously, the arch i tectural dialectics conj ured up by Kon's camera, with its knack o f
establ ish i n g a sustained tension between the inside a n d t h e o u tside ( to t h e poi nt that the
enclosed settings and the surrounding cityscape ap pear to m i rror each other and even become
i n terchangeable) , brings to mind the spatial relations i m mortalized by Alfred H itchcock i n
Rear Window ( 1 9 5 4 ) . I t is also worth pointing o u t , in this context , that Perfect Blue echoes
the classic auteur's oeuvre i n more ways than one. The fi l m's more brooding moments, for
exa m p l e , are redolent o f Rebecca ( 1 9 4 0 ) , H i tchcock's adaptation o f D a p h n e D uMaurie r's
Gothic masterpiece ( 1 9 3 8 ) . The mounting atmosphere of o m n i p resent t reacherousness a n d
attendant p ropensity for self-delusion , conversely, recalls t h e m o o d o f Gaslight (1944) , w h i l e
t h e action's sudden leaps into undiluted savagery brings it i nto inti mate p roxi m i t y wi th the
affective tone o f Psycho ( 1 9 60) . 2
At t h e s a m e time, Perfect Blue develops t o great effect a n i m e's distinctive tendency t o
m i n i m ize movement . T h i s h a s tradi t ional ly resul ted from e m i nently fi n a n c i a l constraints, and
specifically the need to keep the total n u mber of frames down to the bare bone for the sake
of cost-effective productivity. Such p ragmatic l i m itations also apply to Kon's fi l m to some
extent : the l i m i ted budget at the d i rector's disposal i n the execu tion o f Pe�foct Blue entailed
that the entire fi l m eventually added up to less than 3 0 , 0 0 0 draw i n gs . (To grasp the ful l
significa nce of th is figu re b y com parative means, it i s worth n o t i n g t h a t H ayao M iyazaki's
Princess Mononoke, also released i n 1 9 9 7, incorporated over 1 4 4 , 0 0 0 cel s . Kats u h i ro Otomo's
Steamboy [2004] , as we shall see , encompasses no less than 1 8 0 , 0 0 0 draw i n gs . )
However , regardless o f budgetary considerations, Kon's work also p o i nts to a del iberate
adoption o f h ighly rarefied action as a vital component o f his aesthetic , and to a n ability to
harness that cho ice to a markedly self- reflexive approach to the medi u m . I ndeed, Kon abides
by the principle that nothing needs to move unless it has to move to such a heightened degree
that the technique has the effect of consistently rem inding the audience of the arti ficial sta­
tus of the production. The i m p ression is fu rther conso l i dated by the systematic use o f long
takes and dolly shots.
46 ANIME INTERSECTIONS

Cinematograph i cally speaking, i t is also notewo rthy that Kon's take on cinematic space
benefits considerably from the deployment of audacious camera angles that evade the estab­
l ished tendency to make the camera's point of view level w i th the h um a n eye and display a
u n i form horizo n , and experiment instead w i th u nsettling and perplex i n g perspectives . These
a re p rod uced by reco u rse to extreme h igh-angle and low-angle shots that cap t u re both char­
acters and locations from above o r below, i n preference to visually and emotionally balanc­
ing eye - level fram e s . Deep - focus shots allowing a l l the p l a nes o f a settin g to rem a in i n
i d e ntically sharp focus a re also used as a means o f disorienting the viewer's senso r i u m by
i nvesti n g disparate d imensions with mystifyi ngly equal relevance . We are not, at such t i m es ,
encou raged to recogn ize certa i n aspects of a s h o t a s more i mportant or cogent to t h e action's
unfolding than any othe rs, and are accordingly requi red to take in and p rocess the e n t i re
fi l m i c moment as a n ensemble of multiple, mutually sustai n i ng and mutually u n de r m i n i n g
elem ents . Eve ry t h i n g , therefo re, becomes potentially momentous and peripheral at o n ce .
O b l i que-angle shots based on the cap t u re of a subj ect by a t i l ted camera a re sometimes
employed w i t h analogously baffl ing ou tcomes i n order to make the subj ect itse l f seem to be
slanted across a diagonal plane when the fi nal film is p rojected . The assiduous use o f short
cuts and swi ft transitions from one scene to the next l i kew ise i m parts Perfect Blue w i t h an
atmosphere o f e nigmatic un cann i n ess.
No less p ivotal to the movie's spellbinding camera work is the use o f takes that s u p p ly
the audience with a s i n gle viewpo i nt by intimati n g that the scene is b e i n g p resented i n the
way i t is perceived by an indiv idual character and, therefore, as a markedly subj ective rath e r
t h a n shared experience . I nsofar a s t h e various personae's perspectives a re all , i n varying degree,
warped by obsessions and fears, we cannot afford to take any of those scenes at face val u e, as
u n p roblematica l ly denotative o f a defi n i te message . Refused the l ux u ry of rel iable viewp o i n ts,
we are thus fo rced to watch and wait fo r a character's perception to be confi rmed as valid,
d iscredited as a figment of a feverish imagination o r - more o ften than n o t - d iegetically
emplaced as both c red ible and delusional at once . I n such instances, the fi l m overtly empha­
sizes the role played by the camera as an autonomous agent i n the man i p u l a t i o n o f the viewer's
responses, and as capable o f tech n ical gestu res that foregro und the existence o f an i ns t r um e n ­
tal p resence endowed w i th grea ter knowledge than the viewer.
Another defin i n g trait o f Kon's d i rectorial cachet resides with h i s cho i ce of a chromatic
palette capable of investing Perfect Blue not only with the spatial , as noted earl ier, but also
w i th the atmospheric q u a l i ties o f film n o i r . Even t h o u gh i ntense h u es are c o n s i s t e n t l y
employed, t h e setti ng o f m u c h of t h e movie in noc t u rnal or i n door locations requ i red t h e
assiduous u t i l ization o f artificial lighting, a n d this made i t possible to adj ust the tones a n d
i ntensi ties so a s t o convey a pe rvasively sombre a t mosphere fo r the more meditative moments,
and a harsh mood of foreboding fo r the suspense-laden scenes . The sequence in which Mirna
ret u rns to her d ress ing-room after the completion of Double Bind along a deserted tiled Co[­
ridor punctuated by u n friendly neon l ights is particularly notewo rt hy.
Kon has maintai ned that the i nj u nction to translate the p roject from a 9 0 - m i nllte video
p roj ect i nto an 30- m i n ute theatrical release is largely responsible fo r Perfect Blue's particular
cine matograph ical style :
I t h i n k we had to th row out about 100 sce nes . The cuts were made because the c inema runnin� t i m e was
l imited, so nearly al l the miss ing footage was just there to show the passage o f t ime. We cut several sce nes
of escalating suspense that were originally there to emph asi se M ima's gradua l ly growing fea r. It's very
 Three - Perfect Blue 47

difficult to bring out the feel in g of "gradually" when you don't have the time to do it, so that led us to
become bolder and cut most scenes in wh ich stuff crept up on you gradual l y. We also used m any jump
cuts to l i nk separate epis odes and as an expression of mental confusion .... It woulJ be boring just to cur
o ut littl e b its and piece them togethe r, so I ... used imaging techniques to connect diffe rent scenes by pil­
ing action scenes o r images one on top of the other. As the film progressed, e.speci a l l y in the l ater half, we
decided to cut from scene to scene faster and faste r IKon 1998J.

Thematically speaki n g , Perfect Blue embodies an integ ral facet of Japa nese tradi t ion i n
the fo rm of a key topos drawn from class ic indigenous fairy tales : namely, the n o t i o n of inter­
penetrating worlds. This p h rase des ignates everyday d i mensions, non-quotidia n realms and
l i m i nal i n terstices between those two ca tego ries , across wh i ch characters may migra te e i ther
of their own vol ition or as a coro l lary of bew i tch ments . Perfect Blue paradigmatically exempl i fies
th is mo t i f by rende r i ng t he membra ne that sup posedly separates exterior and i nterior doma i n s
of bei ng disorientingly pa per-thi n . The w o r l d o f the old pop-idol i mage , u n w i l l ing to b e dis­
p laced by the new TV-show persona, i n fi l t rates M i ma's quotidian existe n ce w i th mo u n t i ng
a n i mosity and ins iste n ce . As a res u l t , shadow doubles of the flesh -and-blood g i r l p rol i fe ra te
and mal ignantly beg i n [0 g raft themselves upon her oste n s i bly defense less body a n d m i n d .
As i n tradi tional versions of the motif of i n terpenetrating worlds, what is most dist u r b i ng about
the scenario dep icted i n Perfect BLue is the sheer i m placab i l ity of fa ntasy's onslaughts o n the
real . D rea ms cross ove r into waking l i fe , the soap drama blends with t he actual world, i mag­
i n a ry spectres become i ndisting uishable from obsessed stalkers, and t i me itself appears [0 dis­
solve i nto an i ndistinct blur as the protagonist p l u m mets into a w h i rlw i nd o f del i rious anxiety.
I n the a fo reme n t i o ned i n te rv iew incl uded in the M anga Entertai n me n t DVD release o f
Perfect Blue, the d i rec[Or h a s described h is app roach [0 the story and [ 0 i ts compos i t i o n t h u s :
"We i ntentionally tried [0 keep the audience guessing . W e tried t o d o t h i s right from the begin­
n i ng when we were w r i t i ng the script . . . . In the end, I th in k we were rig h t in keep i ng the audi­
ence g uessi ng and leaving them to use the i r i maginations rathe r tha n spel l i ng eve rythi ng out
fo r them" ( Kon 2000) . Elsewhere , Kon has exp l icitly underscored the fil m's " C h inese box
construction , " stating that i ts ado ption was largely dictated by the des i re to explode some of
a n i mation's most i n vete rately rooted convent ions: " For example , dream scenes have a pattern :
when yo u get wavy l i nes on the scree n , i t means that you're ente r i ng a d rea m sequen ce , o r
the scene sw itches [0 sep ia tones, or cream flows onto t h e [Op of the coffee , creating a whirlpoo l ,
or there is a close-up o f someone's eyes . B u t that k i n d of edi t i ng is [Otally boring . . . a n d I
thought that it would be i nterest i ng if the v iewers did n o t im med iately grasp they were watch­
i ng a flashback o r a d rea m . Viewers a re too used to bei ng t rea ted kindly, so I 've b roke n this
pat tern del iberately" ( Kon 1 9 9 8 ) .
I n the evocation of M irna's fractured real i ty, Kon is ca reful [0 create a subtle balance
between the i n dividual character's emotional unrest and the col lective anxieties and fea rs [0
which the yo u ng hero i ne's experiences metonym ically refe r. Among these , arrest i ng p ro m i ­
nence is acco rded [ 0 the t ra u mas spawned by pop u larity and i ts loss, the ever- present phan­
[Om o f sexual exp l o i tatio n , the th reat of I n ternet-abetted violations o f o ne's p rivacy an d
i ntegrity, and the ram pant erosion o f ethical soundness . The fi l m thus stands o u t as a mas­
terfu l exploration of both personal and com muna l ordeals that a re u l t i mately i n sepa rable from
the technologies - both o l d and new - that ro u tinely beget the m , a n d n o less o ften benefit
ideologica l ly and fina ncially from the i r exponential propagation .
The down right s p i ral t raced by M i m a's psychological j o u rney c u l m i nates w i t h the fi l m's
48 A�IME Ir-.:TERSECTIONS

cli mactic chase sequence. This yields what is simultaneo usly a memorable visual effect and a
succinct s u m mary o f Perfect Blue's thematic preoccupations by displayi n g M irna's hunter both
as she appears i n her own disto rted vision ( i . e . a grotesque M irna lookal i ke) a n d as she actu­
ally looks i n the empirical rea l m . At times, the two versions o f Rum i coexist in sho ts fi l med
so rap idly that they appear to coalesce : most hauntingly, i n the frames where one i ncarnation
o f the manic pursuer as she sprints past a series of shop w i n d ows and the alternate con fig u ra­
tion reflected i n the h ighly pol ished panes interplay as each other's specu lar complements.
Devoted to the perpetuation of the topos o f i nterpenetrati n g worlds as a t i m e-ho n o red
facet o f Eastern lore , Perfect Blue concomi tantly i nvokes a well-establ ished Western favorite :
the C inderella topos . The main body of the action could be said to i nvert q u i te drastically
the motif o f "virtue rewa rded," by depicting not the triumph o f the i nnocent and the long­
suffering but rather the degeneration of a sinless soul i nt o a state o f commodified dep rav i t y.
The orthodox lesson traditional ly communicated by the Cinderel la theme is, however , rei n ­
stated - a n d i ndeed re-energized b y i t s i n fusion with topical cogency - at t h e end . I n t h e clos­
ing sequences, M irna's o rdeal is actually presented as posi tive evidence for the e n d u rance of
honest , albeit misguided, conduct and intentions and, by extension , o f gen e rosi t y and sel fless­
ness . Marlow's take o n the character corroborates th is hypothesi s : "I do feel she sold out i n i ­
tially because s h e agreed t o d o thi n gs that she was n o t happy do i n g . She agreed to d o a scene
[the rape one] i n the soap opera and when she went home she tore her room apart out o f anx­
iety and j ust u nhapp iness . . . . But then , I th ink thro ugh her struggle she su rvived . . . she eve n ­
tually won herself back" (Marlow) .
The effective ness o f the message is fundamentally a corollary of Kon's iconoclastic take
on the shoujo strand o f anime (namely, anime centred on yo ung female characters and more
o r l ess expl ici tly docu menting the i r psychosexual development) . The c utesy fo rmulae of the
shoujo form are squarely t u rned on their head, as the icon o f the wide-eyed sacch arine p read­
ol escent i n frilly cloth i n g is transmu ted i nto the grotesque i mage o f a n agi n g and deranged
doppelganger whose i ncongruous baby-doll costume only rei n forces her stan d i n g as the sym ­
bol of implacable malevolence . Perfect Blue, in th is perspective , const i tu tes a variation o n the
Ci nderella theme of a kind that one may more read ily expect to encounter in the fi l m s o f
Dario Argento, Roman Polanski o r Brian DePalma than i n a n i m e aimed a t budding females.
In evaluating the fi l m's thematic topicality, it is noteworthy that Mima is an exemplary
incarnation of the idoru (idol si nger or pop idol) . This term is customarily used to describe
female performers i n their late teens or early twenties who rap idly achieve fame th ro ugh p u b ­
l i c i t y i n the mass media a n d the activities of fa n clubs, usually to van ish from the spotligh t
i n a matter o f month s . The idoru's most cherished trait is h e r i ncarnation of an ethos o f cute­
ness deeply i ngrai ned i n Japa nese culture . The idoru phenomenon ex ploded i n the 1 9 7 0s and
still characterizes contemporary Japa n ese society, even though both the working conditions
and social status of the "stars" i n question have al tered over the decades, i n keep i n g w i t h
b roader changes i n the domestic economy. Moreover, as Patrick D raze n h a s p o i nted o u t , i n
contextualiz i n g the cultural sign i fi c ance of the Japanese idol si nger, i t is also vi tal t o app re­
ciate the cross-fertil ization o f discrete media in the enth ro n i n g and demo ting o f stars : "A
n umber of pop s i n gers are also sept or voice actors . That way, if thei r latest reco rd isn't o n the
charts, their voices are still before the public . If they're lucky, they'll land a role i n a TV series
running twenty-six weeks or more , keep ing them b usy and fo res tall i n g the d readed day that
their careers are declared over. Conversely, a dramatic vo ice role can someti m es be parlayed
 Three-Perfect Blue 49

into a singing career. Seyu also become radio announcers and can even be heard lending the i r
voices to computer gam es" ( D raz e n , p. 173) .
I n the aforementioned Midnight Eye interview, asked whether "cri ticism" o f the "pop idol
phenomenon" was one of h is "main i ntentions," Kon replied :

No, th e fil m is not base d on any criti c i s m . If the audience get the i m pres s i o n from watch i n g the film that
the i dol system in Japan is l i ke that, I'm embarrassed. Of course I d i d research before maki n g the film
and I vis i ted a number of these i d o l events, but I d i dn't see the k i n d of example that is used in the film.
Also, to reveal b e h i nd-the-scenes secrets about the e ntertainment worl d was n ever my i ntention. I s i m ­
ply wanted t o show t h e process of a young g i r l m aturing, becoming confused because h e r o l d s e t of val­
ues gets shattered, but who is reborn as a mature bei ng as a result of thar. That's what I wanted to describe.
Bur because I had to stick with the i dea of an i d o l , th e film came to tal k about that particular world [Ko n
2001].

This is a realm w i t h which non-Japanese viewers may be utterly u n fa m i l i a r or only vaguely

acquainted : a factor o f which Kon was well aware i n the cou rse o f the fi l m's execution . D is­
cussing Perftct Blue's reception aro u n d the world, moreover , the d i rector has j ustly noted that
the movie's w ides p read appeal beyond the bou ndaries of the i ndigenous market is somewhat
surprising i n the l ight of i ts cultural speci ficit y : "There are many people who don't know that
the Japan ese also have a culture in which B -grade idols are m a n i p ulated . O u rs is a closed cul­
ture, and very smal l . It see med sl ightly strange to me that fo re igners could watch o u r fi l ms
and find them interes ti n g , while not understandi ng the backgro und" (Kon 1 9 9 8) .
Wh ile the theme o f t h e idoru may seem quintessential ly Japanes e , i n t h e con text o f P er­
ftct Blue, ir should nonetheless be noted that it is also deeply relevant to the Wes t and to West­
ern perceptions o f stardom and fandom . F u rthermore , the idoru phenomenon was i n itially a n
American export t o Japan , resulting from t h e country's steady exposure to Western p o p s i n ge rs
i n the 1 9 5 0s and 1960s and to all the ancil lary trapp in gs o f fam e , screa m i n g fan s i ncl uded .
Wi ll iam G ibson's novel !doru (1996) provides a cogent and cultur a l l y resonant com mentary
on the pop-idol trend a nd, by i m p l ication , on several interrelated aspects o f curre nt Japa nese
society vis-a-vis the tw i n forces o f tradition and modernizatio n . The novel would certa i nly
p rovide an inval uable compa nion for any serious Perftct Blue fan o r student .
The deeply d isconcerti n g perspective articulated by Perfect Blue would soon return to
haunt the anime world in the guise of the h u gely successfu l TV series Serial Experiments Lain
(dir. Ryutaro Nakamura, 1 9 9 8 ) . In Nakamu ra's p rogram , the thi rteen -year-old p ro tagon ist,
Iwakura Lai n , becomes i n extricably entangled with the alternate rea l i t y o f cyberspace, which
she i nnocently enters upon receiving a cutting-edge computer as a p resent . G radually, the d i g­
ital matrix of vi rtual experiences and synthetic personal ities i n fi l trates the analog real i t y o f
tangible people and places to t h e p o i nt that t h e barrier separati n g t h e two domains evapo­
rates altogether. As i n Perftct Blue, the crisis is dramatized through the lens o f the pro tago­
n ist's own self as an eva nescently p recarious entity. An o n l i ne s i m u l acrum of Lai n - "Wired
Lai n" - emerges w i t h i n the el usive fabric of cyberspace , th row i n g the real world into chaos,
causi n g the hero i ne's erstwhile fri ends to turn into lethal enem ies and i mpl icati n g h e r i nto a
sprawling conspiracy. Eventually, Lain real izes that her very ident ity amollnts to a p i ece o f
software a n d that i f t h e analog domain is t o be saved, s h e h a s n o c h o i c e but to w ithdraw
i n to the matrix and cancel o u t all extant reco llections of her p revious worldly i n carnati o n . I n
spite of the see m i ngly u n resci ndable conclusiveness o f Lai n's final move , t h e tension between
the analog and the digital di mensions re m a i n s u nr esolved right through to the end o f t he
50 AN IME I NTERSECTIONS

series and beyo n d . This, as Susan J. Napier observes, is encapsulated by the show's " fi n al
scene," where "the viewer finds Lain trapped i nside o f what seems to be an old-fashioned,
s tatic-ridden television set" (Napier 200 5 , p. 7 8 ) .
T h e s u ffocating atmosphere of psychotic d isplacement t h a t i ncreas i ngly eng u l fs Lain's
"real i ty" is also ellip tically enhanced by the incorporation , as a parallel strand in the sto ry, of
a sem i-realistic component in the form of a docu mentary apparently desc r i b i n g key moments
i n the deve lopment o f the technolog y that wo uld eventually lead to today's com p u te r sys­
tems . These could be said to supply the histo rically recorded equivalent of Nakamura's fic tion
i n thei r emphasis on the ascendancy of digital netwo rks . The examp les i nclude the "m emex , "
a hypothetical analogue comp u ter theorized b y the scientist a n d engi neer Vanneva r B u s h in
1 945, and supposed to p rovide an interconnected knowledge base akin to an o n l i n e l i b rary,
and the concept of "hypertext" coi ned by the philosopher and sociologist Ted Nelson i n 1 9 6 3
t o designate the orga n ization of discrete information un i ts i nto correlated " l i n ks . " A l tho ugh
one m ight logically expect th is quasi-reportorial narrat ive element to alleviate the halluci na­
tory mood accompanyi ng the p rotagonist's actions, the opposite is the case : its i n fusion i nto
the story actually serves to th row La i n's rampant disreal i t y into sharper a n d more p a i n fu l
rel ief.
Kon's interest i n anime plots that boldly challenge the med i u m's format by foregro u nd­
i n g the nebulo usness of the boundary supposedly separat i ng reality from fan tasy has fo u n d
eloquent fo rmulation th roughout his career well beyond his d i recto rial deb u t . The fi l m s A1iL­
lermium Actress (2001) and Tokyo Godfothers (2003) , as well as the 13-episode TV series Pa ra ­
noia Agent (2004) , bear w i t ness to Kon's ongoing experimentation w i th c i n ematograph ical
pl oys meant to blur the line between the actual and the i magi ned . In an i nterview fo r Games­
tar, the d i rector has tersely explai ned his predilection for this moti f: " I t h i n k b l u rr i n g the
l i nes o f reality and fantasy is an interesting tech nique. Besides the attitude o f completely sep­
arating reality from fiction isn't a healthy way of living. In our reality, the re are many layers,
and while to others i t may seem l ike a dream or fantasy, to someone else i t m i ght be n o thing
less than the truth" ( Kon 2004) .
Like Perftct Blue, Millennium Actress penetrates the inner, most recondite worki n gs o f
the entertainment i ndustry, th is time focusing o n the art of fi l m m aki n g itself. A s i n the ear­
lier p roduction , so in the 2 0 0 1 movie , Kon j uxtaposes traditional and contemporary tech­
nologies w i th tangible gusto . The modern perspective revolves aro u nd the activities of a pair
o f TV documentary m akers as they seek to commemorate the achievements o f a p restigious
seventy-year-old studio i n the co urse of demo l i t ion , and specifically the history o f i ts great­
est star eve r : Chiyoko F uj iwara . The pas t , fo r its part, finds a charismatic voice in the char­
acter of the ret i red Ch iyoko , who has lived in self-imposed exi le fo r no less than th ree decades
fol low ing a fo rmidable ran ge of roles i n greatly admired period sagas, melodramas, war movies
and sci-fi fl icks .
Japanese tradition at i ts most sumptuous comes resplendently to the fore i n Kon's stu­
dious representation of n u merous set pieces from the celeb rity's career . I ncreas i ngly, as the
cinematic plot p rogresses , the individual frames come to resemble ukiyo-e (woodblock p r ints
displaying "pictures of the flo ating world" or the "transient spectacle") - most n otably in the
scenes from one of Chiyoko's countless period d ramas set i n a co u rtesans' house . The ves t i ­
mentary codes, accesso ries, make- up, furniture and i nterior design employed i n these scenes
is especially remi n iscent of Kikumaro's works (18 00s) w ith the i r spell-bi n d i n g collusion o f
 Three-Perfect Blue 51

ch romatic harmo n i es and lov i n gly executed patterns of extrao rd i n ary intricacy. At one p o i nt,
in o rder to u nderscore an especially dramatic utterance, the screen eve n del ivers an a n i mated
version o f the most famous ukiyo-e among Western crowds, Katsush i ka Hokusai's " B e n eath
the Wave off Kanagawa" (c . 183 0 ), someti mes j ust known as " Tsu nam i . "
Keen, as we have seen, t o expose the fl i msi ness o f the bou ndary p u tatively separati ng
reality from fantasy, the d i rector consistently interweaves Chiyo ko's i magi nary screen embod­
i ments from different fi l m s - and hence from disparate historical eras and societal setups­
with h i nts at her personal h isto ry of unreq u i ted love . The epochs covered by the narrative
encom pass a t i m e span of approximately one-tho usand years, gallo p in g from the Warring
States Pe riod ( fi fteenth century) to a fu ture space age . I n the process, the action appears to
Row in m u ltiple d i fferent d i rections at once . However, Millennium Actress d oes n o t merely
propose an i ntrigui n gly com pressed panorama of Japanese h istory referenced by some o f its
most picturesque and horrific moment s . At the same time, in fact, i t also b r i n gs forth a n
alchemical distillation o f key points i n the evol ution o f Japanese cinema, ma rked by the emer­
gence o f novel styles and gen res in conjunction w i th b road socioeconomic developments .
Conco m i tantly, both the actress's fi c tional personae a n d her rea l - l i fe self are constantly
meshed w i th the documentarians' own perceptions o f the legendary star's p u b l i c and secret
i ncarnations. They rap idly become so eng rossed in the story u n fo l d i n g befo re thei r eyes that
they turn into extras acti n g w i th in C h iyoko's own narrative, w i th i n a transtemporal dimen­
sion where past and p resent blend i n m u tu a l suffusion . The di rector, who is obviously besot­
ted w i th Ch iyoko (and i ndeed has been fo r longer than even he can remember) is so utterly
bedevilled by the i l l u s ion that he ends u p featur i n g in costumes and hairdos appro p riate to
the periods i n wh ich particular movies are set. His ass istant cameraman, conversely, retai ns a
mo re detached stance, regal ing the story w i th i ron ical and sarcastic remarks that cumu latively
amount to a h i ghly entertain i n g metacomme nta ry. In spite o f the i n tense pathos exuded by
most of the situations dramatized in Chiyoko's fil ms, h u morous touches are also observable
throughout the story. Most remarkable, in th is respect, are the scenes i n which the di rector
and camera man find themselves chas ing Ch iyoko at b reakneck speed down crowded u rban
streets and country lan es, as well as across snow-swept wastelands and war- ravaged r u i n s, j ust
to keep up w i th the p recip itous passage o f time.
The real ity level o f the sequences i n which past and p resent, the personal and the pri­
vate, the e m p irical and the i magi n ed, insistently coalesce is no less open to i nterpretation tha n
the veraci t y o f the sequences in Pe�fect Blue where M irna and Ru mi effectively merge, to the
p o i nt that establish i n g w i th absol u te certainty who is do i n g what to who m becomes n o t
merely an arduous b u t actually a n absurd chor e . Although Perfect Blue and Millennium Actress
are generically and fo rmally very different - complying w i th, and concu rre ntly subverting,
the visual rhetoric of the psychological slasher, in one case, and the formulae o f the epic love
story, in the other - both fi l ms use the el aborate blurring of concrete facts and fuzzy rem i ­
n i scences t o bring forth c i n e m atic tapes tries o f exceptional poetic richness, sophisticat ion and
warmth .
I t must also be noted, for the sake o f comprehensiveness, that Ko n had p reviously explored
the intermingl i ng of memory and reality in "Magnetic Rose, " the first segment of the th ree­
piece omnibus lvfemorics ( d i rs . Katsuh i ro Otomo, Ko uj i Morimoto and Te nsai Okamura ,
1994) , which he wrote a n d Mori moto d i rected. In the piece, a gro u p o f deep-space salvagers
responds to an 50S signal iss u i n g from what is believed to be a derel ict station. The s o u rce
52 AN IME I NT E RSFCTIONS

of the disturbance is located amid a "space cemetery" consist i n g of galactic detritus that exudes
simultaneo usly s i n ister reverberations and an aura of ethereally lace- l i ke grace . The overall
atmosphere is po ignantly enhanced by the soundtrack, an audito ry collage o f Pucc i n i arias
(particularly from lvfadame Butterfly) created by one o f the most i n s p i red composers on the
contemporary anime sce n e , Yoko Anno . The ani mation's stunn i n g fusion of th is musical back­
drop and an overwhel m i n g sense o f cosmic i n fi n ity, moreover, is redo l e nt of Stanley Kubrick's
class ic 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968).
Upon thei r arrival at the appoi nted desti nation , the salvagemen discover a n uncannily
elegant palace cons isting excl usively of holographic images and special effects generated through
nanotech n ology. This m agical world turns out to be the p roduct o f the memo ries o f a fo r­
gotten opera diva, so magnetically powerful as to ap pear endowed with a b reath i n g , p a l p i ­
tati n g l i fe o f the i r o w n even though they a r e cons u m mately v i rtual . The b l u r r i n g o f t h e
boundaries p utatively separating reality from fantasy, present occu rrences from rem i n iscences,
and tangible bodies from the i r electronic simulations reaches its c l i m ax as the rescuers become
utterly engulfed in the defu nct primadonna's del usional web, unable to reent e r the real world
hence they cam e . "Magnetic Rose" echoes Perfect Blue in its unsentimental exposure o f the
ephemerality of celebrity and of the insane lengths to which fame's worsh i p pers a re p repared
to go i n order to keep its treacherous phantoms al ive .
Tokyo Godfothers perpetuates Kon's commi tment to the exploration o f the p uzz l i n g rela­
tionsh i p between fact and fantasy, wh ile simultaneo usly ushering i n a h i ghly refined i n tegra­
tion of lov i n gly hand-crafted cels and sl ick CGl . Weav ing together elements o f Ch a p l i nesque
humor and D ickensian realism thro ugh the characters of the cyn ical alcoho l i c Gin, the ex­
drag queen Hana and the runaway teenager Miyuki , the film echoes Perfect Blue in its fa ith­
ful capture o f human mo tivations and of both thei r noble and the i r despicable consequences .
The personae themselves are made aesthetically i ntrigui n g by the i r com b i nation of attributes
so stylized as to verge o n the caricatural and acting skills so refined as to match those of l ive­
action dramatic pe rfo rmers o f acclaimed thespian caliber. Like Perfect Blue, moreover , Tokyo
Godfathers articulates themes that few audie nces wo uld associate w i t h the m e d i u m o f a n i ma­
tion - Japanese o r otherwise . Playfully commenti n g on his p roclivity towa rds u n conventional
choices , Kon h i mself has remarked : "] like using ideas others i n my field wo u l d n't even take
notice o f. ] thi n k Tokyo Godfothers is a good exam ple o f this. The i n s p i ration fo r Tokyo God­
fothers came from the idea o f ' finding a baby in a trash dum pster . ' ' Trash' mea n i n g i deas that
others i n my industry have considered trash . From this trash dumpster o f ideas ] retri eve what
] consider fascinating. I thi n k of it i n this way" (Kon 2004) .
An analogous agenda underpins Paranoia Agent, a series written and d i rected by Kon
largely out o f a des i re to make use of ideas he had conceived o f i n the creation o f Perfect Blue,
Millennium Actress and Tokyo Godfathers but left u nused . The show del ivers vi nt a ge Kon a n i m e
i n t h e guise of a dynamically ornate cinematographical tapestry where i n a freakish cast o f char­
acters is bound together by an omi nous th read : they all , at some p o i n t , get whacked on the
head by a mysterious elementary school kid known as "Lil' Sl ugge r , " who is eq u i pped w ith
a bent baseball bat a n d golden rollerblades . The y o u n g cri m i n al's motivations re m a i n
i nscrutable for most o f the act ion , inviting the audience t o wonder whether he is a n act u al
kid, a malevolent spectre or a cover fo r other people's cri mes . These doubts conj u re u p a
mounting sense of paranoia not only among the dramatis person ae b u t also among v iewers :
there is someth i n g gen ui nely creepy abo ut the notion of a latently omn i p resent force about
 Three - Perfect Blue 53

to sneak o u t of the dark to take a sw i n g at the next p rey. Conco m i tantly, Paranoia Agent com ­
ments on t h e rampant erosion o f b o t h personal and collective identities w i th i n postcapi talist
dispensat i o n s . A pervasive atmosphere o f anom ie is effectively com m u n icated by the first
episode's open ing sequence , a styl ishly constructed visual crescendo where i n the entire social
fabric a ppears dom i nated by the insidious tyranny of the mobile phone . Lil' S l u gger's victims
vividly recall Perfect Blue's main characters i n v i rtue of the i r duplicito u s p e rsonali t i e s : tho ugh
seem i n gly wel l-adj usted, they are all hau nted by disturb i n g secrets and fea rs . The first vic­
tim, designer Tsukiko S ag i , is a clear case i n point : the creator of the enormously popular
cuddly toy Maro m i , she is u nder u nbearable p ress u re to come u p w i t h a n o ther b i g hit, as well
as the target o f malicious backstabbing. The character o f Yu i c h i Tai ra is l i kew ise divided : the
perfect-student fa�ade eas i ly cracks when i t is suspected that he m i gh t be the attacker. The
oste nsibly i rreproachable yo uth now starts believing that everybody is out to get h i m . It is
very temp ting, as the story u n folds, to s u rm ise that Lil' S l u gger is an agency that the affi icted
characters themselves i n adve rtently summon from the most tenebrous depths o f thei r own
hearts : "When the darkness overcomes the heart ," the tagli n e warns, " L i l ' S l ugger appears . "
 FOUR

Neon Genesis Evangelion

Autonomy and dependence are like light and shade, callght in the pull of etlch other's gravity, IIntil,
after considerable trial and error, each individual can find his or her OWII place in the world ....
Now a narrative is a story, IlOt logic, 1I0r ethics, nor philosophy. It is a dream you keep having,
whetheryotl realize it or 110t. Just as surely as you breathe, you go on ceaselessly dreaming yollr story.
And in these stories YOll wear two faces. You are simultaneous�y subject and ob;ect. You are a whole
and you are a part. Yoll are real and you are shadow. "Storyteller" and at the same time ''charac­
ter." It is through sllch multilayering of roles in our stories that we held the loneliness of being an
i.wlated indil,idllal in the world. - Haruki Murakami
Man fiars the darkness and so he scrapes aWilY ilt the edges of it with fire. - Rei Ayanami, Neoll
Genesis Evangelion TV Series, Episode II

The o riginal t itle fo r the series, ShillSeiki EvangeLion, is composed of two parts : the Japa­
nese compound Shinseiki, which means "new era" o r "new generat ion, " and the G reek word
EvangeLion, which l iterally means "good news" (from eu "good" + angelein "to ann o unce" ;
= =

cf. angelos "messenger") and has subsequently come to also mean "gospel . " The English t itle
=

Neon Genesis EvangeLion, o riginally chosen by Gainax , consists o f the Greek wo rds neon, the
neuter form of the word neos ( "new" or "yo ung" ) , genesis ( "origin , " "so u rce" o r " b i rth ,
= =

race") and evangelion.

I n spite of a n un usually generous b u dget fo r a television show, towards the end o f t h e
r u n its c h i e f di rector, Hi deaki Anno, was left w it h ins ufficient funds to shoot h is o rigin a l
scri p t for Ep isode 2 5 an d Episode 26, t h e fin al installments . A s a res u lt , he o pted for an
altern at ive characterized by a perplexingly unsett led endin g . T h o u gh cherished by n um e r­
ous fans , t h i s left others fee l in g dissat isfied (and, in some rather seve re instances, m u rder­
ous) . The di rector, the refo re , resolved to create an Original Video An i m at i on intended to
replace the final TV episodes, ut i l izing an amended script based on h is origin al . Eventual ly,
due to Evangelion's sensat ional success as a TV series, a consort i u m of Japanese corporat ions
fund ed Anno's p roject so b o unteously that the o utcome was not an OVA b ut two featu re­
lengt h movies .
The films Death & Rebirth and The End of Evangelion were both released in 1 9 9 7. The
fi rst com p r ises two rel at ively discrete sections: the Death segment (w rit ten by Anno a n d
di rected by Masayuki) , an i m aginatively reconstructed com posite o f vario u s key moments
from Ep isodes 1-24 of the TV series (and also peppered with tangential a l l u s ions to Episode

54
 Four-Neon Genesis Evangclion 55

2 5 and Episode 26) contai n i n g approxim ately twenty m i n u tes o f totally n e w footage; the
Rebirth segm e n t , consisting of wholly new footage to be reproposed as the first thirty m i n ­
utes of t h e fi l m The End of Elltlngelion.
The End ofEva ngelio n is an entirely novel development of the story's e n d i n g , o ffering an
alternate concl usion to the one provided by the last two i n stal l ments o f the TV show. The
film i tself is divided i nto two segments ent i tled Episode 25' , "Ai r , " (written by Anno and
di rected by Kazuya Ts u ru m aki) and Episode 2 6 ' , " S i ncerely Yours/My P u re Heart for Yo u , "
(both written and di rected b y Anno) . Several highly edi ted frames from b o t h t h e T V series
and Death are also i nclu ded . (Rel'il'al of Evangelion was released i n Japan in 1 9 9 8 and con­
tains a different edit of the original Death fi l m , as wel l as the episodes that form The End of
Evangelion.) In both the U . K. and the U . S . , the series has been distribu ted by ADV F i l m s
a n d t h e feature-length mov ies Death & Rebirth a n d The End of Evangelion b y Manga Enter­
ta i n m e nt , rap idly gai n ing an enth usiastic fo llowin g . In 2004, ADV Films released two addi ­
tional DVDs, Resurrection and Genesis Reborn, encompassi n g the di recto rs' cuts o f Ep isodes
2 1-23 and Episodes 24-2 6 of the TV series respectively.
The kale idoscopic u n iverse of Neo ll Genesis Evangelion u n assum i ngly started l i fe as a reg­
ular 26-episode TV series (4 October 1995-27 March 1 9 9 6) , based o n the well - tested a n i m e
fo rmula of a post-apocalyptic Earth laboring under t h e menace o f prodigious n o n - h u m a n
entities a n d depl oyi n g g i a n t biomechanoids piloted b y ado lescents i n i ts defense . However ,
the early episodes bel ie t h e actual nature of Evangelioll. Initially masqueradi n g a s an i nnocent
addition to the classic giant - robot (mecha) genr e , replete with action-packed sequences, the
series i ncrem entally metamo rphosed i nt o a darkly though tfu l exploration o f the h u man con­
dition featur i n g some of the most convo l u ted personali ties ever com m i tted to fi l m (ani m ated
or otherw ise) , and req u i r i n g the audience itself to ponder the u l t i mate and most i ntractab le
question : what i t means to be human and to l ive as a h u man vis-a. - v is o neself and other peo­
ple. Hence, the show rapidly asserted itself as a h ighly original , thought-provoking and for­
mally adventu rous avant-garde enterprise, whereby the aforementioned fo rmula receded to
the ro le of a purely di egetic underpi nn ing. Priority was accorded i nstead to the scrutiny o f a
p rism atic va riety o f personal and coll ective ordea ls, i nvested with both afFective and ideolog­
ical imp lications, by means o f u northodox compositional p rocedures, open-ended plot th reads
and i ntrepid cinematography.
The b u l k of the story takes p lace in the year 2 0 15 , fi fteen yea rs a ft e r the " S eco n d
Impact" - a calam ity o f horrendous proportions p ut a tively caused b y a meteor strike b u t actu­
ally triggered by human h u b ris - has melted the Antarctic ice cap, tilted the p l a n et's axis and
wiped out half o f the Earth's popu lation. Just as h u m ans are tentatively begi nn i n g to recover
from this catastrophe , they are b l igh ted by a novel scou rge : the advent of po lymo rphous and
extremely belligerent b iomechanoids known s i m p ly as the "An gels . " Convent ional weapons
are utterly useless against these phenomenal i nvade rs , and the sole available defense against
them consists o f a f u rther breed of biomechanical crea tu res , the Evangelions or Evas, pro­
duced by the parami l i tary o rganization NERV (the German word for "ne rve") , and pi loted
exclusively by selected ado lescents born after the Second 1m pac t . As the series u n folds, the
actual calise of the disaster turns out to lie wi th the grandiose evolut ionary schemes p romo ted
by the mysterious o rga nization S EEL E (the German wo rd for "so u l " ) .
The principal character o f El'angelion is S h i nji I kari (the " T h i rd Child"] and t h e p i l o t o f
EVA-Ol) , a t i m i d and s u l len teenager w h o l o s t his mother Yu i w h e n he w a s merely a tod-
56 ANIME I NTERSECTIONS

dler - as she w i l l i ngly acted as the test subj ect in an Eva-related experiment that c u l m inated
with her entire being's absorption i nto EVA-Ol . Shinj i is starkly neglected by h i s father, G e n ­
dou, t h e NERV commander, until t h e latter discovers his son's usefu l n ess a s an Eva p i l o t .
Shinj i's fel low p i l o ts a r e Rei Ayanami ( t h e " F i rst C h i l d " and the p i l o t o f EVA-DO) , a taciturn
and apparently u n emotional g i rl whose past is shrouded i n mystery (i n o rder ro conceal her
bio-engineered nature as a Yu i I kari clone) , and Asuka Langley S o h ryu (the " Secon d Child"
and the p i l o t of EVA-02) , a hot-blooded and see m i n gly arrogant girl hau nted by m e m ories
of her mother's suicide. Altho ugh this hypothesis is never conclusively con fi rmed, i t is l i kely
that M rs . Soh ryu's i nsan i ty and resul ting self-destruction were also the res u l t o f an Eva-based
experi ment. Later developments w i l l suggest that As uka's mother's soul was sucked i nto EVA-
02 as this was being constructed . Other key roles are played by NERV's head o f tactics, M i s ­
a t o Katsuragi , by NERV's head scientist, Ritsuko Akagi , by the latter's ge n i us m o t h e r , Naoko,
by the charismatic spy Kaj i and by Gendo u's adviser, Professor Fuyu tsuki .
Despite their surface differences and often excep tional capabi l ities, a l l o f the p ri n c i pal
characters are socially maladj usted and burdened by a grievo us i n heritance o f loss a n d neg­
lect that renders them respectable and objectionable by turns. (Detailed portraits of Evange­
lion's cha racters - including the Evas and the Angels - are ava i l ab l e o n n u merous fan s ites
and official movie s ites. As potential com panions to this study, the most h el p fu l are fel t to be
the Evangelion portion of the Anirne A rchive; the Evangelion character pages o n Wikipedia, the
Free Encyclopedia; and the official Death & Rebirth and The End of Evangelion o n l i n e h o m es .
URLs are p rovided i n this hook's bibl iography. )
Add itionally, i n i ts treatment of metaphysical and ethical p reoccupations s u rrou n d i n g
t h e nature of good and ev i l , Evangelion resol utely eschews any s i m p l istic dichotom ies b y allud­
i n g to deep -seated a ffi n i ties that ultimately bring the adversarial parties together despite t h e i r
apparently i rreco n c ilable differences . A n n o irreverently chal l e n ges the p rerogatives of anthro­
pocentric h u m a n is m by i ntimating that mankind and the Angels are n o t q u i te as dissi m i l a r
a s one may at first have heen l e d to believe . I n fact , b o t h belong to an overarch ing category
design ated s i m p ly as " h umans"; the Angels are the h u man children born o f the "first Angel , "
Adam , w h i l e t h e " L i l im" ( n amely man kind) are t h e h u man ch i ldren b o r n o f t h e "secon d
Angel ," Lilith .
Furthermore, hav i n g subj ected the l ifel ess body of the fo urth Angel to thorough i nves­
tigation after its defeat by S h i n j i in Episode 3 , "A Transfer/The Phone that Never Ri ngs," the
N ERV scientists make some astonish i ng discoveries abo u t the enemy's makeup. As Ritsuko
reveals to Misato and S h i nj i i n Episode 5, " Rei , Beyo nd her Heart/Rei I , " a l though com posed
of a different form of matte r , the Angels' "actual composition in terms o f the arrangement
and coord i nates of the pattern is a 99.89% match to o u rs . " I n Episode 7, " The Iluman C re­
ation / A H u m a n Work," Ritsuko gets even closer to revealing some unsettli n g truths as she
explains that the Seco nd I m pact was not instigated by a meteor b u t by m a n ki nd's contact
with the first Angel , resulting i n the enti ty's fateful explosio n . She then avers that NERV
exists i n order to p revent a probable "Thi rd I m pact" from occurring. As i t t urns o u t , both
NERV and SE EL E are i n fact planning a Third I mpact in thei r separate ways .
I n addition , even though the Evas are deployed in order to vanquish the Ange l i c e n e m y,
they ironically turn o u t to have been fash ioned on the basis o f the physical model s u p p l i ed
by Adam h i mself. Concu rrently, the Evas have much more in common with the m u rky car­
nality and brute matter of the organic world, and hence of mankind i n its e nt i rety, than w i th
 Fo ur-Neon Genesis Evangelion 57

the gleam i n g s u rfaces and u tterly sterile cores of conventional giant robots . Wen dy Go ldberg
has v iv idly described the c l imax of Episode 19, "A Man's F ightlInt rojection , " as a p a rticularly
shockin g instance of the Eva's a n i m al istic drives : "The Eva moves o n fo u r legs . . . a n d crawl­
walks over to the fallen figure o f h is enemy. Holding the head down , he begins to tear at the
creatu re w ith his mouth . . . . We see the Eva from a shadowy distance; h e looks up a t us, h is
eyes glowing l i ke an a n imal in the dark . Victory is no longer the clean , unam biguous posi­
tion i n the conventional mecha gen re" (Goldberg) . (While G o l dberg refers to the Eva as mas­
cul i n e , some critics - and characters i n the saga - use fem i n i ne p ron o u n s . Others o p t for the
neuter, which is the gender adopted i n this study.)
The s i m u l ta n eo usly fascinating and repulsive appearance evi n ced by the Eva U n i ts is a
logical ou tcome o f mecha des igner I kuto Yamash ita's original concept , as described i n the fol ­
lowing passage : "The d i rector instructed me t o m ake , "the i m age of a demon . " A giant j ust
barely under the control of mankind . . . . The image I had for the design concept was the fa i ry
tale, Gulliver's Travels. E n o rmous Power Restrained . . . . What I came u p w i t h was a giant that
looks l i ke a relief on a wal l " (Yamash ita, 1.).
Numerous works included i n the Evangelion artbooks bear w itness to bot h the text u ral ,
structural and chromatic sump tuousness of the Evas' physiques, and the hypnotic magnetism
of their all-too -human expressions. The color p lates i n Die Sterne a n d Der Mond are espe­
cially notable, i n this regard . The pencil sketches and CG draw i n gs deta i l i n g myriad facets
of both the Evas' bodies and the vast arsenal at their and NERV's disposal are no less worthy
of consideration : the Groundwork of Evangelion volu mes are veritable gold m i nes of graphic
and tech n ical i n formation on the saga's mecha di mension (as well as cou ntless other aspects
o f i ts d isti n ctive aesthetics) . Readers are also advised to consult the art appendices to the
" Newtype F i l m B o oks" devoted to both the series and the features .
Evangelion o ffers an u n p recedentedly complex o rchestration o f the i nterplay o f the tra­
d itional and the new at both the thematic and the tech n ical l evels . O n the thematic p l a n e ,
Evangelion evi nces an allegiance t o Japanese tradition i n its engagement w i t h issues o f l oy­
alty, gro up affil iation , i ntersubjective responsibility and the dangers i n he rent in the exercise
of p rivate self-advancing schemes. S h i nj i's, Asu ka's and Rei's incli nation to conceive o f their
very identit ies as i n extricable from their "jobs" as Eva p i l ots ful ly attests to the p ivotal role
played by the traditional principle o f steadfast allegiance to one's duties throughout the sto ry.
Concur rently, the saga reflects on the role of the family and on the d i re repercussions of the
dereliction of pare ntal d ut y.
The generational conflicts assiduously and uncompromisingly dramatized by Evangelion do
not only pertain to the p rivate sphere- axial as they indubitably are to the characterization of
Shinj i's, Asuka's, M isato's and Ritsuko's respective relationships with varyi ngly rem iss parents . I n
fact , they simultaneously strike broadly cultural chords, i nsofar as Evangelion i s also eager t o doc­
ument the generational connotations of Japan's social and economic modernization in the after­
math of the Second World War. Accordi ng to one of the saga's most distinguished critics, D en n is
Redmond, "The 'old men' o f S EELE represent the deeply conservative , i m mediate post-war gen ­
eration; Gendou Ikari a n d Fuyutsuki h a i l from the technocratic generation o f t h e 1970s; M isato
and the other NERV staffers rep resent the consumer-oriented 1 9 80s; while the children them­
selves incarnate the informatic 1990s (only fourteen -year-old children have the neural flexibility
to pilot the Evas, a canny reference to the ability of the Nintendo kids to meld with a given tech­
nology far faster than any adult)" (Redmond, p. 2 1 0 ) .
58 AN IME I NTERSECTIONS

The traditional element is also vividly encapsulated by the fi l m s' co n s istent em phasis on
the aliveness o f the entire environment in a fash ion redolent of S h into mythology. The saga
contains n u merous allusions to S h i nto's sacred texts: the Kojiki (or Fu rukotofumi, 6 8 2-712) ,
the oldest exta nt text documenting Japan's proto-history and i ts u nderlyi n g creation myths,
and the Nihongi (720) , the second oldest record of Japan's myth ical p as t . Exp l i c i t refe re n ce
is specifically m ade to the legend contained i n the Nihongi acco rd i n g to which the cosmos
i n itially cons isted o f a n amorphous b l o b and subsequ ently d iv i ded into discrete regi o n s :
" Heaven a n d Earth were n o t yet separated . . . . T h ey formed a chao tic mass l i ke a n egg which
was of obscu rely defined l i m i ts . . . . The purer and cleaner part was t h i n ly drawn o u t , and
fo rmed Heave n , while the heavier and grosser element settled down and became Earth . . . .
Thereafter divine beings were produced between them" (The Nihongi, Book 1: The Age of the
Gods) . Anno's own cosmogony is di rectly i nformed by this ancient fab l e . Fu rther all u s io n s to
th is discou rse i nclude im ages centered on the myths of a pri mordial cos m i c soup , the B lack
and White Moons, the Spear of Des t i ny (namely the lance by means of which the S h i nto
deities lzanagi and Izanami are said to have created the Earth) and the i n d i genous pantheon :
the S u n goddess Amaterasu (el l i ptically associated w i th the u n fathomable Rei ) , the goddess
o f Joy Uzume (i ronically connected w i th the ebullient As uka) and the Storm god Susanoo
(comparable to S h i n j i i n v i rtue of his unsociable behavior) . I n acknowledgi n g Evangelion's
specifically Japanese legacy, it also seems worth pointing o u t that the native word used to des­
ignate the Angels is not " tenshi" (the li teral transl ation of "angel") b u t "shito, "messenger" :
the use o f this term is entirely congruous with the titu lar connotations d iscussed i n the o p e n ­
ing segment of this chapter.
Wes tern traditions also come prominently i nto play alongside native lore, w i th a distinct
p reponderance o f Ch ristian motifs . Visual allusions to the Cross abound t h ro ughout the saga ,
and range from spectacular rep resentations of gigantic beams shooti n g u p to the heavens a n d
across t h e u rban g r i d to p rosaically unobtrusive o rnamental details and accesso ries . Along­
side spectacular visual h i nts at the Crucifixion , Evangelion featu res sustain ed refe rences to the
aforementioned Ada m (described as the first " h uman" i n the Judea-Christian tradition) a n d
Lilith ( i ntroduced a s Adam's fi r s t wife); t o Eve (called "Eva" in several languages); to the Lance
of Long in us (the spear said to have been thrust by a Ro man soldier i nto the crucified Ch rist);
to the Dead Sea S crolls (a collection of about 850 documents p roduced over 2 , 000 years i n
a variety o f media - parch ment, copper, papyrus, etc . - a n d discovered between 1 9 4 7 a n d
1 956 on t h e no rth west shore of t h e D ead Sea); a n d t o t h e Sephiroth - t h e Kabbal istic Tree
of L i fe dep icting the ten creative emanations of the divine principle that intervene between
God and the u n iverse .
Evangelion's i nvocation o f numerous religious and mythic motifs by means of cryptic
allusions to sou rces as varied as the Kojiki and the Kabbalah constitutes one o f i ts most con­
spicuous characteristics . I t is notewo rthy, however , that even though these thematic motifs
are drawn from both Japanese and Judeo -Christian frames of reference and the latter discou rse
often appears to have been accorded a central position , the Eastern dimension is ulti mately a
more vitally susta i n i n g source of inspiration , and the Western baggage fundamentally fu n c­
tions as a narrative and iconological enhancer. Furthermore , Evangelion is no p rosely t i z i n g
chunk of catechism - i n fac t , there is every chance that very devout Jews and Christians would
regard its use of i m agery drawn from thei r texts as rather unorthodox . This is q u i te a ref resh­
ing message i n a world as o ften driven by evangelical bigotry as the contempo rary one i s . Asked
 rOllr-Ncon Gcnesis Evangelioll 59

to comment on Evangelion's B i b l ical symbol ism , Ends co -director Tsuru mak i has explicitly
underscored the playfully uti l itarian character of its employme nt : "There are a lot o f giant
robot shows i n Japa n , and we did want o u r story to have a religious theme to help dist i n ­
guish us. B eca use Christ i an ity is an uncommon rel igion i n Japan w e thought i t w o u l d be mys­
terious .... There is no actual Ch ristian mean ing to the show" (Tsurumaki).
Wh i l e emb rac i n g the notion o f tradi t ion at the afo re m e ntioned l evels, Euangelion s i m u l ­
taneously makes s ustai n ed reference to b road cultural and pol itical o rdeal s . T h e s e themes
eloquently test i fy t o t h e decidedly top ical and macrocosm ic a m p l itude o f the a ffl i ct i o n s
i t dramatizes. Cons p i racies, h idden agendas, draggi ng bu reaucratic p rotocols a n d govern­
ment cover-ups designed to sanitize the reasons and effects o f devastat i n g confrontations cast
ominous shadows u p o n each and eve ry t u rn of the saga's m u lt i-laye red p l ot. T hese are ren ­
dered especially dist u r b i n g b y their method ical i ntegration w ith utterly uncom p ro m i s i n g
dep ictions o f outbu rsts o f anxiety and pan i c , o n t h e one h a n d , a n d w ith deliciously i ncon­
gruous descri pt ive tou ches, such as the pet pengu i n that takes h is naps in M isato's spare
freezer. It is t h i s deft ama lgamat i o n of d ive rse narrative and c i n e m at i c i n gredi e nts t h at
cumulat ively enables the saga to reach fa r beyond the domai n o f soap o p e ra frequently occu­
p ied by its generic relations and well i nto the realms o f aesthet i c elegance and eth ical den­
sity.
Evangelion concomitantly adopts a saliently modern perspective i n its t reat m e nt o f h is­
torical crisi s : it is vital to acknowledge , i n t h i s rega rd, that the anxieties u nderlyi n g Ann o's
work l a rgely e m a n ate from c u ltu rally specific v i c i s s it u d es affect i n g J a p a n i n the early
and mid-1 9 9 0 s - n amely, the b u rsti n g o f the economic " b u bble , " the Aum S h i n ri kyo ter­
ro rist attack2 and the Kobe earthq uake. At the same t im e , the image o f the Tokyo- 3 sky­
scrapers e m e rgi n g fro m t h e i r u n dergro u n d shelter at s u nset could be read as a n allego rical
reference to the p rocesses o f ceaseless demol ition and reb u i l d i n g , fuelled by the imperatives
of a ruthless construction state, that has characterized vital mome nts o f To kyo's actual h i s ­
to ry.
M i ck Broderick has hel p fu l l y summa ri zed El'angelion 's overarc h i n g s o c i o - h i storical
d imens ion as fo llows : "The h istory and origins o f Japanese post-war a n i me are i n extricably
l i n ked w ith both secula r a n d sacred renderi ngs of eschaton . . . . Neon Genesis Evangelion seems
to re-vision the rad ical a n d evo l utionary transformat i o n s of Japa nese societ y d u r i n g the p ast
two generations, recast i n g contemporary ruptures in its narrative as h isto rical p redict i o n"
(Broderick). At the same t i m e , h owever , the story's postapocalyptic p reoccupations make it
concu rrently relevant to d iverse m i l ieux across the e nt i re map of o u r fe rocio usly ab used
planet. Furth ermore , Evangelion 's insi ghtful treat m e nt o f t ro u bled i ndividual psyches, o n the
one hand, and of n o less tormented societ i es, on the othe r , is o f equal resonance in a w ide
ra nge of societal set u ps. The cri p p l i n g anx iet ies e n d ur e d by the i n d ividuals and the societ ies
depicted in the Evangelion productions i n deed capture a truly gl obal n ot i o n o f "civil izat i o n
a n d i t s discontents , " as t h e title o f one o f S i g m u n d Freud's most sem i n a l texts famo usly p uts
It.
Thro ughout the TV series, Anno and h is collaborato rs st ress t h at the problems faced by
their characters at both the affective and political levels ste m fro m one card i n al cause : they
are all unabl e , in various ways , to sever themselves from the i r chi ldhood experiences o f rejec­
tion and loss. This i n abil ity to access su ccessfully the ad u lt domain entails that the affected
characters do not hold a shared and p u b l i cly recogn i zed language through which they may at
60 AN I � E i :-.lTERSECTIONS

least identify and name what they have lost , and are therefore i ncapable of mo u r n i n g the lost
object thro ugh ratified signs and sym bols . I n fact, they pathetically grieve over a lack that can
be neither expressed nor symbol ized . I ncapable of encoding thei r anguish , Anno's personae
one by one retreat into silently private crypts of pai n .
I n t h e p rovisional ending suppl ied b y the TV show w i t h Episode 2 5 ( " T he E n d o f the
World/Do Yo u Love Me?") and Episode 26 (" The B east that S h o u ted ' I ' at the Heart o f the
World/ F i nale : Take Care o f Yo u rsel f") , we are given a series of v ignettes o f the p r i n c i p a l char­
acters, set i n a dimly lit and sparsely fu rnished room and i ntercut with flashbacks, flashfc)f ­
wards a n d stylized representations of their subl i m i nal fantasies a n d fears i n t h e forms o f l i n e
draw i ngs, abstract pictures a n d photographs. A s the animation breaks down , t h e giant-robot
genre dismantles i tsel f drastically. As S usan J . Napier comments, "The alienation of the char­
acters, especially that o f S h i nj i , is spectacularly apparent i n the p uzzl i n g and gen u i n ely sub­
versive final e p isode, a grand finale in which, bizarrely for a work i n the mecha gen r e , n o t a
s i n gle mecha is shown" (Nap ier 2 00 1 , p. 1 0 1 ).
Episode 2 6 delves further into the characters' m i nds, i ntimating w ith increas i n g u rgen cy
that they w i l l know no peace until they can come to terms with their inters u bjective connec­
tions . In the episode's cli max , the ani mation plu nges into Becketti a n m i n i m a l is m , tec h n ically
embraci ng both the trad i tional Japanese penchant fo r stylization and innovative digital meth­
ods for choreogra p h i n g s i m ple l i n es with unparalleled flu idity. S h i nj i is translated i nt o a bla­
tantly two-dimens ional l i n e draw i n g of hi mself, proteanly metamorphos i n g fro m o n e fra m e
t o t h e next t o reflect other people's discorda nt percep tions of h is personali ty. T h e s h a p e i s
t h e n flung i nto a vo id where i n finite possibilities seem availabl e .
T h i s sequence amo unts to an utterly unsentimental deconstruction o f S h i nj i 's psyche i n
wh ich , a s M i ke C randol poi nts o u t , the exposure of i nternal affiictions a t the thematic level
is aptly complemented by the ani mational style at the level o f tech n ique i n what u nquestion­
ably constitut es Evangelion's "boldest artistic endeavo r" : " F u l l a n i m ation regresses to story­
boards that in tu rn give way to a bl ack-and-white scribble of S h i nj i floati n g in a wh i te void.
(The effect is not u n like the classic Chuck Jones' Looney Tu ne D uck Amuck , i n w h ich Daffy
D uck fi nds h is cartoon un iverse deconstru cted by an u nseen a n i m ator)" (Crando\) .
T h e episode's deconstruct ive proclivities are fu rther confirmed by i ts consistent e m p l oy­
ment of discordant visuals that appear to i nterrogate their own val idity at each t u r n . T hese
i nclude elaborate col l ages o f shots from other ep isodes in the series, i nterspersed with mono­
chromatic stills captu ring key moments i n the saga , black-and-whi te photogra p h s fro m the
actual wo rld, kaleidosco pic sl ivers of co lor and elusive fl icke rs of l i gh t . What the clos i n g
i nstal lments of t h e show sugges t , through these audacious com positional strategies, is t h a t the
solipsistic prison i nto which v i rtually all the characters are trapped m ay only be set aside when
a person accepts - as Rei p u ts it - that "yo u ca nnot be yo u rs e l f w i t h o u t the presence of oth­
ers . " T h i s entails the ach ievement not only of an understanding of the val ue o f interaction
and o f the mechanisms that make i t possible but also, more crucially s t i l l , o f an abi l i t y to
con ceive i magi natively of alternative worlds : precisely what Anno, his team , and u l t imately
all ani mators are com m i tted to accomplish .
The closi ng part o f Episode 26 of the TV series, mo reover, overtly p ro poses that self­
knowledge i m p lies a preparedness to open up commodiously to the poss i b i l i t y that o n e's so­
called "reality" may merely represent a d i m i n u tive facet of a vast galaxy o f other conceivable
realities. This thesis is uncharacteristically developed to comedic extremes as S h i nj i is rrans-
 FOllr-Neon G e nesis Evangelion 61

ported to a s i t-com type o f fam ily and neighborhood filled with cliched slapstick, common­
place concerns and not the slightest h i nt at the l i kes of Angels a n d Evas . This alternate end­
i n g is fu ndamentally a corollary o f S h i nj i's eventual realization that h is identity as an Eva p il o t
is only one possible narrative in w h i c h his existence m a y be couched, and by no m e a n s t h e
s o l e defi n i n g factor of h is entire being. Following this discovery, l i fe becomes someth i n g o f a
stage upon which both confl icting and complementary narratives can be e nacted . I n the clos­
ing segment of the series, S h i nj i does not rei nvent h imself from scratch . Rather, as Goldberg
p u ts i t , he s i m p ly "tells a happier story - this time casting h imself i n another conventional
anime genre , the teen comedy, where he has the perfect fam i ly l i fe and sex u a l i t y is 'norma l ­
ized' ( i n t h e s e n s e t h a t u nknowability is exciting, not necessarily alienat i n g ) . H e d iscovers
that there is a certai n pleasure i n discovering a new person and her identity. . . . Rei becomes a
typical , bubble-headed, late-for-class new student at h is school i nstead o f h e r usual coo! , ego ­
l ess self" (Goldberg ) .
A j oke a t S h i n j i 's expense , this comedic fi nale i s a n apt commentary o n the character's
psychological development but also, no less significantly, on the degrees of depth o r su perficial­
ity to which the art of anime may o p t to asp i re . Any top i c , Anno here i n t i m ates, m ay o ffer
t h e raw materials fo r either a tragedy or a farce or i ndeed both i n the hands o f an i n s p i red
artist . I t is by capitalizing on this premise w i th unp recedented temerity that Evangelion has
stretched the l i m i ts of what the ani mated fi l m co uld ever hope to convey, o ffering at once a
masterfully execu ted sci-fi action adventure , a revisionist sat i re o f that same ge n re , a B i l ­
dungs roman , and a dispassionate study of t h e i ncidence of i nsecurity a n d loneliness. I n the
p rocess, the series a nd the featu res alike have left an i n del ible m a rk o n the a n i m e industry i n
i ts enti ret y.
Where techn iques are concerned, the saga is staunchly com m itted to the perfection o f
hand-drawn graphics t h a t are capable of evoking a realistically m u l t i - faceted u n ivers e , w h i l e
simultaneously perpetuating t h e Japanese p reference for stylization by recou rse to p o i gnantly
econom ical visual symbo l s . Yosh iyuki Sadamoto's designs, moreover , ev i n ce a n uncanny abi l ­
ity t o grasp t h e subtlest n u ances o f t h e various characters' personalities, prov i d i ng clues t o
the i r plausible attitudes and conduct i n si tuations other than those exp l i c i tly d ra m atized b y
t h e series a n d movies . They t h u s emulate, at t h e l evel of character design , t h e ach ievements
of "method" actors in the realm of theatrical performance .
I magi n i n g the dramatis personae i n roles and contexts external to the logic o f the saga
enables the character designer to b u i ld up satisfyi ngly m u l t i faceted and conv i n c i n g perso n ­
alities . B o t h Die Sterne a n d Der Mond offer n u m erous examples of Sadamo to's knack of plac­
i n g the characters i n a variety o f alternate realities. The i mages are, at ti mes, so starkly in
cont rast with the nature o f the characters as one has com e to know them t h ro ugh the a n i ­
methat they m a y w e l l b r i n g a s m i l e o f amusement to t h e viewer's face . Visions o f Rei a n d
S h i n j i i n formal eve n i n g wear; of bo isterous playgrou n d p ranks centred o n Asu ka; o f S uper­
D eformed versions o f the main personae; of Misato playfully c l i m b i n g a Honda b ike; and of
Rei and Asu ka affectionately i nteracti n g with each other, for i nstance , are so glorio usly "out
of cha racter" as to verge on the h i lario u s . However , such i m ages a re perfectly consonan t ,
philosoph ically speaki n g , w i t h t h e existential message conveyed by b o t h t h e closing portion
of Episode 26 o f the show and End of Evangelion, where i t is p roposed that the world is what
one contingently m a kes of i t - and that the coexistence of confl icti n g , parallel visions of one's
rea l i t y is not necessa rily q u i te as p reposterous a scenario as one might at first suspect .5 Fur-
62 AN I M E ] ;\fTERSECT I O N S

thermore, Sadamo to's character designs are harmon iously integrated w ith Yam ashita's mecha n ­
i c a l desig n s . A s Redmond h a s noted, i n t h i s respect ,

Over and over aga i n, Anno w i l l strike just t he right balance between Yamash ita's people-moving pl atforms,
giant conveyor belts and Eva-related equipmem , and Sadamoto's crisp, emotive c haracter designs. Dur ing
an early scene of [ Episode I, "Angel Attack"], for exampl e, R itsuko, ... M i sato and S h inji are s i l h ouetted
in an e levator aga i nst a glowing p ink background, gloomily discussing th e near-impos s i b i l ity of ever get­
ting the Eva to work properl y; sudden ly the vast h umanoid hand of EVA-O I material izes in th e storage
tank beh i n d them. A s i m i l ar tech nique is used when Shin j i first confronts the gaze of EVA-O l, whose seg­
mented, eyeless face glares l ike a styl ized demon out of Japan's storied theatrical traditi o n : d i stant obj ects
look n e ar, and ncar objects l o o k d istant [ Redmond, pp. 207- 8 1 .

The hand-d rawn element i s self- reflexively thrown i nto rel ief, mo reove r , through t h e i ncor­
poration o f frames and shots that reproduce s n i ppets of the origi n al storyboa rds, sketches,
character designs and wate rcolor backgrou nds, drawn from various planni n g and p roduction
stages . These techn iques play a n especially vital role i n sequences devoted to the depiction o f
t h e characters' troubled psyches .
Some o f the most vividly real istic depictions o f both characters a n d sett i n gs can be
detected i n the sequences dramatizing the Evas' confrontations with the A ngels . At less dyn a m i c
and more i n t rospective times, real ism gives way to a graphic style t h a t del i berately fo reg ro unds
the v is uals' hand-crafted dimension. On such occasions, both the natural e n v i ro n m en t and
the urban scenery are repeatedly rep resented by recourse to emphatically two-di mensional
watercolor pai nt i ngs characterized by h ighly diluted washes and i ntensely stylized elements.
Whether it e m b races the naturalistic modal ity or i ts allusive cou nterpart , Evangelion's p icto­
rial style u n relentingly evi n ces an affectionate devotion to details that is no less concerned
with capturing the stains on the walls of a school lavatory o r the s tark l i nes of rails and pylons
than with portrayin g the o m i n o us beauty of an intricately des igned bio mechano i d .
When methodically paced and meditative moments develop i nto j o urneys across the con­
torted mi nds o f those who experience them i n the first perso n , a fur th e r aspect of the hand­
drawn tech n ique comes into p l ay : the somatic featu res of the affected characters acq u i re
harsher, more angular and even maskl ike traits, the shadows fall mo re deeply and search i ngly
onto the i r aggrieved countenances, and the chromatic palettes are m i n i malized so as to g i ve
su rreal p ro m i n ence to a s ingle h ue range . As Jeff Wi l l iams persuasively maintains, th is auda­
cious admixture of realism and s tylization has occasionally met w ith puzzled responses: " What
con fuses some people is the visual style of the series - many shots are q u i te spartan by des ign
rather by any technical l i m i tation ... by an intentional stylistic dev ice" (Will iams, J . ) .
The a n imation's deliberately j arri ng effects are he ightened b y Evangelion's use of cap­
tions presented in the form of ultra-swiftly flashing ktmji that foregro u nd the intensely painterly
flavor of Japanese writ i n g . Additionally, polychromat ic and m i n u tely detailed sequences a re
disco ncerti ngly j uxtaposed to m i n i malistic animations of abstract p e n c i l draw i n gs o f efferves­
cent adaptabi l i ty. I n the final feature , the hand-drawn dimension is fu rther emphasized by
means o f its j uxtaposition with fragments of l ive-action footage and stills derived from real
urban l i fe . These various p loys serve to comment ellip tically on the very p rocess of the fi l m s'
p roductio n . This applies, i n varying degrees, to the TV episodes and the feature-length fi l m s
alike .
A t t h e same t i m e , Evangelion's cinematography offers a number o f wordless a n d exquis­
i tely slow sequences, barely registering any obvious sense of dynamic change , o f the ki nd of
 FO/lr-- Neon Genesis Eva ngelion 63

which o n l y a n i m e at i ts most p roficient is capabl e . As Wi l l iams observes, "many shots lack

any movem e nt whatsoever for l e n gthy, al most uncomfortable periods o f time . . . for exa m p l e ,
Rei a n d Asuka's fa mous elevator ride i n silence , w h i c h goes o n see m i n gly fo rever . . . is s i mply
i l l ustrative of character relationships, and also serves to tweak the viewer a l ittle b i t" (Williams,
J . ) . (The scene referred to by Wi l l i ams, i n cidental ly, occ u rs in Episode 22, "At Leas t , Be
Humane/Don't Be.") No less memorable is the cl imactic frame of Ep isode 2 4 , " T h e F i nal
Messenger/The Beginn i n g and the End, or ' Knocki n' on Heaven's Door' , " where a perfectly
motionless EVA-OJ cl utches Kaworu - the " F ifth Child" and "seventeenth Angel" - for an
ostensibly interminable sixty-three-second spell befo re reso lving to crush the creature to death .
The pathos o f Sh inj i's predicament , as h is tormented conscience gradually comes to terms
with the ghastly real i t y o f h is fr iend Kawo ru's true namre , could barely have been captured
more po ignantly by a lengthy dialogical or monological sequence - in fact , there is eve ry
chance that the use of any words whatsoever would have lowered the p rotagonist's o rdeal to
the level of vap i d ly garru lous melodrama . S h i nj i's train ride i n Episode 4, "Rai n , Escape and
Afterwards /Hedgehog's D i le m m a , " l i kewise supplies a paradigmatic exa m p l e of Ann o's pen­
chant for wordless sequences, i nsofar as the silence su rro unding the hero as he makes a fee­
ble attempt to flee h is responsi b i l ities evokes with admirable concise ness h is path o logical
separation from h i s fellow h u mans .
In assessing Evangelion's aco ustic dimensio n , it must also be stressed that th e saga i n its
enti rety is com p l emented by quite a un ique use of mus i c , incl uding both the sound track actu­
ally com posed fo r the p u rposes of the series and of the e n s u ing featu res and an inspi red adop­
tion of classical p i eces . T he latter include Georg Handel's "Messiah," Ludwig van Beethoven's
" Symphony No . 9 in 0 m i nor Op. 125," Johann Sebastian Bach's " Su i te for Cello Solo N o .
1" and "Jesus Bleibet Meine Freude ," and Gi useppe Verdi's " Requ ie m . "
N o less distinctive o f Anno's cinematographical signature than the use o f lengthy static
i mages is the di rector's v isual m i n imalism . As cultural theorist Azuma H i roki o f Tokyo U n i­
versity has pointed o u t in an interview conducted by Krystian Woznicki , whereas n u merous
anime di rectors "are beco m i n g more and more obsessed with draw i n g a del uge o f details into
one frame , " Anno consistently cul tivates the aesthetic principle of red uction so that , by and
large, "the i n formation i ncluded i n one frame is very l i m ited . " Relatedly, " i nstead of m u l t i­
plying i n formation w i th i n one fra m e , Anno does multiply i n formation by the speed a n d
rhy thm of cut-u ps" (Wozn icki ) . F urthermore , Anno's employment of cut-ups - perfo rmed
by taking a l i near fi l m ic tex t , slicing it into pieces and the n rearrangi n g the p ieces i nt o a n ew
text - is vividly redolent o f Jean-Luc Godard's cinema .
Anno's persistent dedication to th is tech nique is matched by the u b i q u i to usness, across
all of the available Evangelioll artbooks, o f col lage-l ike composi tes o f various characters that
point to their inte rsubjective roles and connect ions . These works are also thematically cogent
i nsofar as they aptly complement the story's emphasis on the fu ndamentally relational status
o f h u man identity. Pictorial ensembles including S h i nj i , As u ka and Rei , normally with one
o r more of the Uni ts looming i n the background, abo u n d . M isato is o ften i n c l uded as is, occa­
sionally, Ritsuko i n o rder to u nderscore the three Eva p i l o ts' i m b rication i n a network o f
strategic and scientific priorities . S o m e of t h e composites reach straight to Evangelion's meta­
physical core - e . g . in the depiction of Asuka and Sh inj i stari ng at a m i n iature Rei suspended
i n s ide a beake r in a fetal position , or i n that of Rei and Asuka against the backgro und of a
rad iant Geofront where i n Sh inj i's n ude body helplessly floats . The i mage of Gendou observ-
64 Af" I M E I NTERS ECTIONS

i n g the scene fro m a guarded distance is sporadically i n corporated to lend silent pathos to the
ensembl e . The more elaborate montages i nclude all of the saga's key characters i n multi-lay­
ered formations of considerable structural complexi ty. Their i ntegration of myriad kaleido­
scopic shards closely app roximates the v isual vibrancy of Evangelion's a n i m ated cut - ups despite
the absence of empirical movement.
Wh ile fosteri ng hand-drawn and styl ized visuals, Evangelion also constitu tes a gro u n d ­
b reaki ng i ntervention i n t h e evolution of compu ter-generated graph i cs . The i m p l e mentation
of appropriate digital tools i n the editing of the pictorial components mentioned above and
i n their i ntegration with the "regular" frames has clearly abetted Anno's ambi tious a p p roach
to co llage, yieldi n g a markedly personal vision that is si multaneously t raditional and i nn ova­
tive . In the TV series, CG I were used extensively but consistently p rocessed as 20 i mages .
I n The End of Evangelion, a 3 D element was i n corporated b u t analog p rocess i n g was also
employed i n order to i mpart the 3 D CG scenes with a visual flavor consonant with those
fil med in conventional fashions. The result is a cinematograph ical accomplishment o f arguably
u n p recedented worth : "Neon Genesis Evangelion - both the series and movies - is o ften beau­
tifully 'shot , ' with an artistic style oHraming and use o f color and l i gh t i n g heav ily i n fluenced
by some o f the great l ive action cinem atograp hers of the past and p resent" (Williams, J . ) .
The overall tech n i cal qual ity of both the series and the features owes much to the p io ­
neering exploits i n t h e domain of digital animation i n it iated b y Produc tion I . G - - the studio
behind epoch-making ani m e movies such as Mamoru Osh i i 's Ghost in the Shell ( 1 9 9 5 ) a n d
H i royuki Kitakubo's Blood: The Last Vampire ( 2 0 0 0 ) - and S t u d i o Gai nax - the com p a n y
fo u nded b y A n n o , Sadamoto, H i royuki Yamaga and Taka m i Akai i n 1 9 8 4 , and b e s t known
for The Wings of Honneamise (dir. Hi royuki Yamaga , 1 9 8 7) and the series Nadia: The Secret
of Blue Wtzter ( 1 9 9 0 ) , of which Anno was personally i n charge .
Both studios' tech n i cal excellence is eloquently borne o u t by Evangelion's use of various
trai lblazi n g tech n i q ues, and especially o f digital com positi n g . M a n ual compos i t i n g posed
i nevi table restrictions on the n u mber of laye rs that could be realistically i n c l uded i n the fi n al
p roduct , and was extremely laborious when it came to harmon izi n g the individual l ayers so
as to secure their recip rocal compatib i l i ty. With the advent o f computer-generated com p o s i t ­
i n g , t h e layers c o u l d be edi ted i n groups, which would guarantee consistency o f p resent a t i o n .
Moreover, add itional effects such a s lighting could be app l i ed to either a w h o l e frame o r to
discrete layers , according to a scene's conti ngent requi rements . The saga also benefi ted con ­
siderably from t h e creation of digital special effects, for which Production I . G is globally
renowned . What is most distinctive about the studio's p rocedures , i n this respect , is i ts knack
o f creati n g analog effects by digital means . These include lens effects such as the fish -eye lens,
motion b l u rs and instabili ties i n both camera focus and light exposure so as to evoke specific
moods , a n d light i ng effects such a s variable shadows and gu n -muzzle flashes .
Evangelion's use of cutti n g-edge tech nology works self- reflexively o n t h ree dis tinct lev­
els . F irstly, com p u ter-generated i magery is consistenrly emp loyed i n o rder to rep resent cyber­
netic equipment and digital data : for example, geometrical diagrams of the pil o ts' bodies as
these are s ubj ect to CAT scans, comp uter maps detailing the p rogress of a n attacki n g A n ge l ,
and bar graphs i l l ustrating the various phases of an Eva's activation p rocess or the results o f
a synchron ization test involvi n g a n Eva a n d its p i l o t . Secondly, Evangelion's na rrative com­
m itment to the investigation of the ulti mate meaning of h u m a n i t y vis-a.-vis an apocalyptic
vision of tech nology leads to a radical suspension of conventional real ity marke rs that is aptly
 Four-Neon G e nesis Evangelion 65

paralleled by the u s e o f state-of-the-art tech n iques . These a r e expl icitly i ntended to t hrow
into rel ief the vaporousness of the real by foregro u n d i n g the rampant artifice i nherent in the
med i u m of a n i m e itself.
Thi rdly, sophisticated digital tech n iques are imaginatively u t i lized to convey the divided
and composite nature of the central characters' psyches by means of i mages that l iterally mul­
tiply the i r countenance w i th deeply disorienti ng effects . In Episode 1 , for exa m p l e , Shi n j i 's
con fusion upon meeti n g his father (wh om he has not seen fo r three years) and being asked
to p i l o t EVA-Ol is forcibly com m u n i cated by the shot of Gelldo u's own face against banks of
video mon itors exh i b i t i n g multiple i mages of Shinj i . These video i m ages , moreove r , are i n
turn deftly m irrored b y a close-up of Gendo u's glasses , i n whi ch they a re reflected . Also
emblematic is the sce n e in Episode 5 in which Shi n j i visits Rei in the dilap idated and eerily
resonat i n g apartment block where i n she dwells and finds that her sole p ossess ion , beside
assorted l i tter and bloody bandages, is a cracked pair o f G endo u's spectacles . Sh i nj i's reflection
i n the warped lenses as he tentatively approaches the object sym bolically capt u res the m e nt a l
s p l i t h e experiences throughout the s h ow a s a result of his i n a b i l i t y to arrive at any conclu­
sive decisions regard i n g e i ther h is father's or Rei 's true n a t u res, let alone the relationsh i p
between the two characters .
There are also occasions on w h i ch Evangelion deploys self- reflexively its blend of trad i ­
tional a n d digital tech n iques . A class ic example is o ffered b y Episode 9 , " B o th o f Yo u , Dance
like Yo u Want to Wi n!/Wi th one Accord, in a Flash," th rough the seque nce i n which U n i ts
0 1 and 0 2 's j o int attack against the seventh A ngel is choreographed as a feat o f seamlessly har­
monized movements . In the sequence's cli max , the Evas' coord i nation is tech n ically rep licated
by a montage consisting o f exuberantly hand-drawn and digitally composited graph ics by
means of which b o th the two Evas' and the i r pilots' bodies appear to merge i nto one s i n gle
entity. Ep isode 1 1 , "In the Still Darkness /The Day Tokyo -3 Stood Stil l , " also functions self­
referentially i n o rder to consolidate techn ically the adventure's pervasive mood . The s u ffocat­
ing atmosphere o f i n e r t i a and stasis pe rvad i n g N E RV as a resu l t o f a l arge-scale
blacko ut - wh ich co i n c ides w i th the advent of the ninth Angel - is conveyed by recou rse to
sophisticated CGI for the representation of the sp ider-l ike enemy and i ts ponderous motion ,
and traditional a n i m e camera work for the fi l m i n g of the th ree Eva p i l o ts' craw l i n g p rogress
along the labyrinth i n e passages lead i n g from Tokyo-3 to the N E RV Headquarters, as they
endeavor to reach the i r Un its. The different tools here emp loyed collaboratively contribute
to the evocation o f a potent sense of i m peded laboriousness .
The animation's complexity is already evident i n the TV show's o p e n i n g , a 9 0 -second
p iece comprisi n g 84 u p - tempo cuts . With each shot receiving a n average o f approxi mately
one second, the footage del ivers an overwhel m i n g vo l u me of i n formation en riched through ­
o u t by an i ntrigui n g array of mystical symbols, a perfect m atch o f vis uals and m u s i c a n d
soph isticated fram i n g . Wh ile i t is common for an anime series to o ffer a t a g t h a t s imply b r i n gs
together sam p l es of i ts action foo tage , snapshots of its key personae and elements of music­
video rhetoric , Evangelion supplies a radically i nnovative visual p reamble of autonomous artis­
tic quality. The i n itial frame exh i bi ts a m i n ute glimmer o f throb b i n g l i ght s p reading i nto a
circular shockwave . This is repl aced by a blazing backgro und nebula upon which is s uperi m ­
posed an i ntricate e m b l e m that gradually recedes i nto the distance . A fo rwards z o o m through
an ocean of ice-blue galaxies is then p roposed, w i th a gleam i n g close-up o f the Seph iroth
scro l l i n g downwards in the fo reground, and then dissolv i n g i nto a tw i n kl i n g azure glare aki n
66 AN I M E I NTERSECTIONS

to the reflection of candlelight in a puddle. The title sequence p roper now begi ns, ushered i n
b y t h e Japanese char acters for "Shinseiki" against t h e Anglophone word "Evangel ion . " The
sequence then moves onto a pan of S h i nj i's face against a serene sky beaded with fleecy clouds .
A dusky silhouette of his enti re body makes a brief appearance to the right o f the fra me , and
is then superseded by the l i ghtless shapes of Rei's and Asu ka's bodies, scro l l i n g vertically o n
e i ther s i d e o f S h i n j i 's face (to t h e right a n d upwards in Rei 's case, and to t h e l e ft a n d dow n ­
wards i n Asuka's) . A close-up o f M isato's outstretched hand against the backgrou nd o f a rad i ­
a n t golden sky appears nex t , a s the Sephiroth aga i n scrolls through the scree n , this t i m e i n
upwards motio n .
T h e sequence reaches i t s affective climax w i t h a stunn i n gly elaborate montage including
a close-up o f M isato's m i e n , a shot of her conto u r agai nst the backdrop o f a glow i n g o rb , and
a close-up o f S h i nj i's face i n the upper right-hand corner of the scree n . Each i m a ge smoothly
rolls out o f the frame j ust as another image rolls i n . A shot o f Rei behind a closed w i ndow is
then i ntroduced, and fo llowed by an intensely realistic close-up of her albi no eye rep l ete with
i n fi n itesimal quivers o f ligh t . The closing part of the o p e n in g cred i ts offers b rief shots of
English words central to the saga's indigenous vocabulary - such as " Test Typ e , " " To kyo- 3 "
a n d "EVA-O ! " - i nterspersed w i t h gl i mpses of moments fro m t h e series a n d close-ups o f the
various characters, c u l m inating with emphatically graphic i mages of EVA-O I at i ts most i m pos­
ing. The final sho t , i ron ically, is that of a smili ng S h i nj i . Each o f the key i mages elegantly
cou nterbalances another i m age moving i n the opposite d i rection . For exa m p l e , the fi rs t s h o t
of the Sephiroth t o w h i c h we are treated displays the sym bol i n descending motion , wh i l e t h e
second adopts a n ascending traj ectory. L i kewise, t h e vertical scro l l i n g motions o f Rei 's and
Asuka's silho uettes are explici tly contrasted, and further juxtaposed with the horizontal ori­
entations o f Misato's silhouettes . Chromatic contrasts, harmo n i es a n d blends, allied to sub­
tle variations i n shot pac i ng , ideally com p l ement the sequence's acco m p l ishment .
Anno's tech n ical adventurousness is fully corroborated by the two feature films released
i n 1997, Death 6- Rebirth and The End ofEvangelion. Death has been somewhat harshly bran ded
by some cri tics as a re-edit of the TV series. In fact , it constitutes a b rave c i n e matog ra p h i cal
ex periment bolstered by audacious syntheses o f hand-drawn visuals a n d CGI that b r i ng s
together portions of the events dramatized in t h e show b u t not m e rely i n o rder t o p rovide a
neat synoptic replay fo r the u n i n i tiated spectator. I t is i n deed hard to i magi n e h ow a v i ewer
without any degree of fam i liarity with the series and i ts p rem ises could adequately appreci­
ate the fi l m's e m inently collage-like, non-linear and multitemporal n arrative . M o reove r , a
n u m ber o f climactic occu rrences drawn from the TV show - such as battles between the Evas
and the Angels - are not rep roposed in the original o rder. The b u i ld - u p to and consequences
of particular m issions are consistently telescoped and com p ressed in ways that preclude fo re­
gone conclusions abo ut any character's si tuation at any given j u nctll r e . 4
Therefo re , Death c o u l d be s a i d t o reconstruct quite drasti cal ly t h e show's narrative b y
reco urse to t h e deft j uggl i n g o f a nu mber of scenes from a selection o f episodes , int e rcll t w i t h
poignant references to t h e characters' deep -seated traumas. As a resul t , any p o s s i b l e p r in ci­
ples of causali t y and teleology offered by the original p rogram ar e radically called into qu e s ­
t i o n by the mov i e , u l t i mately i ndicat i n g that A n n o h as p recious l i t t l e t ime fo r gra n d
exp lanatory systems of quasi-Hegelian orientation driven b y a determ i n istic yearn i n g fo r clo­
s u re , and in fact favors p u rely tentative and ulti mately resci n dable ou tcomes . T h u s , Death
consti tutes a p o i n tedly autonomous visual experi ence in the context of Evangelion as a whol e .
 FOllr�Ncon G e nesis Evan ge lion 67

The featu re's novelty is tech n ical ly enhanced by its util ization o f digital p rocedu res not avail­
able i n the execution of the series, espec ially in the more sophisticated areas of l ayeri n g , com­
positing and both visual and aco ustic edi t i n g .
Death util izes v i s u a l and thematic materials t h a t cover events presented in t h e series u p
to Episode 24 a n d t o t h e defeat of the seve nteenth Angel . Rebirth, t h e fi l m's second section ,
was i n i tially i n ten ded as a remake of Ep isodes 25 and 2 6 of the TV show. I n the course o f
p roduction , however , i t became clear t h a t t h e vo lume of fresh contents available to Anno's
team was far too b u l ky to be real istically accom modated w i t h i n Rebirth. I t was therefo re
decided to keep the latter down to ap proxi mately two -thirds o f the new Episode 25, and to
devo te a separate theatrical release ( The End ofEvangelion) to the film co mprising both o f the
reconfigu red ep isodes .
Co-producer Tosh i m ichi Otsuki commented on the ex perience o f acco m p l is h i n g two
theatrical releases in the space of o n ly six months (Death & Rebirth came o u t in March and
End ofEvangelion i n August) i n an i n terview cond ucted by Kei Watanabe on behalf of A1ainichi
lvfanga Town, as part of a 10th-anniversary Evangelion special repo rt . When asked by Watan­
abe about the toughest t i mes, Otsuki rep l ied, "Without doub t , the hardest thing was when
we couldn't m ake the open i n g dead l i n e fo r the mov ie back in 1997 . . . . I made the decisi o n to
create two movies . . . . Eve n the n , we still had to work up until the very last moment to get the
second mov ie o ut on t i m e . I went home to catch up on some sleep w i t h o u t even watch i n g
t h e movie" (Otsuki ) . Death & Rebirth ea rned 1 . 1 bill ion yen at t h e box office, w h i c h made i t
t h e seventh m o s t su ccessfu l Japanese mov ie for 1 9 9 7, w h i l e End ofE11angelion grossed 1 . 45 b i l ­
lion ye n , t h u s gai n i n g fo u rth place on t h e scale .
I n Rebirth's o p e n i n g frames, w e are treated t o what i s possibly o n e o f t h e tec h n ically
most accomp lished a n d evocative scenes i n the whole o f Ellangelion, as S h i nj i mutely beholds
the su nken r u i n s of To kyo- 3 . The melancholy of the once magn i ficent edifices is i ron ically
j uxtaposed w i t h the awesome subl i m i ty of azu re skies and waters, while an overwhe l m i ng
s i lence ruptured only by a d iscreet "s plash" and by the hyp no t i c wh i rr i n g of cicadas in the
distance engul fs both aspects o f the landscap e , as tho ugh to mock any p retensions to indi­
vidual i ty on the part o f each . Death and reb i rth are i ndeed posited as i n extricably i nter­
twi n ed, to the point that n e i ther is ent i tled to claim u ncond itional superiority ove r the other.
The o p e n i n g segment o f Rebirth thus encapsul ates the i n trinsically dual istic character o f the
apocalyptic world v iew, intimating that any hope of regeneration m ay only arise from dev­
astation and chaos . The End of Eva ngelio n elabo rates this mo t i f and com p l i cates i ts meta­
physical i m port by e m phasizi n g that the transition fro m one state to the other req u i res
conscious agency and the scru p u l o u s exerc ise of free will and cannot , therefo re , be lefi: to
random chance .
A gem of digital compos i t i n g , the scene's cli mactic mom e nt consists o f a bi rd's-eye shot
i n which the ripples caused by the fa ll of a piece of debris i nto the ubiquitous waters, the
reflections o f the clouds lacing the skies above and the emergi ng rem n an ts of Tokyo-3 's sky­
scrapers are a rranged in perfectly concentric circles aro u n d a w h i te-hot s u n . The shot's han­
dling o f digi tal tech nology eloque ntly demonstrates that the i mp lementation o f i nnovative
tools in a n i m e does n o t inevitably b r i n g fo rth sterile swathes of glea m i n g visuals . In fac t ,
despite t h e preponderance of c o o l h ues, the image verily oozes with pai nterly warmth and a
tactile sense of the artisanal skills chann elled i nto i ts maki n g .
Anno's proverbial penchant fo r elaborate montages com b i n i ng hand-drawn graphics and
68 A N I M E 1 NTFRSFCTJO:.JS

sophisticated d i gital tech niq ues is resplendently b rought to fru i t i o n in Rebirth. Especial ly
memo rable, i n this regard, is the sequence i n which M isato exp l a i n s to Shinji that mankind
is actually "the eigh teenth Angel , " born o f Lilith, and that S EELE's a n d Commander I kari's
agendas right from the i nstigation of the Second I m pact have not been in the l east benevo­
lent , let alone altruistic . As M isato's revelations u n fo l d, Rebirth o ffers one of the enti re saga's
most memorable montages . Far from simply providing an enticing p iece of cin e matography,
though i t indubi tably does this i n spades , the sequence yields a highly comp ressed vision o f
Evangelion's cumulative n arrative traj ectory. The montage begins with a med i u m shot o f EVA­
� O 's i nitial skeleton (as seen i n Episode 2 1 , "The Birth of NERV IHe was Aware that He was
Still a Child") , consisting of the Uni t's head and an anatomically p recise backbone . The screen
then changes to a shot o f a seeth ing array o f tendrils reach ing downwards i n to a pool of blood­
red fluid; these later turn out to be the spinal co rds emanat i n g from myriad Eva cra n i u m s . A
series of flash i n g shots, so rap id as to be almost impercep tible i n "real t i m e , " fol lows . These
encompass i mages o f the crater left beh ind by the Second I mpac t , o f Adam as a l u m i nous
giant, o f the same Angel i n embryon ic for m , of the graveyard where Yui I kari is commemo­
rated, o f the digital table outlining the Angels' baffl ingly h u man makeup, and o f a sepia sketch
o f Yui 's face followed by a still o f Rei i n her piloting s u i t . This last shot i s not actually v i s i ­
ble except i n very slow motio n . Considerately integrated digital effects enhance t h e cels' over­
all quality by augmenting their l u m i nosity and sharpness, thereby also foregrou n d i n g their
hand-drawn features i nstead o f subs u m i n g them to the com p u ter's rule .
The bold cinematographical experiment i n i t iated in Death & Rebirth cont i n ues u nabated
with The End of Evangelion. Frighten i n g , contorted and yet l ovely by turns, this film consti ­
tutes a veritable tou r de force, p ickin g up the plot in the i m m ed i ate aftermath of S h i n j i's
destruction o f the seventeenth and final Angel sa rcastically, his sole real "friend" ever a n d
� �

t h e n p roceed i n g to s u p p l y an alternate conclusion to the saga to the one offered by t h e TV

series .
As mentioned, it was with The End of Evangelion that Anno's team first i nt roduced 3 D
C G I capable o f p roviding an expans ive spatial ambience . Analog p rocess i n g was n o n e theless
applied to the CG scenes by recou rse to fi lters akin to those u t i l ized fo r conventional s h o o t ­
i n g , so as to evoke a harmon ious v i s u a l mood and ensure t h a t the CG c u ts would n o t clash
with the trad itional ones . Whi l e Production I.G played a key role th ro ughout the project, the
bulk of the CG p roduction was undertaken by O m n ibus Japan (who also handled the digi­
tal effects for Oshi i's Pat/abor 2: The Movie [1993] and for the aforementioned Ghost in the
Shell) . The majority of the CG scenes are located in the second part of the fi l m and i n c l u de
the cut where col ossal crosses are strewn over the Earth's entire surface and the cut display­
ing multiple Rei s . O m n i bus Japan also dealt admi rably with the digital p rocessi n g of trans­
m i tted ligh t , a task unan imously regarded as particularly arduous by com p u ter a n i mators .
The closing credits, scro l l i n g i n the shape of a helix rem i n iscent o f the graphs used to i l l us­
trate a n Eva's connecti o n w i t h its p i l o t's sensori u m , a re also a d i gital effect execu ted by
O m n ibus Japan .
End p resents h u m a n i ty's struggle to overcome loneli ness, and hence the cripp l i n g p a i n
i nel uctably spawned by t h a t condition , i n t h e form o f a cosmic metamorphosis engin eered
by S EELE as the n ext stage i n h u m a n i ty's evolution the " Human I nstru mentality Pro j ect . "
�

This momentous Th i rd Im pact entails the mergi ng of a l l people i nto a s i n gl e u n di ffe renti­
ated mass akin to the soup o f l i fe from which all l i fe is believed to have eman ated . The drama-
 Four�Ncon Genesis Evangelion 69

tization of I nstrumentality suppl ies Anno with unique opportun ities for the deployment of
state-of-the-art digital i magery, and especially "morphs" : namely, CG i m ages that gradually
change their shapes until they become quite different images . Rei's fusion w i th Lilith and result­
ing transformation i nto a giganti c , diaphanous crea ture o f truly p retern a t u ral statu re o ffers a
paradigmatic i nstance of morp h i n g . So does the p rodigious body's subsequent splitting into
a double- torsoed being combi n i n g aspects of Rei and aspects o f Kaworu .
I n order to acco m p l ish smooth morp h i n g effects, the footage relies on the synchronous
occu rrence o f three related tech n ical events . The shape o f the i n i tial , o r "so urce , " i mage is
distorted over t i m e so as to turn into the shape of the final , o r "destinatio n , " i mage . The des­
tination i mage , in t u r n , sta rts off i n a deformed guise that m a tches the source i m age , a n d
i ncrementally u n d istorts until i t resumes i ts normal for m . Meanwh i l e , t h e opacity o f t h e dig­
ital layers i nvolved gradually alters i n order to allow the destination i mage to become visible
over the source i m age as they are both morph ing. A particularly effective method, abetted by
vector graphics, which End stylishly deploys cons ists of warp i n g one i mage at the same time
as i t fades into another i m age , by markin g equivalent poi nts o n the source and des t i n ation
images . For i nstance, one configuration of L i l ith's body could be morphed i nto another by
markin g certai n key p o i n ts on the so u rce body, s uch as the contour o f the head and l im b s ,
and marking these s a m e p o ints on the desti nation body. The com p u ter would d i s t o r t the fi rst
body- i mage to make i t acq u i re the shape of the secon d body w h i l e s i m u ltaneo usly cross - fad­
ing the two i m ages .
Rei n forc ing the thematic m essage commun icated by the TV series' controvers ial cul m i ­
nati o n , End proposes t h a t accepting one's separateness from others is t h e p recondition o f
h u m an i nteraction a n d that the latte r , i n turn , is the p recondition o f self-conscious existence .
This real izati o n is sign alled by 5 h i nj i's decision to reno u nce the pseudo-identity conferred
upon him by I nstrumentality. He recognizes that indiv iduals h ave been d rawn i nto the T h i rd
I m pact's all-encompass i n g vortex by the p rom ise o f a world w i t h o u t lonel i n ess, and that
altho ugh the fusion of all creatu res i nto an und ifferentiated m ass may at fi rs t h ave appeared
to fulfil a fan tasy o f p l e n i tude u n marred by separation anxieties, the a ncestral blend actually
amounts to an amorphously dreary sea of negativ ity. The denial of personal barriers, w h i l e
seem i n gly bringing h um a ns i n t i m ately together, does not actually p e r m i t gen u i n e i n terac­
tion , for this is only ever possible as long as a distance between self and other m ay be per­
ceived even t h o u gh , i n ev i tably, t h i s p e rce p t i o n must at all t i m es coexist w i t h a tw i n
�

recogn ition of the possib i l i t y that the self and the other w i l l desert and betray each other w i t h
lamentable repercussions.
Wh ile the vanish i n g of in dividual boundaries was earl ier symbol ized by an indistinct
aggregate of ve rtigino usly swirl i n g marble-sized red dots, the return to a world o f borders and
i n d ividuated subjectivi ties is marked by the reconstitution o f the Earth as a solid shap e . Fur­
thermore , through an i n s p i red deployment o f 3 D polygonal modell i n g , the sphere is i ncre­
mentally en dowed w i t h a deta i l ed grid of parallels and m e r i d i a n s . M a n k i n d 's i n t ractable
corporeal i t y is by n o means effaced by this cosmic move , h owever . C rea t i n g coord i n ates and
patterns is n o t tantamo unt to constructing a frigidly flesh less rea l i t y : the substance in which
the restored globe's partitioning l i nes are drawn is indeed vividly akin to blood at its warmest
and ooziest .
Ulti mately, the story's i n trospective dimension on the thematic plane is echoed by El'an­
gelion's fo rm : Ann o's ongo i n g i mpetus to lay bare the dev ices depl oyed i n the construction o f
70 A ", I M E I NTERS ECTIONS

the visual narrative , by reco u rse to both conventional and pioneering tools, m akes the e n t i re
saga a markedly self- referential exercise . This aspect is fu rther bolstered by the consistent
adoption o f i nterior mono logues and stream-of-consciousness m e d itations . H oweve r , this
app roach does not yield a self-grat ifyi ng vis ion , si nce fo rmal experi m e n ta t i o n u l t i m ately
enables both the TV series and the featu re fi lms to transcend the introspective enclos u re . The
sel f-reflexive proclivity in deed leads to a drastic explosion of conventional molds : i n [he process
of dissecting the characters' heads, Anno also deconstructs the art o f a n i m e i tsel f, as ful l a n i ­
mation gives way t o c l i p p i n gs from t h e designers' sketchbooks, childlike crayo n draw i n gs
flaunting aggressive h ues and angry l i nes, and eventually black-and-wh i te scribbles and squig­
gles . Hence, Evangelion stands out as a formally paradoxical enterprise whereby the subjec­
tive prisons in which i ts personae pathetically writhe are s i m u l taneously replicated by the
sto ry's concern w i th i ts own i nterior work ings, and b u rst open by a drastic u n h i n g i n g o f the
narrative codes and conventions associated with m a i nstream a n i m e . Most i m portantly, h ow­
ever, neither the series nor the second feature concl usively purport to del iver a fully compen­
satory r o u n d i n g - o ff o f the fict ional weave . In an i n terv i ew p u b l is h e d in the m agazi n e
Protoculture Addicts #43, Anno has disarm i ngly commented on h i s saga's i ntentional i n co n ­
clus iveness : "El,angelion is like a p uzzle, y o u know. A n y person can s e e i t a n d give h i s / h e r
o w n answer . . . i magine h i s / h e r own world . We will never offer t h e answers . . . . A s fo r m a n y
Ellangelion viewers , they m a y expect li S t o p rovide t h e 'all-about Eva' m a n u a l s , b u t there is
no s llch thing . . . . Do n't expect to be catered to all the time. We all have to find o ur own
answers" (quo ted i n Eng 1 9 9 7 ) .
 F IVE

Metropolis

A nimation is JOmethillg tha t 's just a dra wing, i t 's a still imllge and something thllt sho uld not m ove
IIctl/lI/{Y moues. A nd tha t 's like retlll)' reflecting the humlln irnllgin,uion and that 's real{y the spe­
cialty of animation. - Rintaro 2002a
While real acting has lim its, YO ll can do anything with animation. - Katmhiro Otomo 2003

Rintaro's Metropolis is based on a manga p rodu ced by Osamu Tezuka i n 1 9 4 9 . O ften described
as the "god o f manga , " Tezuka ( 1 9 2 8 - 1 9 8 9 ) is heralded as one of Japan's most talented and
prol ific comic-book and anime artists both domestically and i nternationally. Without a shadow
of do u b t , both h is visuals and h is narrat ives revolutionized the industry, audacio usly b u l ldoz­
ing ex isting conventions and rel a ted audience expectations, and thus p av i n g the way for the
trailblazi ng di recto rs and a n i mators discllssed i n this study. As noted in the official webs i te
dedicated to Tezuka's l i fe and work, h i s "manga and ani mated films had a tre m e ndous i mpact
on the shap i n g of Japan's postwar yo uth . His work changed the concept o f the Japanese car­
toon" and "also i nfluenced a range of other gen res" ("Osamu Tezuka O n l i ne" ) , The i ntensity
of Tezu ka's pass ionate com m i tment to h is art is eloquently co rroborated by the fact that he
was still draw i n g on his deathbed i n a hosp ital . By the end of h i s l i fe , he had created a total
o f approximately 1 7, 0 0 0 pages o f manga, 700 stories, 12 TV specials and 21 TV series . Daniel
Poei ra's concurrently i n formative and heartfelt homage to Tezuka's legacy deserves ci tati o n :
"Tezuka's works have touched s o m a n y people aro u n d t h e globe t h a t i t's hard to find some
comic book artist or ani mator who has never heard o f him and was not i n fl uenced by his
works on some level . . .. I f today we have Pokemon, Akira, Cowboy Bebop a n d Serial Experi­
ments Lain, it was because one day, 4 0 -someth ing years ago , a fu nny old m a n w i t h a silly hat
decided to give i t a try " (Poei ra) ,
Ri maro's 2 0 0 1 p roduction also bears similarities to the fi l m o f the same title d i rected by
Fritz Lang i n 1 9 2 6 i n i ts adoption of a marked ly retrofu t u ristic approac h . Lang's fi l m pro­
vides a subtle c r i t i q u e o f the u t o p i a n t h ru s t of F u t u rism , with i ts celebra t i o n o f s p eed,
dyn amism and techn o logical progress, by construing the fu tu re as a world of vertiginous high­
rise ci tyscapes that stand not so much fo r p rogress as fo r cap italist exp l o i tation and inj ustice .
Ri ntaro's fi l m picks up this lead in o rder to develop a polymorphous urban architecture
where i n sky-choking h o rizons do not serve as an u n p roblematic metaphor fo r the t r i u m p h
of tech nology over b ru te m a t t e r but rather em body a pervas ive mood o f o p p ressiven ess and

71
72 A N IME I NTERSECTIOr-.:S

uncertainty. This is conveyed i n turns by the Babylonian grandeur of the city's upper strata �
as balefu l as they are awesome � and by the squalor of the cri m e-ridden s l u m s that spiral into
the seemingly u n fathomable depths of Metropolis's u nderbelly. Rintaro's film is sometimes
described as "the a n i m ated version" of the 1926 s ilent class i c , yet its allusions to the original
Metropolis were not deliberate even though Rintaro has professed deep a d m i ration for Lan g's
work : " Fritz Lang's fi l m is one of my favorite fi l ms, so ever since I was yo u n g that fi l m has
been i n p u tted somewhere i n the corner of my b rai n . Now, i n the p rocess o f making the a n i ­
mated Metropolis feature fi l m , influe nces from t h e original Metropolis m ight have u nc o n ­
sciously popped u p , b u t they certainly weren't i ntentional . So if the audience feels t h a t there
is a s i m i larity between the Fritz Lang version and my version , wel l , I had absolu tely no con­
scious intention of do i n g so" (Rint aro 2002b) .
(As for Tezuka , he clai med to have drawn inspiration from the poster a n d fro m some
reviews o f Lang's movie b u t not to have yet watched the actual motion picture at the time o f
creati n g his own manga version of Metropolis.) I t is also worth bearing i n m i nd, i n this con­
tex t , that Rintaro's pri ncipal concern actually resided with d iscovering whether o r not, in a n
age where the science-fiction scene is seem ingly dom i n ated by the theme o f "vi rtual real ity,"
a "fantasy" -driven adventure i n the more traditional mold could still p rove appeali n g , a n d
i ndeed stand the test o f time (Rintaro 2003) .
Hence, Rin taro's mov ie is not so much a remake as a rei magi n i n g o f the earl ier fi l m .
Released domestically i n June 2 0 0 1 and in the u . S . i n January 2 0 0 2 , Metropolis was also the
first anime title s i nce the mid- 1 9 9 0 s to be aired i n the U.K. (on Channel 4 ) . The o rigi n a l
story formulated b y Tezuka was adap ted for t h e screen by Kats u h i ro O t o m o , the comic-book
artist and a n imation d i rector largely responsible fo r draw i n g the West's attent ion to the art
o f anime through h is seminal fi l m Akira ( 1 9 8 8 ) . I t was Otomo h i mself, mo reove r , that shortly
after Akira's release p rophesied the l ikely development of a n i mation styles based on a synthe­
sis o f traditional graph ics and digital tech nology of p recisely the kind one encou nters i n
Metropolis.
Prior to Tezuka's death in 1 9 8 9 , Rintaro � who had been one of the earliest m e m bers o f
Tezuka's T V ani mation staff� had invited the "god of manga" t o consider a screen adapta­
tion of Metropolis, but Tezuka had flatly turned h i m dow n , putatively due to h i s lack o f esteem
for h is very early work s . Com menti ng on this episode, Rintaro has stated : "He told m e d i rectly
that anyth i n g he had done bero re Tetsuwan Atom [Astro Boy, 1 9 5 2] was never i n tended to be
made i nto a n i m ation or motion pictures . Tezuka said that his earl ier work was not skilfu l
enough , and a l s o t h a t h i s story structure was not q u i t e up to the level he w o u l d h ave l iked i t
t o be . Those were two reasons that h e did n o t want t o make i t into a n i m e" (Rintaro 2 0 02b) .
I t was not until 1 9 9 7 that Rintaro revisited the idea, this time tea m i ng up with Otomo . I n
the autu m n o f that year , the two creators retreated to Rintaro's m o u ntain cab i n for a l abor­
i ntensive th ree-day planning sess i o n , i n the cou rse of which they made v ital decis ions con­
cerni n g which parts of the parent manga should be retained and which should be excised or
abridged .
Metropolis's retrofu ru ristic look is overtly based on its m anga parent and specifically o n
Tezuka's visualization of t h e future through the lens of 1 9 2 0 s desig n . This is palpably evident
througho u t , permeati n g not only the larger architectural tableaux , the robots and the veh i ­
cles b u t also t h e m i n u test facets of i nterior decor, sartorial styles, accessories a n d even orna­
mental patterns . The most concise assessment o f Metropolis's temporal d i m en s i o n one could
 Five - Metropolis 73

wish to enco u nter is p rovided by the title of Randall S m ith's rev iew of the movie fo r Cinekkle­
sia: namely, " D ays of F u t u re Past : Osamu Tezu ka's Metropolis. " These words capture w i th
extraord i n ary clarity the film's proclivity to imagine the fut u re w i t h reference to the visual
attributes of a past that is also i m agin ed, i nsofar as factually accurate data i ncessantly coalesce
w ith vis ionary speculation . With i ts Byza ntine alloy of disparate tools and methodologies,
Metropolis manages to come across as a sleek depiction o f a hypothetical fut u re , a n d yet exude
the q u i rky charm of weathered documents and maps o f the kind one would expect to dis­
cover in the dusty cab i n e t o f a n i n eteenth-century techno-visionary.
Tezuka's vision comes to resplendent fruition in Rintaro's movi e , to a sign i ficant degree
thanks to his own tech nologically visionary fusion of cel a n imation and eG I - as we shall
see i n some detail later in this chapter. Whi l e Tezuka's im agery i n forms !'vfetropolis t h ro ugh ­
out , no less inspiring an i n fluence w i l l certainly have issued fro m the manga artist's u n iq u e
compositional rhetoric , and particu larly from his u n p receden ted abil i t y to i m b u e h is stories
with a dynamism o f veritably cinematographical orientation. This o ften relied, as Fred Pat­
ten has emphasized, o n a "flam boyant use of cinematic effects (close - u p s , tracki n g shots,
unusual camera angles)" (Patten 2002) . Tezuka's formal choice would have been regarded, up
until that p o i nt , as utterly alien to the defin ing style ofJapanese comic books, where em phat­
ically static and somewhat theatrical i m ages tended to p revail .
I n the fil m's openi ng sequence, the people of the city of Metro p o l i s celebrate the com­
pletion o f their greatest acco m p l ishment to date, a glea m i n g and toweri n g structure named
the "Ziggurat" w i th reference to the Babylon / Babel myth, am idst glorious sp rays o f fi rewo rks ,
flu rries o f l igh ts a n d clamoring crowds . T h e Babylon /Babel mot i f is someth i n g of a cyber­
p u n k o bsession , and also features promin ently in Ridley Scott's Blade Runner ( 1 9 8 2 ) and
Mamoru Oshii's Patlabor 1 : The Mobile Police ( 1 9 8 9 ) . Metropolis is n o tech nological Ede n ,
however . T h e lavishly staged glorification o f mankind's scientific a n d intellectual excellence
by means of which one is ushered into the world o f Metropolis is only a fl i m sy, h u b ristically
self-co ngratulatory fa<;ade . The megalopolis itself ap pears to s p read cancer- l i ke across the
screen at each tu rn of the camera , leav i n g no spaces other than occasional views o f the sky
that are not overlaid w i t h concrete , glass or chrome , or i n u ndated by a deluge of l u rid neon
l igh ts. Additional ly, the l u x u rious buildi ngs that regale the eye i n the opening scenes consti­
tLne merely Metropol is's surface . I n the ci ty's undergro u n d areas , m i streated robot laborers
are grow i ng dissatisfied w ith their dismal working conditions, wh ile h u m a n workers rendered
redu ndant by the i n c reas i n g employment o f automata to carry out their fo rmer tasks plan a
revo l ution. The inhabi tants of the lower levels are not allowed access to other zones : i t is made
blatantly clear right from the start that the p u nishment meted out to transgressors is i m me­
diate and ruth less execution.
Alrhough the Ziggurat is publ icly p resented as th e zen i th o f tech no logical advancem e n t ,
i t actually t u r n s o u t to h ave b e e n designed b y t h e diabol ical D u ke Red, a secret s u p porter o f
t h e fascistic anti-robot cabal known a s t h e " Malduks," a s h is means o f seizi n g power over the
enti re planet by harnessi ng the energy o f solar spots . In o rder to activate the mechan i s m guar­
anteed to secure h is tech nocratic dom i nance, Duke Red needs the i ncorporation w i th i n the
Ziggurat's "Throne o f Power" o f a h ighly advanced humanoid . The cri m i n a l scientist and
organ -trader Dr. Laughton is instructed precisely to create such a bei n g , i n the cherub i c l i ke­
ness of Duke Red's deceased daughter Ti m a . I f D uke Red is portrayed as the arch-v i l l ai n , i t
s h o u l d be no ted that Metropo lis's p resident i s no less dev i o u s , p rete n d i n g to back t h e Zig-
74 AN IME I NTERS ECTIONS

gurat project , yet p u rs u i n g h is own selfish i nterests . (This topos w i l l be dealt with i n greater
detail at a later stage in the discussion.)
I t is up to the Japanese detective Shu nsaku Bani (who also features in Tezuka's Astro Boy
and Jungle Emperor Leo, and comes to Metropolis on Laughton's trail ) , as wel l as to h i s u nex­
pectedly valiant nephew Kenichi and to the robot PI Pero , to keep the c i t y - and conceiv­
ably the globe - from ann i h i lation . S h u nsaku Ban and Kenichi manage to p i n p o i n t Laugh ton's
location in a poor, subterranean part of the city but are separated by a raging fire i n i tiated by
D u ke Red's adopted son , Rock , in order to destroy Tima and thus ensure that D u ke Red
h i mself- and not a robot - w i l l finally control the Ziggurat's lethal core . At this po i n t , the
freshly sentient Ti ma pops n aked into the world and meets Ken i c h i - who quite i nadvertently
makes a fateful i m p ress ion on the creatu re . The magnitude of Ken ichi's i m pact o n Tima's
syn thetic psyche is most po ignantly evoked, later in the fi l m , by the scene in which the g i rl ,
i m p risoned i n one of the Ziggurat's stately chambers and totally cut off from the world she
has tentatively begun to gras p , scribbles Kenichi's name i n crayon over every s i ngle portion
of the room , m i rrors included .
When Tima eventually comes face to face with D uke Red and i s forced to real ize that
she is a robot and not a h uman l i ke her beloved Kenichi and, worse still , n o t a doll-l ike l i t ­
tle g i r l b u t a weapon o f m ass destruction , s h e m u s t confront not only h e r p rivate d r a m a b u t
also h e r g r i m r o l e i n t h e seemi ngly endless struggle between t h e h u m a n and the m ach i n e . As
Tima discovers her true identity and fu nction , Duke Red's "Tower of Babel" enco u n te rs the
same fate as i ts B i b l ical a ntecedent : erected so as to pierce the heavens and thus con fe r divine
powers to i ts intrepid architects, the Ziggurat eventually crumbles, b u ry i n g beneath i ts rub­
ble the s i n ister vestiges of h u man arrogance and h u m a n fo l ly. Although Rock is d i rectly
responsible for i n itiating the Ziggurat's ann i h i lation by pressi n g the self-destruct butto n , it is
from Tima's decision to merge with the Throne of Power that Metropolis's apocalyptic culmi­
nation takes i ts c u e . The destruction of Duke Red's formidable ed i fice and, i f Tima were to
fu lly accomplish her goal , of humanity at large is tersely described by the h u manoid as "p u n ­
ishment for toyi ng w i t h robots . "
Although the fi l m's principal characters bear unden iable affini ties w i th Lang's original
cast at the level of thei r structural fu nctions in the overall diegesis, crucial divergences ought
also to be observed. As Laura Blackwell maintains, "Villainous Duke Red comes across as
more o f a megaloman iac than Lang's cold, but not i rredeemabl e , Fredersen . . . . Unl i ke Lang's
w i tchy and w i l l i n g Pandora-l ike Mari a , Ri ntaro's chi ldlike Tim a refuses to believe that she is
a robot - and when Tima unleashes her powers, i t's through anger, not calculation. Aside
from stock mad scientists, none of the other characters bear any resemblance to one another"
(Blackwell) .
Luca Fava's comments on the relationsh ip between Rintaro's and Lang's fi l m s strike anal­
ogous chords : "Affi n i ties and points o f contact between these two productions are not a fter
all that n u merous . . . . Lang gave his work a very political slant and a less pess i mistic vision . . . .
Tezuka's [and hence Rintaro'sl wo rk has i n fact m aj o r points o f contact w i th productions l i ke
Blade Runner . . . and the recent AI (directed by Steven Spielberg [2001] ) ; of primary i m por­
tance is the search for identity that animates the female p ro tagonist . " Ri ntaro's production
does, however, pay gentle homage to its predecessor i n the early shot where ''the characters
are situated at the base of a gigantic statue rep resenting the robot that comes to l i fe i n Lang's
fi l m" (Fava 2 0 0 2 ; my translation) .
 Fille - Metropolis 75

Metropolis's p l o t encompasses traditional mo tifs drawn from both Eastern and Western
contexts . The quest topos that i n forms Shunsaku B an's and Ken ich i 's j o u rn ey to and across
the futu ristic city constitu tes a cardinal component of Japanese mythology, whereas the fram­
ing o f the adve nture with reference to the codes and conventions o f the classic detect ive tale
echoes co untless narratives popular in the West si nce at least the eighteenth centu ry. Where
the fi l m's contemporary thematic relevance is concerned, i t could be argued that its articula­
tion o f inveterate anxieties abo u t technology's impact on both personal and co llective iden­
tities reRects specifically Japan's ongoing preoccupation with this issue si nce at least the Second
World War. H oweve r , i nsofar as the movie also addresses the subj ect with reference to rhetor­
ical fo rmulae disse m i n ated by cyberp u n k fiction , i t undeniably reverberates with Western no
less than with Eastern i nRuences.
O n the whole, i t is n o t Metropolis's storyl ine that makes i t the haunti ngly memorable
visual experience i t i s . Far more insttum en tal to the fi l m's radiant magnetism is i ts ability to
i n d uce us to perceive i ts multi-layered un iverse through the eyes o f i ts various personae, as
they themselves e ndeavo r to make sense o f their environment. Most effective , in this respect,
is Rintaro's gradual absorption of the audience into the action and p rogressive reorientation
of its l i kely responses . We fi rst experie nce the shim mering city o f Metropolis through the eyes
of two characters who , l i ke us, are essentially o u tsiders - S h u nsaku Ban and Ken ichi - as they
marvel at the superficial l ustre o f the soaring megalopolis. O n ce they find D r . Laughton i n
the midst o f a roaring blaze , and Kenichi i s fo rced t o Ree i nt o the city's dingy dep ths with
the ethereal Tima at h i s side and the compassion less Rock at h i s heels, we are i ncrementally
compelled to modify our in itial reactions to Metropolis's surface glamo u r , and recogn ize the
ghastly reali t y upon which D u ke Red's dream is actually erected.
Equally remarkable is the scene in which Ti ma emerges i nto the h u m a n world with no
language and no memories at her disposal , and instantly latches onto Ken i ch i , the first per­
son she sees . In this sce n e , we are invited to perceive the world through both Tim a's eyes , as
she struggles to decipher the situation into which she has so suddenly and rather trau mati­
cally surfaced, and Keni ch i's, as he i n turn tries to grasp Ti ma's predicament and to i m agine
what it must be l i ke to i nteract w ith others in the total absence o f words .
Ultimately, no one character's perception of Metropolis's rococo intricacy can be taken
as u n p roblematically dependable . I n Rintaro's fi l m , as in La ng's own Metropolis, any notion
of certai nty is categorically p recluded by the city's sch izo i d personali ty. O n ce the above­
ground areas are exposed as a vacuous reverie by the dystopian real ity o f the undergro u n d
quarters, i t becomes p a i n fu l ly clear that Metropolis is essentially a gigantic p r ison cunningly
m isrepresented as a democracy. Relatedly, the fi l m invites us to ponder thorny questions con ­
cerning t h e nature o f societal stabi l ity, t h e price that both t h e disenfranchised a n d t h e m ighty
pay i n seeking to achieve that stability through rad ical action , and the extent to which all rev­
o l u tions finally risk degenerati ng i nt o shallow repetitiveness i nstead of delive r i n g gen u i n e
change .
Concentric c i rcles o f i n i qu i t y and i ntrigue appear to define the m u n icipality's pol itical
fabric far more decisively than any authentic quest for scientific and i n tellectual advancement.
Thus, we see the p resident pretending to buttress the revo l u tionary labor movement, p ro m ­
i s i n g t h a t the wo rke rs w i l l receive t h e recognition t h e y dese rve once D u ke Red h a s b e e n
declared g u i l t y of t reason and duly apprehended . T h e m i l i ta ry, fo r thei r part, feign su pport
fo r the president's polic ies (and, by impl ication , for the insurgen ts' cause) agai nst D u ke Red .
76 AN IME I N T E RSECTIONS

Yet , both the p resident and his second- in -command are co ldbloodedly assass i nated by the
army, and the revo l utionaries themselves are subsequently caught i n a lethal trap by the same
party. We are thus rem i nded - as M ike P i nsky puts i t - that i f, o n one level , "a revol u t io n"
constitu tes "a mov i n g forward, a progress ion ," on another level , i t designates "a c i rcl e . The
more things change , the more they remain the sam e . D u ke Red is j us t as corrupt as the p res­
ident he seeks to top p l e . The social revo l u tions trigger frenzied backlash (the i m ages of bod­
ies i n the snow rem i n iscent of the Cossack assau lt i n Doctor Zhivago [dir. David Lea n , 1 9 6 5 ] ) "
( P insky 2002b) .
I ronically, the painting adorn i ng the most opulent of the p residential palace's many splen­
did chambers is a repl ica of Eugene Delacro ix's " La Liberte guidant Ie peuple" (" Liberty lead­
ing the Peo p l e , " 1 8 30) . This iconic picture's distinct ive rhetoric is later echoed by a shot
dep icting the charismatic revo l utionary Atlas in the act o f i n c i t i ng his com rades agai nst the
robots through the stylized captu re of a quintessentially heroic pose . Whereas Delacro ix , a
gen u i n ely Romantic artist , tends to subli mate the horrors of the bloodshed depicted i nto an
electrifyi n g vision o f b ravery and fervor , Rintaro's o utlook is i n i m ical to epic ideal ization a n d
chooses i ns tead to fo regto u n d the sorrowful atmosphere o f discom fi t u re s u rro u n d i n g the
betrayal of the i n s u rgents . As Patten has noted, "the empty square w i t h the scuffed s n ow cov­
ered in what looks l i ke tho usands of footpri nts" resulting from the "failed a n t i - robot u p ris­
i n g" p rovides one o f the entire movie's most touch i n gly i ndelible memories ( Patten 2 0 0 2 ) .
O n the whole, it is a wonder that an ani mated work predicated upon as bleak a p o l i tica l m es­
sage as Metropolis is should yield as much sensory pleas u re and e m i t so l u m i n o u s an a u ra as
Rintaro's film does. I t is arguably its sta n d i n g as a sheer labor of love that enables Metropolis
to del iver so p riceless a gift .
What is i ns tan tly evident upon encountering Metropolis, even i f o n e is n o t fam i l iar w it h
t h e actual techn i q ues implemented b y Ri ntaro's trou pe, is t h a t t h e com p u ter-generated ele­
ment is consistently offset by e m i n ently hand-drawn and styl ized ch aracter designs . The char­
acters are based not only on Tezu ka's ind igenous d raw ings b u t also on Western types such as
Otto Messmer/Pat Sull ivan's I�el ix the Cat , Winsor McCay's Little Nemo, Max Fleischer's Koko
the Clown and Berge's Ti n Ti n . After all , Tezuka's own style was shaped to a considerable
exte nt by his expos u re to Western i n fl uences, Dis ney incl uded .
Some spectators may find the j uxtaposition of ph otorealistically rendered backgro u n ds
and overtly flat , hand-drawn , and not i n freq uently caricat u ral character designs u nsett l i n g .
Yet , i t is t h ro u gh t h i s very strategy that Rintaro conveys his aesthetic v is i o n most v i goro usly.
We re Metropolis's e n t i re look u n i formly photoreal istic , a u d i e n ces m i ght b e c o m e t o tal l y
absorbed i n i t s colorfu l feast of m i n u tely real ized graphics . B y reta i n i n g a stylized compo­
nent , the film defa m i l iarizes what co uld otherwise be taken as rea l i ty, compell i n g its v i ewers
to app reciate the ani me's i ntrinsic madeness and - hav i n g thus distanced themselves fro m the
p icture - to reflect upon Metropolis's ethical i m p l ications. The m a i nt e n a nce of overtly car­
toonish character elements co uld therefore be regarded as e l l i ptically analogous to the use o f
satirical cartoons a n d comic strips i n newspapers a n d magazi nes .
Moreover, w i t h i n the cast of hand-crafted personae u n leashed by the pencils and brushes
o f !vfetropolis's creators , various levels of stylization can be observed . In the design of both
Ken ichi and S h u nsaku , one can im medi ately recogn ize the defin i n g traits of Tezuka's own
graphic signature and penchant fo r somatic styl izatio n . Whereas Rock and Tima also ev i nce
stylized attributes, the i r designs tend to exh i b i t greater degrees of real ism . This is somewhat
 Five - Metropolis 77

paradoxical , consideri ng that both o f these characters' appearances embody the visual codes
and conventions of dramatic types so solidly enshri ned in the domain of a n i mation as to verge
on the stereotypical : the "cool" bad guy in Rock's case, and the doll-like "cutie" in Tima's .
Nevertheless, the two characters are endowed w ith h i ghly i m aginative forms o f body language
that im part a feeling of al iveness to their entire being - i nc l u d i n g , and at t i m es even priori­
tizi ng, the hair - and w i th exceptional facial flexibility. These factors serve to i nvest their
actions with natural istic v i tality.
Furthermore , both Tima's and Rock's patterns of motion and exp ressions gradually alter
i n accordan ce w i t h the decreas i n g or increas i n g degrees of power attribu ted to them by the
u n folding of events . Rock moves from a position of authority, which he boldly declares through
each of his distinctive gestures and postures, to a madde n i n g recogn ition o f the vacuo usness
of his claims to powe r . What remains a constant throughout , howeve r , is Rock's ab ilit y to
perform all manner o f blood-cur d l i n g actions - includ i n g , eventual ly, the material destruc­
tion of the Ziggurat itself- w i th undil utedly serene conv iction a n d a gen u i nely m a n i acal
single-mi ndedness . Ti m a , conversely, develops from a vulnerable p u p pet i nto a creature o f
p reternatural strength, capable of wreaki ng havoc o n Duke Red's spurious e m p i re - and, b y
allegorical implication , on the insanely preposterous heights to which h uman arrogance asp i res.
As far as Rock is concerned, i t is also notewo rthy that t h i s character , l ike several of
Metropolis's supporting personae, has been l i fted from yet another comic book p roduced by
Tezuka . Rock originally featured in Shounen Tantei Rock Home (" Boy D etective Rock Home,"
a Sherlock Holmes-i nspired spoof) . Desp ite Rock's ostensibly self-possessed and i m p e rturbable
personal i ty, i t is not hard to sense, s i m mering at all times beneath the veneer o f the athleti­
cally styl ish yo u t h , a heady b rew of anger, hatred and sorrow. No matter how callously a n d
u n ceremonio usly D u ke R e d rem i nds the b o y t h a t Rock is n o t h i s r e a l son b u t m e rely a n
orphan for w h o m he h a s p rovided shelter ( a n d an especially n asty j o b as h e a d o f secur ity) ,
Rock pathetically goes on hoping that by his "noble" actions he w i l l one day w i n the older
man's hear t . When eval uated agai nst this backdrop , the vicious acts o f brutality he ro u t inely
performs become, i f not exactly pardonabl e , at least u nderstandable .
I ron ical ly, some of the most poignantly human exp ressions to be detected i n the whole
of Metropolis's exuberantly woven texture are accorded to Tima the automato n . Accord i n g to
Smith, this aspect o f the angelic robot's characterization is p ivotal to a b roader m essage com­
municated assiduously by the fi l m i n its entirety : "There are plenty o f moments where Ken i c h i
and T i m a s e e m m e rely swept a l o n g b y whatever activity is hap p e n i n g i n their v i c i n i ty. And
yet those moments o f contempl ative still ness and i nertia o ften serve to allow us to see Ti ma
as charmingly - indeed, occasionally gloriously - h uman i n her experience o f the world aro u n d
her, learn ing and living richly even i n t h e d i r t y corners of Metropol is" ( S m i t h ) .
As far as the fi l m's methods o f characterization are concerned, i t is also vi tal to realize
that the dichotomy between the h ighly styl ized and the more naturalistically portrayed per­
sonae is far from absolute . Th us, i t is not u ncommon for even a grotesquely caricatured actor
to displ ay, occasionally, an i ntensely realistic detai l . A n especially arres t i n g i n s tance is o ffered
by the shots i n which D u ke Red first looks upon the nearly completed Tima s i m ulacrum i n
D r . Laughton's laborato ry. The vi llain's mien is here a s typically cartoonish a s a nywhere else
in the movie . Howeve r , the extreme close-ups focusing on his captivated eyes (first the left
one only in profile, and then both i n frontal view) strike potently real istic chords . Even though
these i m ages occupy no more than a few seconds o f screen t i m e , they i n deed succeed i n com -
78 AN I M E I NTERSECTIONS

mun icating an u n h oly b rew of sheer fascination with the rogue scientist's work, w i s t flll a ttach ­
ment to the departed flesh-and-bone ch ild, and an all-con s u m i n g thi rst fo r power.
These mom ents are also im portant insofar as they constitute a rep resentative instance of
a styl istic tendency to be observed throughout Metropolis. Wh ile i t is u n d e n i able that eyes
hold p ride of place in the medium of anime at la rge , Ri ntaro's fi l m co u l d be said to lau nch
their role i nto the vis ual stratosphere . I n countless shots where only few and very periphera l
facial modulations occu r , t h e eyes invariably come t o t h e fo re a s t h e p rivi leged m e a n s o f c a p ­
t u r i n g and conveying a plethora of complex emotions . O n s u c h occasions, the myriad poly­
chromatic slivers of l i ght flooding the i rises stunni ngly mediate betwee n the characters' inner
worlds and the external domains of both th eir cinematic env i ronment and the audience's own
space . To this extent , Metropolis fully corroborates Richa rd Wil l iams's contention that "o u r
eyes a re extremely exp ressive a n d w e frequently commun icate w i t h o ur eyes alone. We can
o ften tell the story j ust with the eyes" (Williams, R., p. 326) . Rock's eyes, significantly, a re
sh ielded by fashionable shades for most of the action , beco m i n g exposed when h i s fo rtunes
h i t their nadir - fo r example, when Duke Red first exposes h i s deception and then agai n i n
the climax , when his final effort t o destroy Tima i s bru tally van q uished . The h i d i n g of ocu­
l a r expressiveness is a sign ificant personality indicato r , suggesting that what is being occlu ded
is not merely a p hysical attribute b ut a deep-seated affective reali t y.
.
With the more overtly cartoon ish personae , stylized somatic attributes tend to go hand
i n hand with an emphatically fo rmulaic body language rel iant on (at times i ntentionally far­
cical) exaggeration and overextension . This is most blatant i n the case w i th D r . La ugh to n ,
whose movements i nva riably ev ince what practitioners refer t o a s "tw i n n i ng" : that is t o say,
total sym metry i n the articulation of the arms and han d s . T h is ki n d of body language m ay
come across as u n realistic at first sigh t . Nonetheless, as Wi l l iams aptly remarks, it is n o t
u n com mon for real people to move i n s u c h a fashion - particularly, w h e n they a re fo rcibly
striv i n g to sell a story and convi nce their audience of its credib i l ity. This is p recisely what the
scientist is doing as he endeavors to have Duke Red believe that Tima is not yet ready fo r full
activation so that he may r un away with his p recious creation instead o f yield i n g h e r to the
com m ission i n g patro n . "Just watch any poli tician , p reacher, o r l eader o f whateve r , o r expert
on television ," Williams u rges . "When they're laying down the law their arms and hands w i l l
twi n symmetrically" (Williams, R . , p. 324) .
Moving fro m character a n i m ation to Metropolis's broader tech n i cal constitution , i t must
first be stressed that Rintaro and h is team diligently sought to p reserve the distinctively "soft"
look o f Tezuka's original draw i ngs even as they progressively i m plemented the l a test digi tal
tools. Hand-executed and com p uter-generated images were accord i ngly i ntegrated in several
ways . All of the fil m's scenery was shot with 3 D com puter graph ics, against which conven­
tionally a n i m ated characters where then superimposed. I n elaborati n g this gro u nd-b reaki n g
methodology over t h e five years of t h e fil m's p roduction , Rintaro fou n d t h a t i t did n o t , after
all , differ su bstantially from trad itional p rocesses when i t came to elbow grease : towards the
end, the d i rector h i mself had to lend a hand i n the application o f digi tal paint to cel s . The
sheer vol u m e o f work entailed by this particular aspect of the fi l m's execution is instantly ev i ­
dent when one considers that each cel takes about two h o u rs t o paint , that each seco n d o f
screen t i m e consists o f 2 4 cels a n d that Metropolis eventually comprised approximately 150 , 0 0 0
draw i ngs . T h e experience mus t , t o some extent , have rem i n ded Rintaro of h is salad days in
the industry, as described i n this passage : " I have many fo nd memories o f wo rk i n g with
 Five - Me tro polis 79

Tezu ka, but my s trongest memo ry concerns the very first episode of Astro Boy. When we cre­
ated it, neither Tezuka nor I had any experience making a manga i nto a TV show . . . . I t was a
really tough time figuring o u t how to do TV animation , b u t the people and a l l the staff were
very enth usiastic . That spirit itse l f is a fond memo ry, too" (Rintaro 2 0 0 2 b) .
Mesmerizi ngly i n tricate as the visuals del ivered by the final product su rely are , readers
i n terested i n the i r meticulously hand-execu ted origins are warmly advised to con s u l t the
exhaustive "Archi tectu res" section incl uded i n the companion to the film edi ted by Ko ichi
Num ata , Metropolis: The Jvfovie Memoir. It is i n these drawi ngs that the team's com m i tment
shi nes fo rth most u n a m b iguously i n the fo rm of black-and-white urban plans composed of
thousands o f t i ny l i nes and geometric patterns .
Some particula rly complex sequences such as the ones depicting the churning and wh i rring
wheels of Metropolis's i nnermost workings consist of nu merous CG layers, on top o f which the
human characters were man ually drawn in order to evoke an impression of depth and width that
could not have been achieved by means of entirely digital composites . In other sequences, such
as the ones displaying panoramic surveys of the city's various zones, Rintaro's team sought to
evoke a cumulatively hand-drawn look but ach ieved this objective , paradoxically, by adopting
digital 3 D polygons as their starting point. Cel artists would then add colors man ually to those
CG skeletons to endow them with textural density and warmth . The manually added h ues would
subsequently be removed from the polygonal primaries, digitally p rocessed and put back into the
images . This p rocess secured both the picture's retention of an artisanal feel and its overall con­
sistency. I ndeed, once a palette created by a cel artist has been digitally processed, it can be saved
in an appropriate com puter library and reu til ized cou ntless ti mes without any risks of deterio­
ration or incongruousness arising i n the course of the production.
Key to Rintaro's m issi o n , in his com m i t ment to the p reservation o f a cel- l i ke mood, was
the execution o f CG obj ects upon which traditional graph i cs were then m a n u ally draw n . The
d i rector has described the p rocess as follows :
The most d i ffi c u l t th ing in terms of comh ining cel animat ion and digi tal i mages was that , when you m i x
these two elemems, t h e d i g i tal part i s inev itably going to st and o u t. So t h e biggest chal lenge for m e was
! O really blend t hese two d i ffe rent corn p oncms together so t hey woul dn't figh t each other w i t h in the frame.

r cal l t h i s process "detachment , " and i t's bas ically c reating t h e images by computer and then, once you
finish the process, actual ly hand -d raw ing over them to give them less of a eG l look and bring t hem closer
to cel animati on q u al i t y. So essentially the hardest part of making this film was c reat ing the e G I and then
bringing i t back closer to the qual i t y of cel animation (Rintaro 2002bj .

Ri ntaro grew so passionate abo ut this approach that he wo uld o ften sketch li nes d i rectly over
the digital animato rs' co mp uter screens with a Magic Marker atop the CG i mages there dis­
played . ( Unsurprisingly, this req u i red the appl ication o f very generous amou nts o f benzine to
the moni tors so flamboyantly e m b ro idered . )
T h e director h a s q u i te unequ ivocal ly described h is attitude towards, a n d artistic assess­
ment o f, digi tal tech nology in an interview aired at the time o f Metropolis's domestic release :
"The advantage of using CG is defin i tely the w ide range of exp ress ion . . . . I want to approach
the digi tal tools from the standp o i nt of how they co uld be util ized to complement what I can­
not exp ress w i th what I have accumulated ove r my last forty years i n cel a n i mation . I v iew
digital techn iques as noth i n g more than tools . . . . I n stead of lea n i n g towards digi tal a n i mation
I wo uld rather forcefu l ly bring digital techn iq ues to o u r analogue side . I t m ight i nvolve a
change in the concept o f digi tal tools but I think such an approach is also possible" ( Ri ntaro
2003) .
80 AN IME I NTERS ECTIONS

Elsewhere , asked what he thought of entirely digital productions such as Toy Story (dir.
John Lasseter, 1995) and Shrek (dirs. Andrew Adamson and Vicky Jenso n , 2 0 0 1 ) , Rintaro
riposted : "As a movie fan , I 'm very interested in the m . As a di rector , I have absol utely no
i nt e rest in making such a fi l m . For many years , it's all been done with 'pri m itive' cel a n i ma­
tion , but I have no des i re to completely leave that beh i n d . Com p u ters are very conve n i e n t ,
and I l i ke using t h e m i n com bi nation w i t h tradi tional animation , b u t only as a t o o l to m ake
better quality films, and not as the fo undation . " With characteristically disar m i n g honesty,
he then suggested that altho ugh Metropolis is his most dexterous p roduction to date, there
remains cop i o us room for i m p rovement : 'Tm satisfied with abour 9 0 % o f the fi l m . . . . The
rem aining 1 0 % is the chal lenge of maki ng my next fi l m" (Rintaro 2 0 0 1 ) .
Rintaro's i n tegration of traditional and i nnovative tec h n i ques parallels through o u t h i s
t h e m a t i c e m p hasis o n the i nterpenetration o f the o l d a n d the n ew. T h u s , as P i nsky h a s
observed, he is concurrently capable of "fashioning a world of scratchy propaganda fi l m s , d i a l
telephones, and zeppelins w h i l e h i nting at andro ids a n d i ntern ets u n i magi n ed i n the j azz age ,"
and of fus i n g "new i mages l i ke holographic aquari u ms" with "old techniq ues l i ke iris transi­
tions to make the film always seem both fresh and fam i l iar" ( P i nsky 2 0 02b) .
I n e ndeavoring to repl icate Tezuka's world, Rintaro and his colleagues faced two m aj o r
challenges posed b y particular aspects of t h e manga artist's u n ique signature : n a mely, the rep­
resentation o f a densely populated urbanscape seasoned by both use and s t r i fe , and the recur­
rent placement therein of large-scale crowd scenes seething with discordant e n ergi es. The
accomplishment of those visual feats would have been p roh i b i t ively arduous had the a n i m a ­
tors b e e n deal i n g with hefty stacks of cels. T h e combi nation of analogue and digi tal tech ­
n i ques, tho ugh a dev i l ish p rocedure i n its own righ t , enabled the team to create complex scenes
in such a fash i o n that the final outcome divulges no obvious to i l . Additionally, the charac­
teristic atmosphere of those scenes gains considerably, as J . Hoberman h as n o ted, fro m the
production team's ability to "not only compose images in terms o f shadows , reflections, and
camera an gles but also take care to distinguish va riet ies of l ight - the glow i n g n eon signage
has an entirely different quality from that of the candy-colored l i v i n g b il l bo a rds" (Hober­
man) .
As consonant with 1ezuka's style as the atmospheric capture of mob scenes and their set­
tings is a punctilious dedication to details i n the ren dition of ostensibly peripheral acti o n s .
Roger Ebert econom ically exp resses this idea by citing the following i l l ustrative exam p l e :
"There is a scene where an old man consults a book of occ u l t lore . He opens i t and starts to
read . A page fl ips over. He fl i ps i t back i n place . Consider i n g that every acti o n i n a n a n i ­
mated fi l m requ i res tho usands of draw ings, a moment l i ke t h e page fl i p m ight seem u nnec­
essary, b u t all t h rough the movie we get l i ttle touches l i ke that" (Ebert 2 0 0 2 ) .
The harmonization of cel a n i mation and CG I evi nced by Metrop olis is u n p recede ntedly
sophisticated . Nevertheless, there are ti mes when the two modal i t i es a re contrasted, rather
than seamlessly blended together, for thematic p u rposes . Thus, the portions of the city i nhab­
i ted by the wo rkers , representative of the I ndustrial Age and hence o f p re-digi tal tech nology,
are depicted p redo m in antly by reco urse to traditional tech n iques, whereas the upper-crust
areas, rep resentative of state-of-the-art cybertechnology, are rendered by p rincipal ly d i gital
means . Th i s styl istic j uxtaposition concisely captu res the thematic clash between the p role­
tariat and the despotic rulers by reference to the tech nol ogies pertinent to each side . At the
same t i m e , i t tends to associate the subterranean zones with warm , b reath i n g h u m a n i ty, and
 Five - Metropolis 81

the above-gro u n d ones with a tone o f aseptic slickness, thus m i rrori n g the d i fferent effects
o ften associated with cel a n i m ation and CGI respectively.
What is ulti mately most memorabl e abo ut Metropolis's rel iance o n com p u ter-generated
visual and special effects is their unobtrusiveness . Ri ntaro and h is team dep loy the digital tools
and tech niques at thei r disposal so flawlessly and seam lessly that audiences o ften forget that
many of the images with which they are p resented i n deed fal l into the category o f "effects . "
When the fi l m i c space's geometrical coordinates twist, condense a n d bend, for exa m p l e , the
eye is l iterally sucked i nto the perspectival vortex . The overall mood is u n d o ubtedly e n hanced
by the movie's rare ability to come across as both visceral and cerebral at once, comb i n i n g a n
i ntelligent story l i n e with s o m e s t u n n i n g p roduction designs . I n a n a g e where the science­
fict ion film gen re o ften ap pears to have been dumbed down to a vap id spectacle o f clamorous
explosions and sensational morphs, Metropolis asserts itself as a genui nely inspired and thought­
ful accomplishment .
No l ess disti nctive than his take on the i ntegration of cel a n i m ation and C G I is Rintaro's
app roach to cinematography at the i nterrelated l evels of camera work , edi t i n g , choreography
and mise en scene. His overall direction is fast-paced, s ustai n i n g a suspensefu l momentum and
periodically departi n g from the story i n order to draw attention to the visual spectacle itself.
Even at such moments o f heightened self-reflexivity, howeve r , Ri ntaro eschews p retentious­
ness by reco u rse to a s i n gular sense of h umor and the determ i nation n o t to dwel l too p ro ­
tractedly o n any one fi l m ic element. I n this regard, his t i m i n g is indisputably fau l tless . I n
addi tion , Rintaro's camera shows a p redilection fo r arriving at a s h o t obliquely, dip p in g a n d
swerving along t h e vertigin o us surfaces of Metropol is's intricate framework, and hence dis­
closing the scenery's contents from u n p redictable angles . Fava's observations regard i n g Rin ­
taro's cinematograp h ical style deserve special consideration i n this context : "The l ayo ut a n d
framing cho ices are truly excellent : one shifts from very long takes to extreme close-ups, at
ti mes warm and capable o f conveying a feeling of intimacy i n the dialogue between charac­
ters, at times mercilessly prob i n g , somewhat suffocati ng. The camera moves are exceedingly
fluid, complex , capable o f giving the viewer the exact emotion which the moment seeks to
com municate" ( Fava 2 0 0 2 ; my translation) .
F urthermore , Metropolis is made cinematographically un ique by its ability to evoke well ­
tested narrative formulae p u t i n place b y cyberpunk fiction , a n d yet both l o o k a n d sound p ro ­
foundly different fro m prior cogitations on t h e relationship between humanity a n d technology.
The film's dom i n a n t Art D eco style, which it shares with the original Metropolis, is largely
responsible fo r its aesthetic individuali ty. No audience cou l d ever confuse Rintaro's movie's
subtly understated automata w i th the ostentatious mecha that people so many a n i m e series .
Equally vital to the movie's overall atmosphere is i ts handl i n g o f the musical d i mension . I f
Metropolis's prismatic and d isorientingly en grossing arch i tecture i s s o central a n aspect o f the
fi l m as to operate as a composi te character in its own righ t , no less determi n i n g a facet o f the
production's fo rmal identity l ies with Tosh iyuki Honda's so u n dt rack , a n i n s p i red accom pa­
niment pervaded by the u n i que energy o f D ixieland j azz . Joe Pri m rose's "Sr. James's I nfirmary"
is accorded a structurally central ro le within the overal l soundtrack , its theme both reprising
and presaging the hero i n e's fate .
It is not a s u rp rise to see Met ropolis clim ax with a large-scale cataclys m i c sequence,
given its thematic and generic a Hi l iations to the dys to p i a n tale a n d the caution ary sci-fi
adventure . What does come as a s u rp rise - and a tantal izingly welcome o n e , i n fac t - is the
82 AN I M E I N TERS ECTI O N S

aco ustic backdrop chosen for the seque nce's grand crescendo . Fol l ow i n g the p regnant moment
o f s i lence co i n c i d i n g with the detonation of the Ziggurat's control room , the b i ttersweet
version of the Ray Charles ballad "I Can't S top Lov i n g Yo u" u n expectedly fi l l s the a i r . The
song s u p p l ies a disturbi ngly i ron ical cou nterpart to the visuals as i t acco m p a n ies the Ziggu ­
rat's spectacu lar collapse from begi nning to end, ris i n g and fal l i n g l ike a h u ge wave while
cou ntless portions o f the once fo rmidable structure i n turn soar o r cascade through the
sky.
Whether the so u ndtrack harmoniously coalesces with the flow of the a n i mation or else
del i berately j a rs with i ts thematic i m port (as i n the finale) , sOllnd and action are so thoro ugh ly
i ntegrated t h ro ugho u t the entire filmic experience as to appear to emanate from each other.
Metropolis accordingly yields a u n ive rse of melod ies born o f motion , and o f acts born of music .
The characters' movements, as a corolla ry, come to rese mble a seamlessly choreographed dance
even as they reach their most frenzied and turbulent p i tch . One is naturally rem i n ded, even
after j ust a co uple of view i n gs, o f the cl imactic couplet from W B . Yeats's "Among S chool
Children" ( 1 9 2 7) :

o body swayed to mus i c , 0 brigh t e n i n g glance,

How can we know the dancer from the d ance?

In the movie's cli max , as Metropo lis's gl itzy upper levels disi ntegrate w i th a paradoxi ­
cally balletic elegance , Rintaro's message finds i ts most potent material ization . The c l i m actic
sequences i n deed mark the apo theosis of the directo r's bold handling o f archi tectme , p e rspec­
tive , geometry and, ulti mately, the very concept o f cinematic space . The ending thus fittingly
completes the m ission undertaken by Metropolis in its entirety : namely, the del ivery o f a dis­
tinctive i m aginary realm that is at once novel and embedded i n traditio n . Specifical ly, even
as the fi l m experiments adventurously with ma rkedly innovative techn iques, it si multaneously
reaches back i nto a protracted developmental cu rve whose origin can be traced back to the
very dawn o f cinem a .
The ideat ion o f i m aginary worlds has i n deed always been o n e o f t h e m ed i u m's p r i m a ry
obj ectives right fro m i ts i nception and anim atio n , i n particu lar, has contrib u ted u n iquely
to this quest by cap i talizing on its p roverb ial disengagement from the l aws o f physics. Var­
ious sem i n al moments i n early film h istory bear w itness to the i n cremental elaboration of
an aesthetic o f the c i n e m atic real m as a space sui generis rather than a n ancil lary im i t at i o n
o f material rea l i ty. W h a t such an aesthetic entails, fi r s t and fo remo s t , is a n a p p re c i a t i o n
o f t h e tech nological d i mension o f a r t , on t h e one h a n d , a n d o f the a r t i s t i c d i me n s i o n o f
tech nology, o n the other - fo r ci nema i s obviously a n art b u t also, more exp l i c i tly than
other arts, a technology. A n i mation , in tu rn , is more p o i ntedly a tech nology than o ther c i n ­
e m a t i c fo rms i nsofar a s i t is u n der no obl igat ion t o take real - l i fe refere n ts at its po i nts o f
departure a n d c a n therefore manufacture enti re un iverses p ractically fro m sc ratch . Wi th the
advent o f digi tal tech nology, this power has been i ncrement a l l y augmented - as eloquently
borne o u t not o n ly by Metropolis but also by several other productions exa m i ned i n t h i s
boo k .
There is a w idesp read tendency t o associate tech nology w i t h t h e application o f scientific
findi ngs and w i th rational and measurable environments . This somewhat stereo typical u n der­
stan ding o f tech nology does not adequately take i nto consideration i ts etymo l o g y : the G reek
word teclme, namely "art . " Acknowledging this l i nk means hav i n g to reconsider the relation-
 Five - Met ropolis 83

s h i p between art and tech nology. F i rstly, if tech nology is in some ways art , it cannot be l i nked
exclusively to the rat i o nal , the measu rable and the demonstrable : elements o f i magination and
fantasy enter its equations and these relate it to the realm of storytel l i n g . Secondly, the art
u nderlyi n g technology does not merely refer to the p roduction of objects such as narratives,
paintings or buildi ngs . Tecime all udes to p roduct i o n and construction i n genera l : the making
of someth ing out o f the raw materials supplied by either nature or the i m agination or both .
This read i ng has p ro fo u n d repercussions fo r our grasp of art and shows that art is, in many
ways , tech nological : i t p roduces i m ages of people and worlds (both material and incorporeal) .
Tech nology, i n t u r n , refers not merely to an apparatus of scient ific p ractices and appl icat ions
but also to a set of disco u rses thro u gh which subj ects are regimented a n d fashioned. There­
fo re , tech nology is i n formed by art, i nsofar as it is an a rtistic p ractice, and art is i n fo rmed by
tech nology because construction is its fu ndamental p urpose .
Conceptions and representations of space in fil m are based on an intimate bond between
the artistic and tech nological dimensions of architectu re that brings creative vision and techn i ­
cal expertise intimately together. Altho ugh t h e coalescence of traditional hand-drawn visuals and
cutting-edge digital tools is the specific issue with which this analysis is concerned, i t is also cru­
cial to acknowledge that the dialogue between cinema and architecture has a l ong h istory. I ndeed,
it has been evolving since the 1 920s through a plethora of films engaged in the rep resentation of
the modern city as both a metaphor for social reality and as a means of speculating about pos­
sible futures . Thus, images of urban arch itectu re in ci nema have i ncreasingly come to stand for
concurrently actual and virtual embodi m e nts of philosophical questions regarding our place i n
the wo rld - the ways in which our cultural identi ties are defined b y the spatial coordina tes within
which we come to be situated through choice, enablement , coercion or prohibition.
Rintaro's Metropolis stands o u t as one of the most tantal izing attem p ts , i n recent years,
to articulate a com plex u rbanscape by means of diverse a n i mational st rategies i n o rder to
draw attention to, and reflect u pon , those very ques t i o ns . G iven the fi l m's connection w i t h
an u n disp uted masterp i ece of 1920s l ive-action c i nema, i t s e e m s a p p o s i t e to contextual ize
Rintaro's own enterp rise w i th reference to other vo i ces from the s a m e period . 2 The i m agi­
native potential of s u s t a i n ed e ncou nters between fi l m and a rc h i tect u re was vividly grasped
by Vi rgi n i a Wo o l f i n the m i d - I 9 2 0 s whe n , co m m e n t i n g specifically o n Ro b e r t Wien e's
The Cabinet of Doctor Caligari ( 1 9 2 0 ) , she re marked enthusiastically that the new medi u m
had the capacity t o conj u re u p a "dream architecture of a rches a n d battle m e n ts, o f cascades
fal l i n g and fo u n tai n s ris i n g , which someti mes v i s i ts us in sleep or s h a p es itself in h a l f­
darkened rooms . No fantasy could be roo farfetched or i ns u bstantial" (Wo o l f, p. 86) . Woo l f
was here a l l u d i n g to c i n e m a's possibly u nr ival led capab il ities i n the evoca t i o n o f s p ace .
The magic of cinematic sets is arguably most bewitching when arch itectural structures are
p u rpose- b u i l t fo r a specific movie , for it is at that po i nt that gen u i n ely new o r al ternative
worlds come into bei ng and fantas ies are given tangible i n carnati o n . It i s in such cases, more­
ove r , that we m ay become aware o f fa ntasy as someth i n g far more p r o fo u n d than sheer
escap i s m : namely, as a comm ell tary upon , and i m agi native extension o f, c u l t u ral and p h i l o ­
soph ical p reoccupations t h a t a r e ve ry real i ndeed . Ri ntaro's Metropolis e n gages i n precisely
such a miss i o n by choos i n g to harness a fantasy-driven adventure ro the fat h o m i n g o f ex is­
tential puzzles .
The i ntersection o f cinema and architecture is a phenomenon that partakes at once of
actual i ty and fantasy, real i ty and virtuali ty. I ndeed, as Anthony Vidler has observed, while
84 AN I M E I NTERSECT I O N S

archi tectu re is a "fu n damental s i te of fil m p ractice , the i ndispensable real a n d ideal matrix o f
the fi l m i c i maginary, " fi l m i s , in t u rn , a unique "art of space" evolving fro m a visio nary "fusion
o f space and time" (Vidler, p. 14) . Nowhere do these hypotheses come more fu lly to fruition
than in the art o f a n i mation , where space is not only constructed i ndependently o f e m p i rical
constrai nts but also deployed as a fruitfu l meeti ng p o i nt for the actual a n d t h e imagina ry.
What an a n i m ated mov i e of Metropolis's cal iber corroborates, moreover , is c i n e m a's a b i l i t y to
harn ess arch itecture's flamboyant al iveness to the elaboration of sustained ideological specu­
lation . As a res u l t , Ebert p roposes, "The city in this movie is not s i m p ly a backdrop o r a loca­
t i o n , but one of those movie places that colon ize o u r memory" (Ebert 2002) .
Lively exchanges concerni n g the formulation of a specifically fi l m i c architecture were
inspired, i n the 1920s, by the Bauhaus Movement flourishing in the context o f Wei mar Ger­
many. Emphasis was consistently placed on the aesthetic specificity o f arc h i tectu ral structu res
del i berately designed fo r cinema . F. Ka ufmann , for exa m p l e , enth usiastically advocated the
necessity of breakin g set design free from p u rely decorative requ i rements a n d o f transfo r m ­
i n g i t i n t o an autonomous art : "Why not build rooms, corners, o r even a si ngle wal l , w h i c h ,
thanks t o it s i m p l e disposition , is gen u i ne arch i tectu ral art?" h e earnestly asked . I n contrast
with "the gilt plaster frame of cu rrent p ractice" i n the 1920s, Kau fmann commended an u n p re­
tentious and styl ized approach that used set design as a "refined woodwork that accen t uates
the picture by the s i m plest means," thus fu lly espousing the Bauhaus ethos . The evocation of
a distinctive "atmosphere , " he argued, requ i res "the strictest abstraction" as well as "com p l e t e
i mmersion i n the material" (Kaufmann , p. 1 8 2) .
Although there are several moments in Metropolis where the settings are so vol u p tu o usly
saturated w i t h details as to seem i n gly excl ude the possib i l i t y of styl ized refinement , let alone
abstractio n , carefu l i nspection of the i r overall composition demonst rates that Ri ntaro's com­
m i tment to the capt u re o f a particular mood does not rely on sheer o rnamentation but rather
on a keen u n derstanding of the underlyi ng principles of architecture as an art and as a l a n ­
guage . F urthermore , i t is not merely through t h e display of eye-catc h i n g materials a n d tex­
tu res - such as pol ished marble and sensuous brocade - but also , no less s i g n i ficantly, t h ro u gh
an affection ate focus on s i m p l e images - flagstones, tiles, rai l i n gs, p i pes, gears - that t h e
movie's overall sense o f space declares itself, capitalizing on a mosaic o f i ndividually crafted
m i n utiae over and above the explicirly spectacular sequences .
Like Kau fmann , Paul Leni advanced the claim to artistic autonomy while embrac i n g a
Bauhaus- inspired formal i s m . He maintained that the "set designer" should n o t be "consid­
e red a craftsman's assistant i n the studio, but an independently creative artist whose cont r i ­
b u t i o n is essent ial to l e n d a fi l m its characteristic styl e . T h e a i m and p ur p ose o f architectu re
i n fi l m are based on this attitude that the film should not be a mere p hoto grap h i c i m i tation
of rea l ity, but must have its own style" (Len i , p. 1 8 8) . Ri ntaro's eclectic fus i o n o f myriad sty­
l istic motifs with a ludic disregard for documentary accu racy could be seen as a n apt i n car­
nation of Leni's aesthetic goal .
Howeve r, i t is thanks to a methodic approach to the space o f Metropolis as a h o l istic
entity rather than an aggregate of randomly coexisting fragments that the d i rector has suc­
ceeded i n creat i n g an emin enrly cohesive ensemble. I n this respect , h is vision echoes the v i ews
o f another i n fluential critic from the era in which the first Metropolis was p roduced, H e i n rich
de Fries . Stress i n g the i mportance of configu ring fi l m i c space in relation to the overall movi e ,
de Fries argued that locations should not be conceived of i n terms of i n dividual frames b u t
 Five-Metropolis 85

a s "the whole cou rse o f t h e act io n , a sequence of states, hence a sequence o f pictures, utterly
al ive" (de Fries, p. 184) . Taking ful l advantage of ani mation's u n p aralleled freedo m , Rintaro
and h i s collaborators have not only commun icated this sense o f vitality w i t h occasionally
uncanny zest but also i m p l icitly dissemi nated a discreet m an i festo concer n i n g the relation­
ship between their med i u m and the realm of actual built space .
Metropolis's mise en sce ne indeed re m inds us of an extremely s i m p l e , yet o ften overlooked,
aspect of ci nematic archi tecture : namely, the fact that b u i l d i n g for a fil m (and especially a n
ani mated one) is not a s i mulation o f real building but actually an i ndependent art . T h i s is
because what the fi l m m akers are concerned w ith is solely and strictly what affects the movie
by means of design , and design can only be adequately addressed fro m the point o f v iew of
film , not from that o f rea l - l i fe arch itecture . Whatever con figuration o f b u i l t space exists - o r
co uld exist - "o ut there" is ultimately i rrelevant t o cinem a : w h a t nutters is the i nternal coher­
ence of the space constructed for the conti ngent purposes o f a movie - i n other words, i ts
effectiveness i n relation to the fi l m's narrative , style and aesthetic o bj ectives . Metropolis's archi ­
tecture faithfu l ly reflects t h i s proposition , asserting itself through o u t a s cons u m m a tely self­
governi n g and self- real ized, and thus upholding the i m p ortance of autonomo usly conceived
design over p h o tographic veris i m i l i t u d e . This artistic m ission is most sensationally accom­
pl ished by sequences i n wh ich the camera penetrates all of the ci ty's quaquaversal planes fro m
every imaginable perspective, occasionally w i t h i n o n e si ngle s h o t .
T h e approach t o u rban arch itecture favored b y t h e Bauhaus Movement aro u n d the t i m e
of t h e creation of Lang's o w n Metropolis was underp i nned by t h e school's devo tion to p r i n ­
ci ples o f structural functionali ty, s i m p l icity and rigor. However, these tenets were not always
compatible w it h the actuality of the rapidly expanding modern city. The idea of urban space
as a carefu l ly structured ensemble o f functional bui ldings created acco rd i n g to p r i n ciples of
mathematical p recision and tech no logical expertise had to be coord i n ated with the kinetic
reality of the actual metropolis. This meant that while aiming for purity a n d clarity o f form ,
arch i tects also had to confron t the phantasmagoric qualities o f the l ived env i ron ment and draw
inspiration from i t .
Ludwig Meidner, for i nstance , enco u raged arch itects t o engage w it h "tu m u l t uous streets,
the elegance o f i ron suspension bridges . . . the howl ing colors of the autobuses . . . the rol l i n g
telephone w i res, t h e harleq u i n ade of t h e advertisement pillars" (quoted i n H axthausen a n d
S u h r , p. 63). A s Christine Boyer observes, moreover , i t is p recisely i n t h e real m o f cinema
that this aesthetic p roject was to find i ts most gen uine realization : " I t would not be long befo re
the dynam ics of motion i n the big city, and the ability to create picture poems by visually
j uxtaposing an array o f disparate items such as graph ics, musical rhy t h m s , typography, and
photography, were capt u red by one of the mach i nes of the rwentieth century : the movie cam­
era" (Boyer , p. 16) .
I t is hard to i m agine a closer cinematic concretization of Meidner's model than Ri ntaro's
M etropolis, w i t h its daring array of roaring, rol l i n g and hovering veh icles, its grand edi fices
and lobbies , i ts polych romatic kiosks and cafes, its street signs, ads and graffiti , as well as its
dizzying grid of p u l l ulating bou levards, stai rways , overpasses, escalators, travolators, fun i cll­
lar railways, gan gways , catwalks, passages and winding alleys - a l l of which are dep icted i n
passionately intense hues . Also notable are the sequences, such a s t h e opening o n e , where archi­
tecture pl ays the lead ro le, and flau nts its dynam ism i n ways that recall the choreographi n g
style o f classic 19205 and 193 0s B roadway musicals and Hol lywood s e t p i eces, while the c a m -
86 ANI M E INTERS ECTIONS

era's inspired use of intrepid tracking shots and rack focus causes the b u i l d i ngs to appear to
telesco pe, contract , stretch out o r race away from the chosen vanish i n g p o i n t .
Lang's Metropolis i s not the only source of tangential i n s p i ration u nderlyi ng Ri ntaro's
worl d . I n deed, the movie is also intensely redolent - although there is no overt evidence for
the di rector's intentional recourse to these visual documents - of several other fi l ms p roduced
in the c l i mate of German Expressionism in the 1920s. Like the afo rementioned T he Ca binet
ofDoc tor Ca liga ri, Ri ntaro's fi l m does not treat the set as a mere backgrou n d fo r the action
b u t rather as a p ivotal means of exp ressing a variety of moods - above all, a u b iq u i tous atmos­
p here of confinement resuirin g from the city's rigidly compartmentalized layo u t . This is rei n ­
forced by a carefully contrasted u s e of l ight a n d darkness , by the p l ay of shadows and by the
deliberate artificiality of the locations . Additional ly, the b r i ghtly colored visuals punctuating
the action o f Metropolis i n the fo rm of not only archi tectu ral b u t also ves t i m e ntary deta i l s are
rem i n iscent of the pai nterly i m agery p rofu sely deployed in the Faustian tale Algol (d i r . H a ns
Werckme ister, 1 920 ) . In both films, the di recto rs' rel iance on co lorfully decorated, incontro­
vertibly synthetic details evi n ces a determi nation to convey cinem a's artistic autonomy in the
ren dition o f space , by p o rtrayi ng scenes that are obviously only p a i nt e d and would never clai m
to i m i tate real arch itecture or fashion design.
A more recent mov ie with which Metropolis shares i nteresting spatial analogies is undoubt­
edly Ba tma n (di r. Tim B urton , 1989). The sepulchral and n ightmarish urban setti ng des i gned
by Anton Furst for Ba tma n's Gotham City could be said to anticipate the more pointedly somber
pockets of Rintaro's cityscape : both locations are not identifiable in either geographical or h is­
torical terms, yet possess an undeniable inner consistency that renders them utterly credible. This
i m p ression is augmented by the ageless quality exhibited by both ci ties : a look achieved through
the collage-like amalgamation of a wide range of styl istic elements that elude strict classification .
At the same time, Metropolis bears witness to the role played by d i gital tech n o logy i n
recent decades i n the construction of imaginary worlds . T h ro ugh i ts b reakt h ro ugh u t i l ization
of CGI specifically fo r the p u rpose of ideat ing a hypothetical u rbanscape , the movie i n v i tes
reRection on the i m pact of digital tech nology on contempora ry perceptions of space and,
relatedly, on c i nematic visual izations of space abetted by that technology. Concurrently, by
consistently expos i n g salient and varied contrasts between Metropol is's glea m i n g u p p e r l ev­
els and i ts gloomy depths, Rintaro comments m etaphorically on the increasi ngly hyb rid nature
of the contemporary megalopol i s . This, as Nicholas Negroponte observes, resuirs fro m o u r
perception of the world being conditioned b y the coalescence o f contrary states : tho ugh u b iq­
u i to usly computerized, from "a macroscopic point of view" urban space " is n o t digital at all
but contin u o u s . Noth i n g goes suddenly on or off, turns from b lack to wh i te , o r changes from
one state to another w i t h o u t go i n g through a transition" (Negroponte , p . 7) .
An understandi ng of this space of "transition" is crucial to the conce p t i o n o f Ri ntaro's
retro fu t u ristic cybercity as a schizophrenic entity w i t h i n which neatly mapped-o u t a n d san­
itized spaces are systematically j uxtaposed with spaces of p hysical decay and anarchy. The
i m m aterial geography of com p uter networks and the corporeal geography o f the ever-grow­
ing and seedy city clash repeatedly throughout Ri ntaro's film and u l t imately reveal themselves
as airernate facets of one and the same murky real ity in its cli mactic moments. Thus, the fil m's
engagement w i th the articulation of a dialectical exchange between cinema and arch i tecture
could be said to rep l i cate , both unobtru s ively and exuberantly, the cumulative A.igh t- path
traced by i ts p i oneering amalgamation of hand-drawn and cutting-edge styles .
 SIX

Final Fantasy:
The Spirits Within

We live ill
a folltasy world, a world o!illllSion. The gretzt task in lift is to find reality. - Iris Murdoch
Like the anthropologist returning homefrom a foreign culture, the 1I0yager ill virtuality can return
home to a real world better equipped to understand its artifices. - Sherry Turkle

Repu ted by n u m e ro u s critics and co m mentators to have been the most anticipated CG
movie ever, Fina l Fa nta�y: The Spirits Within carried all the expecta t i ons typical of s u m mer
blockbusters, co u p led w i th those of video game fan s . Some p u rists may be d i s i ncli ned to
regard th is movie as a n i m e on the gro u nds that i t is not rooted in the real m of cartoon draw­
i n g . H owever, it i s here deemed to belong i n the tradition of an i m e to the extent that t h i s
t e r m b roadly designates "Japanese a n i mation" i n t h e West and "an i mation" at large i n Japan
itself. Moreove r , even tho ugh the fi l m does not use cartoon draw i ngs but rather h ighly p h o ­
to real ist i c , enti rely CG h u m a n characters wh ose movements are based on tho s e o f l i ve per­
fo rmers, it is u nden iably an ani mation to the extent that i ts personae are esse ntially constructs
i n fused with the sembla nce of al iveness by p u rely artific ial means . The fi l m's design ation i n
the fil mograp hy here i n c l uded as a n "a n i mated feature fi l m" i s a logical corol lary o f t h i s p re m ­
Ise .
I n the year 2 0 6 5 , the b ri l l i ant yo ung scientist D r . Aki Ross u nde rtakes the final m is s i o n :
t o "save t h e earth" fro m a n i nvadi n g menagerie of varyi ngly ghostl i ke , armored, i nsect i l e , t e n ­
tacular a n d repti l i a n "ph antoms" u n l eashed b y a cataclysm of cos m i c p roportions, w h i l e also
endeavoring to recover fro m the alien " i n festation" to which her own body has fallen p rey.
Renderi ng the planet desolately sterile, the catastrophe has fo rced the few s u rv iv i n g h u mans
to take refuge i n gigantic sh ielded domes known as "barrier cities . " In o rder to defeat the
i nvaders, Aki teams u p w i th the p restigious Deep Eyes m i l i tary squadro n , led by her o l d fri e n d
G ray Edwards, and w i th her erstwhile mentor D r . S i d . A k i sees the key to vanqui sh i ng t h e
threat p o s e d by the p h antoms i n the creatures' i n t r i n s i c energy waves , a n d seeks to co l lect
eight Earth s p i r i ts from a va riety of l i fe forms to create an energy pattern capable of i n ter­
act i n g w i t h , and hence balancing o u r , the i nvaders' own .
Thus, Aki does n o t ap p roach the s u p posed enemy a s a p l ague t o b e b r u ta l ly a nn i h i l ated

87
88 ANI M E INTERSECTIONS

but rather as a l i fe force in its own right to be harnessed to the resto ration of the p lanet's well ­
bei ng. A s stated i n t h e abstract of Lucy Wright's paper "The Spirits With i n : T h e Shamanic
Hero i n Fina l Fa ntasy," the metaphysical perspective articulated by the film through its hero­
i ne's v ision and actions clearly demonstrates that "Su per- muscles and super-powers w il l only
get yo u so fa r. When the enemy takes an inexpl icably n u m i n o u s fo rm , yo u m u s t t u r n
i nwards - t o the m i nd, to dreams, t o the Spi rits With i n - i n order t o fi n d a solu tion. Scientific
shaman-hero D r. Aki Ross uses both her rational mind and her onei ric intuition to save the
day, and the pla net" (Wright).
Whereas Aki and her associates work towards a peacefu l end, the head o f the Depart­
ment of Defense, Ge neral Hei n , believes that the hero i ne's and her teacher's theories amo u n t
to nothing more t h a n m u m bo j u mbo and is hell-bent i nstead on blasti ng the foe w i th a mam­
moth space gu n dubbed the "Zeus Cannon. " Even tho ugh i t transp i res that eradicati n g the
i nvaders i n one swi ft , destructive blow is bound to a nn i h i late the rest of the planet alongside
the al ien creatu res, Hein rem a i ns tenacio usly resolved i n h i s i ntent. Gradually, the phantoms
are p resented as creatures which , l i ke the repl icants i n B la de Runner and the m utants in the
X-lvfe n comics and movies, are not u nproblematically evi l b u t are ideologically constructed
as such. I ndeed, as the p rotago n ist eventually discovers, the phantoms are not "alien i nvaders"
from o uter space or "aggressors" - as clai med by the revenge-th i rsty H e i n - but "ghosts ...
spi rits that are confused, lost , angry. " Their spectral status is con firmed by the fact that they
come i n a staggering variety of shapes and sizes : if they were i n deed alien i nvaders , why s h o u l d
they bother taking the equivalent of "Noah's Ark" with them?
Fina l Fa ntasy: T he Spirits W ithin suppl ies, on the thematic level , a popularization o f the
Gaia principle acco rd i n g to which nature i n its entirety partakes o f an all-pervasive and u ndy­
i n g l i fe wave . This hypothesis, first advanced by James Lovelock in 1 9 72, p ro p oses that the
Earth constitutes a system o f inextricably i nterconnected b i o logical , chemical and p hysical
p rocesses that i nt eract i n cessantly i n a sel f- regulating and i m m ensely res i l i e n t fash ion in o rder
to preserve the conditions necessa ry for l i fe to endure. Th is v i ew radical ly contradicts the
notion that the planet is s i m p ly an aggregate of brute and i n a n i mate matter that fo r t u i to usly
happens to possess the surface conditions capable of supporti n g the evo l u t io n o f fau na and
flora. Al tho ugh some will dismiss the theory - which is i n deed named after the Greek Earth
goddess - as an i nstance of fluffy New-Age spiritualism , i ts basis is not mystical b u t actually
scientific. I t must also be emphasized, i n the p resent contex t , that the perspective promul­
gated by the Gaia principle w i t h i n Western though t finds a d i rect correlative i n Japanese c u l ­
t u re i n t h e guise of a n i m istic, and especially S h i ntoist, beliefs. Hence , the mov ie's a ffi l iation
to tradition partakes at once o f Eastern and Western i nfluences.
The n arrative's engagement with contemporary issues of transgeogra p h i cal cogency is
confirmed by its thematic emphasis on the seemi n gly inexorable co l l usion o f tec h n o logical
advancement and the abuse of power. Additionally, the heroi ne's very name alludes to an enco unter
of East and West , i nsofar as the j uxtaposition of "Aki" and " Ross" connotes an Amerasian , and
specifically Japanese-America n , origin. It is also noteworthy, i n this respect , that the voice actor
for this character is the Chinese-American actress Ming Na, who starred in what is generally
regarded as the first mainstream Asian-American film: The Joy Luck Club (dir. Wayne Wand, 1 9 93) .
Ming Na also suppl ied the voice for the title character in Disney's ani mated featu re Mula n (dirs.
'Tony Bancroft and Barry Cook, \998), a fu rther instance of cinematic hybrid ization in its mar­
riage of a Chinese tale to the legendary Western studio's technical expertise.
 Six�F i n a l Fan tasy 89

Fina l Fa ntasy the mov ie originated in the video games bearing the same den o m i nation
prod uced by Square Co . Ltd . , a Japanese company renowned for i ts acco m p l ish ments i n
sophisticated CG a n i m ation.] I n 1997, Square had its U . S . s u bsidiary open a new digi tal stu­
dio i n Hono l u l u that asp i red to match the excellence of I ndustrial Light a n d Magic and of
Pixar, and to attract talents from both Japan and America thanks to its eq uidis tance from the
two cou ntries . The game des igner H i ronobu Sakaguchi p roposed that the best way o f tes t i n g
t h e i r capabil i ties was to p roduce a ful l - len gth fi l m util izi ng "realistic com p u te r graph ics that
co uld w i thstand scru t i ny on a big screen" (quo ted i n Ken t , p. 6) . The executive producer of
a game software series that had al ready sold over 3 3 million u n i ts by the m id�1990s, acqu i r­
i n g an increasingly fi l m ic look over time, Sakaguchi sought to create "a brand- n ew for m o f
entertain ment u n i t i n g i nteractive games and motion pictures . . . goi n g beyond t h e bou nds o f
bo th" ( p . 9) .
I n taki ng the world popularized by the v ideo game into novel territory w i t h the inten­
tion of producing an entirely CG feature, the team was carefu l to avo id the parent game's
styl ized cinematography in favor of utterly photorealistic cinematics . As Edgar Park explains,
in order to test i ts skills, Square

decided to create a p roof-of-concept a n i mation that showcased the amb itious l evel of real i s m in h u m an
characters they would req u i re for the finished producl. . . . The p roof-of-concep t , t i tl e d The Gray Project,
was a way to focus on both the artistic feel of the film's design and the techn ical complexity of genera t i n g
real istic h a i r and skin on h u m a n s . The scene shows t w o women i ns i de a futu ristic apartment hav i n g an
argument . Whi l e far from a compell i ng story, the level of drama and reali s m h i t the mark . . . . Ult i m ately,
The Gray Project was an i nt e rn al success whi ch allowed Square . . . to prove that their production p i p e l i n e
worked [ Park, E.].

Directed by Sakagu chi h imself with the assistan ce o f Motonori S akakibara, Fina l Fa n­
ta sy was co -p roduced by Sq uare P i c t u res and Ch ris Lee Pro d u c t i o n s , a s u b s i d i ary o f
Sony/Columbia P ictures . I n the $4 5 - m i ll ion production faci l i t y erected by Square , a team o f
approximately two-hundred members labored for fou r years i n order t o bring t o l i fe Sakaguchi's
original vision . The crew incl uded e m i nent v ideo ga me and fi l m a n i mators, such as the lead
animato rs fo r Toy Story, Ti ta nic and J u rassic Pa rk, as wel l as highly special ized tec h n icians and
com p u ter scientists . Qu i te u n a n i mously acclaimed as a tech n ical t r i u m p h , abetted by a stel­
lar voice cast featu ring Donald S utherland, James Woods, Alec Baldw i n and Steve B usce m i
alongside t h e afo rementioned M i n g Na, Fina l Fa ntasy was non etheless heavi l y criticized fo r
its lack of a sufficiently gri p p i n g storyl ine and excessive rel iance on wel l -tested generic for­
mulae . Its box-office performance was accordi ngly disappointin g : hav i n g cost well over $100
m i l lion to produce , it merely earned $32 m i l lion . The fi l m's commercial fai l u re eventually
resu l ted i n the closure o f the Honol u l u studi o .
Although Fina l Fa ntasy's poor performance tends to be attribu ted to deficiencies a t t h e
l evels of storytelling and characterizatio n , specifically cultural attitudes wo u l d also appear t o
have been i t s cause . Christopher Macdonald persuasively p u rsues this argu ment in his essay
" S i lly Otaku , Cartoons are for Kids , " where he p roposes that Fina l Fa ntasy flopped for the
very same reason that had caused H ayao Miyazaki's Princess Mononoke ( 1 997) to perfo r m
weakly i n t he U.S. des p i te its being "not o n l y t h e biggest grossing Japanese fil m eve r , b u t t h e
biggest ever grossing n on�American fi l m of its t i m e ( i t h as since been s u rpassed b y Miyazaki's
. . . Sen to Chihiro [Spirited Away, 2 0 0 1)) . Mononoke brought i n $163 . 5 m i l l ion worldwide and
all i t co uld make i n the Un ited States is two million dollars . " As the critic goes on to explai n ,
90 ANI M E INTE RS ECTI O N S

i n the case of Princess Mononoke, disappointing earni ngs were asc ribed to D isney's failure "to
p roperly p u b l icize the fi l m . " However, th is j ustification cann o t be i nvoked where Sakaguchi's
work is concerned, insofar as " S ony spent a fo rtu ne publicizing Fina ! Fa ntasy: The Spirits
W ithin. It was o n e o f the most hyped fil ms o f the s u m me r . " Macdo n a l d s u r m ises that
Miyazaki's film would anyway have yielded paltry gains i n the u.S. even i f i t had been more
extensively advertised and draws the following conclusions : "why did Fina ! Fa ntasy: T he Spir­
its W ithin fa il, and why did Mononoke earn over 1 5 0 m illion dollars world-wide b u t m e rely
two m i l l i o n in the Un i ted States . . . ? Because cartoons are for kids . That's how most North
Americans feeL .. Slowly, they're finding out otherwise, b u t for the ti m e being the only peo­
ple who w ill pay to see a n a n i mated theatrical feature are cinephiles , a n imation fans, o taku ,
tech noph iles ( i f it's 3 D ani mation ) , and a few open-m inded and curious people" (Macdon­
ald) .
The contention that mainstream U . S . audiences view animation as lightweight a n d even
trivial stuff targeted exclus ively at kids and that this prej udice has m ade them especially u n re­
sponsive to a n i m e des p i te the latter's rich ness and depth constitutes someth i n g o f a leitmotif
w i t h i n both j o u rn alistic and scholarly examinations of the gen re . Macdonald's views add sub­
stance to the overarc h i n g argument with refresh i ng fran kness . Nevertheless , it must also b e
stressed t h a t Fina ! Fa ntasy would not only have suffered fr o m a cultu ral b i as pertai n i n g b roadly
to the art of ani mation and, more speci fically, to anime but also from the fi l m's e m p hatically
hybrid status. Sakagu c h i 's work cannot be unproblematically situated either stylistically o r
geopolit ically, a n d t h i s factor w i l l most pla usi bly have exacerbated i ts po tential viewers' m is­
giv ings, as well as the anxieties of cultural p u rists .
In assess i n g further the possible reasons underlyi ng Fina ! Fa ntasy's feeble performance ,
it should also be noted that i ts video game-based provenance m ay have partly m ilitated against
it. As Jane Park observes,
Transition from fi l m to video game works especially well because the consumer can take an act ive role i n
re-experiencing o r "replaying" spectacular moments from the fil m l i ke chase and raci n g scen es. I n addi­
tion, games al ready h ave a hui lt-in audic nce and fan-base from the fil m , which ensures a n econom ic safety
net. Examples of successful v ideo games based on movies i nclude the Star Wars 1ri logy, the Teenage l'vfutallt
Ninja Titrtles and Jurassic Park. F i n d i n g an audi ence fo r game-hased movies proves more diHic u l t s i nce
these movies need to appeal s i mul taneously to gamers who want a plot and/or style that resembles the
game and non-garners who s i m p ly want to sce a good action Hick [Park, ]., p p. 13-14].

Moreover, regular game players may feel frustrated or i n h i b i ted, when they become specta­
tors, by their inability to perform particular actions i n the way they are accusto med to , o r to
control camera movements and thus enter the same situation repeatedly from differe nt angles ­
let alone replay the action w i th potentially endless variations, to the point that the visual
experience becomes , by defin ition , u nli m i ted .
I n evaluating Fina l Fa ntasy as a mov ie i ndebted to the v i deo game i ndustry, i t is also
no tewo rthy that the confluence of digital cinema and v ideo games is an especially i n teresting
manifestation o f an ever-grow ing phenomenon of "convergence" : namely, the e rosion o f tra­
ditional bou ndaries between one mediu m and another. There are five principal catego ries into
which movies entangled with video games can be classified :

• films, l i ke Fina l Fa ntasy, that offer adaptations of popular video games - the two La ra
Croft : Tom b Ra ider films (dir. S i mon West , 2 0 0 1 ; dir. Jan de Bont , 2 0 0 3 ) also belong
i n this category;
 Six -Final Fantasy 91

• films that com ment on videogames David Cronenberg's eX istenZ ( 1 999) exe m p l i fies
-�

this modal i t y ;
• fi l m s t h a t quote v ideo ga mes, displayi ng portions of games a s illustrations of t h e i r own
the mes and concerns - Ridley Scott's B lade Ru nner (1 982 ) uses video games in this
fashion ;
• films that insp i re the product ion of video games as comm ercial s p i n -olfs. These i n clude
not only fan tasy, sci-fi and co mic book-inspired blockbusters which one would auto­
matically expect to provide the raw materials fo r ludic exploits - such as T he Fif th
E lement (dir. Luc Besson , 1997) , the Spi der-Ma n movies (dir. S a m Ra i m i , 2 0 02-2007) ,
the Ha rry Potter saga (dirs . Ch ris Columbus, Alfonso Cuaron , M ike Newell , David
Yates , 200 1-2007) , the Lord of the Ri ngs trilogy (dir. Peter Jackson , 2 0 0 1-2003) - but
also less obvious candidates - e.g. Th e Godfa ther (dir. Francis Ford Coppo l a , 1 9 72)
and T he Da Vi nci Code (dir. Ron Howard, 2006) ;
• films that experiment with the codes and conventions of video games to p roduce new
narrative , rep resentational and generic fo rmulae . Da rk Ci ty (dir. Alex Proyas , 1998)
a n d the Ma trix trilogy ( d i rs . Larry and Andy Wachowski , 1 9 9 9-2 0 0 3 ) typ i fy this
moda l ity.

Although Fi na l Fa ntasy may have been a disappo i ntment on the narrative p l a n e , the
importance o f the film as an u n p recedented experiment with the i ntegration o f a n i mation and
d i gital tech nology can hardly be den i e d . The fil m's detracto rs might argue that the only i nter­
esting t h i n g abo u t it is that it is ent i rely computer-generated, and that it would h ave been an
u n redeemable fai l ure as a regular mov i e . Yet , even if its deployment o f d i gi tal tech no logy may
ulti mately turn out to be it sale asset , the film remains deserv i n g o f susta i ned critical atten­
tion. Besides, altho ugh some critics have dism issed Fi na l Fa ntasy's stylistic approach as for­
m u l a i c , woode n , overdeterm i ned and stereo typi cal , these are n o t u n m i t i gated flaws i f
understood i n relation to the aesthetics o f not only videogames b u t also a n i m e and manga,
to which the film is overtly indebted . Sakaguch i 's film is u n q uestionably closer to the ethos
of Japanese a n imation - with i ts famously (or notoriously, as the case may be) open endi ngs
and proclivity to fo regro und the term i nally u nsettli n g consequences o f both personal and
global vicissitudes over and above reass u ri n g resol u tions - than to that o f Hol lywood's clas­
sic tales - with their cause-and-effect trajectories crowned by consolatory ro u n d i n g-off's .
As shown i n deta i l below, from a tech n ical point of view Fi na l Fa ntasy excels specifically
i n the digital field a n d p r i marily i n the creation of human s i mulacra . Nevertheless , i t should
be noted that its gro u n d - b reaki n g C G I are persistently i n terwoven w i th the overarc h i n g
imperatives of a mo re conventional grasp of mise en sce ne- namely t h e m eans b y wh ich a d i rec­
tor commun icates h is o r her vision t h ro ugh performance, l igh t i n g , sett i n g , costu m e and cam­
era placement . Likew ise vital is Sakaguch i's approach to the concept o f mise en cadre, namely
the o rgan ization of va rious elements within any one frame and, mo re gen erally, to stagi n g : a
spatial p rojection by means of which the d i rector can guide the spectator's eye , as wel l as d raw
attention to a scene's expressive qualities and to its place w i t h i n a larger diegetic p attern .
At the same t i m e , the film adheres to many of the codes a n d conventions of the classic
action adventure movie, del iveri ng plenty of ebullient dynam ism , yet also allowing for reflective
pauses, shot at a markedly method ical pace . As Musas h i po i nts o u t , "For the most part the
movie moves along at b reakneck speed . On the handfu l o f occasions where the action does
92 A N I ME I�TERSF.CTIONS

slow dow n , the movie allows fo r some quiet reflection by the characters . Aki and Gray, adrift
i n space i n thei r space shuttle, rumi nating on their loss , is one o f the more memorable scenes
in the fi l m , and there's not an alien i n s ight" (Musashi) .
Sakaguch i's knack of harnessing cutting-edge digi tal tools to more traditional cin emato­
graphical imperatives is evident right from the start . The opening portion consists o f an oneiric
sequence (rep roposed w i th variations througho ut the mov ie) i n which a gen u i nely rive t i n g
a l i e n world comes sensationally t o l i fe . T h e evocation of alternative u n iverses i n the i naugu­
ral moments of a sci-fi p roduction is an established feature o f the gen r e, and bea rs w i tness to
Final Fa ntasy's homage to a time-honored iconograp hic disco u rse . The di rector's deftly orches­
trated i ntegration o f fo rmal and chromatic aspects of the setti ng throughout the sequence,
allied to a j udicious distribution of the landscape's key fixtu res frame by fra m e , fu lly co rrob­
orates this proposi tion .
I t is, h owever , u ndeniable that the effects that make this parallel real i t y - w i t h i ts b i l ­
lowy sky, rocky accretions, in candescent globe a n d s u l trily warm palette - t h e transp o r t i n g
experience it is could never h ave b e e n accompl ished i n t h e absence o f digital technology. I n
w h a t is arguably the entire sequence's most astounding shot , the scorched e a r t h u p o n w h i c h
t h e p rotagonist is standing appears t o liqu efy a n d t h e camera , w ith a dramatic s h i ft o f p e r ­
spective , cap tures A k i and her u ncanny environment from below, partially veiled b y concen­
tric ripples, as though i t were i ndeed a piece of underwater equ ip ment . No less memorable
are the sequences, p u n ctuating the whole fi l m , that dramatize the el i m i n at i o n of h u m a n
figh ters b y gelatino usly gleaming phantoms through the remova l of t h e victims' l i fe forces .
The latter, i ntrigu i n gly, are rep resented as spectrally azure h usks that detach themselves from
the p reys' bodies l i ke sloughed-off membranes .
I n order to grasp Fina l Fa ntasy's i nnovative thrust , i t is first necessary to consider the
extent to wh ich the production of a fi l m o f this ki nd differs from the maki ng of a regu lar a n i ­
mated fi l m . I n t h e early stages , t h e differences wo uld not appear to be enormous, as produc­
tion enta i l s the translation of the scri p t i nto concep tual draw i ngs that grad u a l l y become
storyboards . As the actual animating process begins, however , the d i fferences beco m e sub­
stantial . Low-resolution versions of the characters - relatively easy to manipulate i n real time ­
are first conceived, and high-resolution models subsequently designed . As the p rocess becomes
i ncreasi n gly elabo rate , both artists and the software engineers working closely w i t h them
engage i n the writing o f code for various ani mation and rendering p roced u res, used to con­
trol movements and special effects . The dividing-l ine between artists and techn icians i s , at
this point , far from nea t , which impl ies that creativi t y and tech nological know-how become
closely i n terwove n . (The argu ment regarding the collusion of art and tech nology expou nded
i n Chapter 5 w i th reference to Rintaro's Metropolis is aga i n relevant in the c u rrent contex t . )
A s the tech nology kept evolving through o u t Fina l Fa ntasy's onerous gest at i o n , b o t h
artists a n d tec h n icians fo und themselves constantly having t o upgrade and recreate their prod­
ucts . As Fina l Fa ntasy's rendering and shading supervisor Kev i n B j o rke stresses , i t is v i tal to
remember that p ractical " issues of contro l , model l i n g , l igh t i n g , and fu nctional performance
. . . are h ighly complex and require not only a lot of h o rse-power and cleve r codi n g b u t a
h igh ly-di rected and tec h n ically adept and flexible workfo rce w i th ample co m p u ter reso utces"
(Bjo rke) . The p urely o rgan izational diHiculties entailed by the p roject are also emphasized by
the p roduction's sys tems supervisor Troy Brooks : "The asset management issues alone were a
h uge challenge - tryi ng to keep track of all the sets and models and textu res, and use the righ t
 Six - F i n a l Fantasy 93

versions i n each s h o t , and trying to coordi nate the flow o f i n formation fro m section to sec­
tion. Our production m a nagers had to help create and manage workflows that were almost
being made u p as we went along , and that j ust took a lot o f h ard work , and attention to detail "
(Brooks) . Edgar Park's observations on t h e subject eloquently con firm Bjo rke's and B rooks's
points :

The fi l m itself i s composed o f 1,327 shots. There are 141,964 frames, each o f which took anywhere from
15 m i n u tes to over 7 h o ur s per frame to render. The average was aroun d 90 m i nutes . Square Pictures stored
10 Terabytes of 3 D and 5 Terabytes of 20 artwork . The roughly 200 people who worked on the fi l m con­
tributed about 120 person-years o f work . All o f this data needed to be carefully m a n aged so that the cre­
ation p rocess was collaborative and organized . Th is was the j o b of the sequence supervision department;
they oversaw the work as i t t ravelled between m any departments including Storyboards, Layou t , Sets/Props,
Animation , Motion-capture, Ligh t i n g , FX, Renderi ng and Compos i t i n g . By going th rough these depart­
ments a shot would be built with anywhere from nine to 498 composite l ayers [Park, E.].

Regardless of the movie's colossal rel iance on com p u ters, the b u il d i n gs , gadgets, weapons
and vehicles designed for Fina l Fa ntasy were i n itially drawn m a n ually a n d therefore exh i b i t
disti nctively material and artisanal qualities . T h i s owes m u c h to the gen i us o f concept artist
Kazunori Nakazawa . As S teven L . Kent observes , worki ng on the p re m ise that j ust because
the obj ects ideated for the movie "do not currently exist does not mean that audiences w i l l
fo rgive them for b e i n g a n y less realisti c , " Nakazawa painstakingly constructed each o f them
"to create the i l lusion o f reality" after plann i n g them o u t "w ith meticulous details . " The j eep,
for example, was designed w i th very clear speci fications i n m i n d, not only i n terms of i ts dimen­
sions but also horse-power and m axi mum speed, so as to ensure visual and kinetic consis­
tency. I ndeed, wh i le most spectators "might see these details as su perfluo u s ," they would spot
discrepancies i f the vehicle "moved faster i n some scenes than in others" (Kent , p. 14). Anal­
ogous care was devoted to key locations and vehicles such as the afo rement ioned " Zeus Can­
non," the " Copperhead," the wreck of the ai rcraft carrier fo und by Aki and her associates i n
the desert , the " Quatro , " the " Gondo l a , " the " Black Boa" and the " Escape Pod . "
Great attention also went i nto the creation o f Aki's o u t fi t , w i t h i ts p rofusion o f b u i l t - i n
gadgets, d i fferent portions of w h i c h were thoroughly conceived of as cons isting o f d i ffe rent
materials and as encompassing a wide range of textu res . The m a n ually crafted components
were studiously integrated with the i mages generated by wholly digital m ea n s . Especially
i ntrigui n g , among the latter, are the detailed holograp h i c p roject ions a n d interfaces used
thro ughout the film - most notably, i n the sequen ce i n which Aki is atte m p t i n g to rid G ray's
body of a phanto m : here, both the tech nological equipment and the i n fected body are ren ­
dered a s holograph i c i mages, which lends a disti nctively eerie atmosphere t o t h e settin g , while
also bl urring the boundary between the corpo real and the i n corporeal , the h um a n and the
mach i n e .
T h e sto ryboards rep resent no less eloquent a testament to t h e al most obsessive attention
devoted to details i n the p roduction of Fi na l Fa ntasy. I n choreographing the fi l m , stagi ng direc­
to r Ta n i Ku n i take converted the script i nto i mages aki n to m a n ga frames. In the absence o f
flesh-and-blood performers and tangible sets, storyboards t o o k on a far more axial role than
would ever be the case w i t h a l ive-action p roduction . As Kent poi nts o u t , "Ku n i take , who
only spent seven months wo rkin g on The Ma trix, spent th ree ful l years ti nker i n g with this
fi l m" (Kent , pp. 61�7) . Practically every facet of the overa rc h i n g mise en sce n e had to be visu­
alized on paper prior to the "shoo t i n g" p rocess , and this gave rise to exceptionally labor-
94 ANI M E iNTFRSECTI ONS

i ntensive worki ng schedules . Kun itake h i mself has commented thus on h is herculean tas k :
" O n a project like this, w e had t o illustrate every t h i n g . . . yo u really would n't board some o f
these things on a regular production . B u t w e co uldn't go o u t t o a location a n d start blocki ng
o u t camera coverage on this p roject , so we had to make every th i n g up" (quoted in Ken t , p.
62) . The m i n u tely detailed nature of the boards , and their abili ty to thereby evoke co m p l ex
ideas and emotions, enabled different m e mbers of the production team to glea n data fro m
t h e images t h a t were pertinent to their particular tasks, and hence decide h o w a scene sho uld
be digi tally composited or lit , for example . The boards eventually came to consti tute some­
thing of a comic book with autonomous artistic value .
The multi-layered craftsmanship underpinning Fina l Fa n tasy can also be appreciated i n
all i ts asto u n d i n g com plexity b y closely inspect i n g the " B oards /Blasts" supplementary feature
i n corporated i n the 2 -disc special edition of Sakagu chi's movie released by Colu m b i a i n 2 0 0 l .
T h i s offers valuable ins ights i n t o Fina l Fa ntasy at t h e level o f "work i n p rogress, " rather t h a n
as a fin ished artifact , by show i n g t h e movie in t h e form of ro ugh pencil draw i ngs, sketches
and outlines, as well as p relim inary computer-generated graphics in their experimental, u n p ol­
ished versions.
O n ce the storyboards had been com pleted and scanned into a slideshow, the crew could
move on to the film ing s tage . This availed i tself of the Alias/Wavefront M aya p rogra m , wh ich
made it possible to block o u t and shoot scenes with vi rtual cameras capable o f con veyi ng a
realistically ci nematic i m p ress i o n . Combined with this sophisticated virtual c i n ematography,
Fi na l Fa ntasy's most innovative aspect undeniably cons ists of i ts crea tion of h u m a n s i m u ­
l acra - namely, v irtual actors ("vactors") or "synrhespians . " T h e term "synrhespian" was co i n ed
by Diana Walczak and Jeff Kleiser i n 1988 u pon executing the experimenral film N estor Sex­
tone fo r President (wh ich p remiered at S IGGRAPH i n the same year) . Kle iser has described
h is a n d Walczak's j o u rn ey t h ro ugh the challenging territory of synrhespian-c reati o n in the
August 2000 issue o f Fi lm & Video:

Our fi r st synthetic actor, Nestor Sex tone, was composed of ind ivid ually sculpted body parts a nd faces . . . .
A t the t i m e , there was no software available t o u s that would allow fo r Aexed j o i nr s . . . . The computi n g
power t h a t can be b rought to b e a r on projects h a s cont inually multiplied . . . . I n X-Men [2000] , d i rected by
B ryan S i n g e r , the s h a p e-s h i ft i n g ch aracter Mystique pl ayed by Rebecca Rom ij n-Stamos i s a
Synthespian/human hybrid who transforms into various other ch aracters featured i n the fi l m . O u r work
here i nvolves a series of complex 3D p rocedural transformat ions from l ive actors to a photo-real ful l y CG
character [K1eiserl .

Com menring o n the speci fically tech no-h istorical di mension of the vactor- m a ki n g phe­
nomenon , Kelly Tyler has observed :

The quest to create v i rtual actors is comparativrly recent ; the first i nteractive computer graph i cs p rogram
was only developed i n 1961. Designed by Ivan Sutherland at t he Massachusetts Inst i tute of Tech nology,
Sketchpad generated s imple geometrical line drawings for design a nd engi neering appl ications. T hese s i m ­
ple operations requ i red a state-of-the-art TX-2 defense computer t o run . . . . Today's m icrocompurers h ave
rough l y 400 t i mes more m e mory and operate about 5 ,000 ti mes faster than the TX-2 used by Suther­
l a n d . . . . With t h is enhanced technology, anim ators have turned from fantasy characters and extinct a n i ­
m a l s to a new d igital grail: a p hotorealistic Homo Sapiens . . . [Tyler].

In Fina l Fa ntasy, vactors were created primarily by reco urse to "mo tion cap t u re" (mo­
cap) . As Maureen Furn iss observes , this tech n ique has acqui red varyi ng designations over the
years :
 Six- F i n a l Fan tasy 95

Another popular term is "performance a n i m ation ," taki ng the emphasis o ff the capturing of data, which
is seen as j ust one part o f the e ntire perform a nce a n i m ation p rocess . " Performance capture" i s a variation
on both of the above terms . Also heard are "virtual theatre," "digi tal puppetry," and "real - t i me animation ."
Add i t i onally, "the dev i l 's rotoscope" seems to be a favorite term among tradi t i onal a n i mation people [Fur­
n iss] .

Mo-cap was in itial l y developed fo r the p u rpose of analysis w i t h i n t h e field of bio mechan ics
but has increasingly come to play an even more p rom i nent part in the domain of digital a n i ­
mation - i n b o t h the fi l m and the v ideo game industries - as an incomparably r i c h s o u rce of
dynamic data . As F u rn iss has poi nted out, motion cap tu re is also "employed in the fields o f
music, fine art dance/performance, s i g n lan guage, gest u re recognition, rehab i l itatio n / m edi­
cine," as well as "special effects for live-action fil ms" and "ath letic analysisltra i n i ng" (Fu rn iss) .
I n their "Wh ite Paper" on the topic, S cott Dyer, Jeff Mart i n , and John Zulauf describe motion
capture as a tech nique that " i n volves measuring an object's position and o rientation i n phys­
ical space, then record i n g that i nfo rmation i n a computer-usable form" (Dyer, Martin and
Zulauf) .
I n the t h i s context the term motion capture refers to the p rocess by which external dev i ces
can be used to cap t u re movement data from various l ive sou rces and then transm i t them to
the com p uter, where the data are mapped onto a digi tally generated actor. (It s h o u l d also be
noted, for the sake o f accuracy, that even though animate bodies tend to p rovide the i nitial
dyn amics i n the maj o r i t y o f cases, i t is occasional ly possible to employ i n a n i mate objects such
as articulated manneq u i n s to good effecr . ) Coordinated b y the motion cap t u re di rector Rem ­
i ngton Scott, t h e Fina l Fa ntasy p roduction crew employed a motion -capt u re stage equi pped
with sixteen o p t ical cameras pos itioned on tripods w ith red l igh ts at their bases . The per­
fo rmers were garbed i n black bodys u i ts w ith ret roreBective markers (or sensors) i n the shape
of dots sewn or velcroed upon their surfaces at the body's j o i nts . As Jane Park explains, for
"Fina l Fa ntasy each performer wo re approxim ately 3 5 markers, i n c l u d i n g five i n the chest to
capture his or her b reathi n g . In addition to l arge movements, motion capture was used to get
the bodily nuances of perfo rmers when they were still - n u ances that were d i ffi c u l t to a n i ­
mate but easy to record through t h e lG-camera optical m o t i o n cap tu re system and the track­
ing software fro m Motion Analys is" (Park, J., p. 8 ) .
T h e ca meras, totally b l i n d t o t h e actors' appearance, wo uld o n l y record t h e move m ents
of the reBections o f their own red l ights onto the markers . The fi l med material was then trans­
ferred onto a com p u ter equipped w i t h a motion-capture p rogram capable o f repor t i n g the
p recise position of each reBective marker several times per seco n d . The p rogram wo u l d o n l y
res pond t o t h e d o t s equivalent to the body's j o i nts, a n d t h e n co nnect them by m e a n s of l i nes
that correspond to bones. This p rocess del ivers something of a matchstick fi gu re, s u pp lyi n g
t h e a n imated character's skeleton and rep l icati ng exactly t h e movements o f the h u m an acto r
at the s o u rce of the motion-related i n formation. The stick-man's movements would s u bse­
quently be recorded as a n i m ation data and mapped onto a realistic 3D model created by dig­
i tal artists .
This techn i que is considerably time-effective compared to traditional a n i m a tion, and is
also a n ideal means o f exp ressi ng supple mentary emotive touches which conventional meth­
ods may h ave lacked either the reso u rces o r the vision to create. Additional ly, mo tion capture
can deal proficiently w i t h complex movements i n which a n act o r may be perfo r m i n g various
stunt s simultaneo usly (for i nstance, shoo t i ng an opponent while also d o i n g a backBi p) . F u r-
96 ANIME INTERSECTIONS

thermore , as Furn iss explains, the "movements o f performers cap tu red i n real-time . . . can be
supplemented w i t h automated movements, such as b l inking , breathi n g , hand gestures , o r sec­
ondary actions (for example, when a foot h i ts gro und, i ts toes s p read out) . These are called
'exp ressions' : program components written to control a number o f low-level features from one
high-level attri b u te , so that the movement becomes more i nteresting" ( F u rn iss) . In Fina l Fa n­
tasy, such ancillary s ubtleties incl ude the flowi n g motions o f General H e i n's black leather
trenchcoat a n d o f Aki's gracefu l l y mobile locks, ach ieved though di gital tools that w o u l d
enable t h e optim ization of t h e original mo-cap i n formation b y app ropriately tweaki n g t h e
raw data .
At the same t i m e , Sakaguch i 's cinematography consistently capi tal izes o n h i s actors' syn ­
thetic nature by engagi n g , a s Michael Po i rier observes , " i n angles i m possible w it h real actors
o r sets, us ing sweeping pans and incredible zooms" for shots as diverse as "the stagge r i n g v iew
of alien vistas o r the pai nstaking detail on a j et's landing gear" ( Po i rier) . Non etheless, the
ach ievement of total fl uidity - and hence the expression of complete n a t u ralism - are feats
req u i ring more than j ust tech n i cal expertise and state-of-the-art software . This point w i l l be
shortly returned to. G iven this study's focus, what first demands some consideration is the
artistic status o f motion capt u re as a specifically ani mational tool .
Bob Kurtz voices a fairly widesp read o p i n ion i n argu i n g that "an i m ation is about creat­
ing a n i l l usion o f motion that doesn't otherwise exist . [Mo-cap 1 doesn't i nvolve the same artis­
tic i n p u t and creativ i t y" (quoted in Furn iss) . Furn iss herself, howeve r , mai ntai n s that t h i s
position is tenable a s l o n g a s emphasis is placed excl usively on ''the o r i g i n of t h e i mage (wi t h i n
a creative m ind) , " yet fal ters when o n e recognizes that " i n motion capture , a significan t amo u n t
of t h e creative p rocess occurs d u r i n g p o s t production process, when data is m a n i p u l ated to
become a n im ated i magery" (Furn iss) . Seth Rosenthal of I ndustrial Light and Magic goes even
further, proposing that motion cap ture is a creative p rocess right fro m the start and is essen ­
t i a l l y "abo u t perfo rm i n g , directing talent a n d benefiting from t h e spontan e i t y of l ive perform­
ance" (quoted i n Kenyon) .
As to whether motion capture legitimately belongs to the realm o f a n i m a t io n , i t i s n o te­
worthy that one o f this tech nique's most obvious - and i ndeed i l l ustri o u s - p redecessors is
a n instrument associated w i th the medium's early h istory: the rotosco p e . Patented by M ax
Fleischer i n 1 91 7, this device projects l ive-action footage onto a small screen (upon which draw­
i n g paper is p laced) one frame at a time, and enables an imators to trace the figures that appear
i n each frame w i t h h i gh l y realistic outcomes. One of the most i m p ress ive early appl icati o n s
of this technique c a n be observed i n the dep iction and ani mation o f th e Fai r y Godmother i n
D isney's 195 0 classic Ci nderella . (Rotoscop i n g w i l l be rev isited i n the clos i n g segment of this
chapter.)
What some a n imation lovers may find jarrin g , as far as Sakaguchi's movie is concerned,
is that the principle o f exaggeration so central to the med i u m is only n o table b y virtue o f i ts
complete absence . Indeed, far from magni fying particular traits o f a character's appearance
o r motion in order to th row i ts personali ty, motivations and idiosyncrasies i nto rel i e f, as a n i ­
m a t i o n custo m a r i l y d o e s , Fina l Fa ntasy seems to have op ted fo r a diamet rical l y o p posite
approach , aspi r i n g to the accompl ishment of almost exemplary h u m a n simulacra devo i d of
any exp licit signs of distortion or aberration , and hence of sheer warmth . F u rthermo re , lack
o f exaggerat ion will i n ev itably come across as a techn ical fa i l i n g - ra ther than as a n i nten­
tional artistic choice - when it extends to those dynamic nuances that are most overtly respon-
 Six� F i n a l Fant asy 97

sible fo r com m u n i cati ng a cred ible i m p ression of movement , and actually depend fo r their
effect iveness o n an element o f distortion ( i n the guises o f compress i o n , elongation o r defor­
mation o f tissue) : for i nstance, the acts of grabbing or gri p p i n g .
The characters' restrained perfection may at least partially expl a i n why s o many v iewers
have fo und the fi l m's cumulative atmosphere frigidly i n e r t . The d o l l - l i ke exp ressions, occa­
sionally verging on the robotic , ev i nced by some of the synthespians at several j unctures i n
the story, com b i ned w ith sporadically statuesque postures and stiff gaits, are the p r i ncipal c u l ­
pr i ts . As a res u l t , a s audiences have i nsistently stated, sympathizing w i t h Fina l Fa ntasy's p er ­
sonae does not tend to c o me spontaneo usly. I ronically, i t feels more natu ral to suspend disbelief
at the sigh t of many o f ani me's blatantly styl ized and even caricatural creations than in the
face of Sakaguch i 's hyperreal bei ngs . This would seem to suggest that tech nology's i n c reas­
i ng flair for absorb i ng us i nto consum m ately rea l istic 3 D spaces o f the ki n d dispensed i n
spades b y Fina l Fa ntasy i s n o t unequivocally conducive t o an authentic en hancement o f o u r
p ropensity t o sense such spaces affectively.
The models used fo r Fina l Fa ntasy during the mo tion-capture p h ases were relatively s i m ­
ple, their fu nction being essentially to p rovide a sense o f the environment w i t h w h i c h the
characters were i n teracti n g . The final ones, however , consisted o f myri ad polygons meshed
together and i t wo uld customarily take several m i n u tes for the artists' com p u te rs to sim p l y
o p e n t h e relevant fi l es . F o r the backgro unds, two-dimensional m a t t e painti ngs digitally cre­
ated on state-of-the-art graph ic workstations were empl oyed . Acco rding to the Square team's
sets and p rops supervisor, Tadao Odaka , "The bulk of sets and models were p retty much cre­
ated d i rectly on com p uters . " Wh ile this was a h ighly challenging tas k , even more daunting
was the production o f landscapes due to "the sheer amount of data i nvolved" (quoted i n Kent ,
p . 95) . "Carefu l attention had t o b e paid," in particular, "to coo rd i n ate t h e way t h e charac­
ters moved to the land beneath them" for exam p l e , "it wo u l d not look good if G ray's pos­
�

ture suggested he was climbing a hill w i th a ten percent slope while standing o n a mou ntainous
l andscape with very steep forty percent slopes" (p. 96) .
It is in the an imation section o f Square that the actual magic was worked . A n imation
d i rector Andy Jones, also d i recto r o f the Anima trix episode T he F ina l Flight of the Osiris
(2003) , played a key rol e i n developing each character's appearance , moving fro m geometri­
cally stylized shapes to i ncreasi ngly photorealistic bodies and faces. Square's artists were first
requi red to perfect existing methods for sculpting polygonal forms - an o bj ective that was
adm i rably acco m p l ished . Yet , they faced an even greater challenge when i t came to envelo p ­
i ng those polygons w i t h textures that c o u l d convincingly repl i cate t h e l o o k o f ski n .
Jones and h i s team was acutely aware that the generation o f chicken-w i re heads was only
a marginal achievement compared to the monumental task o f creating characters that could
appear to experience l i felike emotions - i n other words, o f endowing them with a sou l . For
this p u rpose, extra controls were developed that co uld s i mulate h u ma n p hysiology and thus
p roduce rea listic mo uth and eye movements, vocal-chord v i b rations and the i m p ression of
sligh tly quivering skin tissue i n the case of an older character l i ke Dr. Sid. Clothing the char­
acters was an equally tricky operatio n , as t h is required methodical assessments o f the u n ique
physical properties of different materials, and dynamic calculations abou t their feasible behav­
ior i n mo tion. Unless the computer can cope consistently with the rendition of the ever-sh i ft­
i ng wrinkles and creases in the fabric occasioned by a character's motio n , thus allowin g the
clothing to drape and fold natural istically around the body, the vactor will look farcically gawky.
98 A N I M E i :--1TERSECTIONS

As for the characters' hai r , the troupe had to face a p roverbially arduous ani mational
challenge, i n their case multipl ied exponentially by the exigencies o f photoreal ism . As Tyler
indicates , the "p roblem o f h air h as bedevilled animators for years . There a re tho usands of hairs
on the h u ma n head, which vary i n color, l ight reflectance, and textu re and can move either
s in gly o r together. The lion i n Juma nji [dir. Joe Johnsto n , 1 9 9 5 ] requ i red the model l i n g of
one m i ll ion i n dividual hairs for the mane alone" (Tyler) . As fo r F ina l Fa ntasy itselt� Ja ne Park
has pointed out that "the 60 ,000 strands of Aki's hair took twenty percent of the entire pro­
duction time to create and render" (Park , J., p. 9) . Furthermore , n u m ero us devices were cre­
ated specifically for the p u rpose of maneuveri ng each strand. (The shots in wh ich a minute
strand stands out from Aki's otherwise silkily condit ioned and smoothly s tyled coiffure are
among the most unobtrusively striking filmic moments . ) Concurrently, each element of a
character's face - down to the most dimin utive compone nts - was contro l led t h ro ugh sepa­
rate sets of s l i ders, such as the " Left Lower Eyelid Twitch" and the "Purse Lips" too ls .
As Piers B izony has emphasized, a very important technique i n the context o f CG a n i ­
mation is "inve rse kinematics . " T h i s enables animators t o create d igital characters o n the basis
o f a h i e rarchy. For i nstance, the "movements o f the surface skin (an array o f 'ch i ld' compo­
nents ) " can be made to resu lt automatically from "changes o f position of the i n terior bones
(the 'parent' components} . " Hence, i f a single body element is dragged by the animato r , other
elements behave accord in gly : the movement of a foo t , for example, can flow through the
entire model , adj usting the position of the leg and, from there , extending to affect the h i p ,
spine a n d head . T h e rather more laborious alternative is "forward kinematics" : this tech n i q u e
req u i res a n i m ators t o g o "into every b a l l a n d socket j o i nt of t h e skeleto n , tweaki ng the j oints
one at a tim e , and deriv i n g the external movement of the character from the i nside o u t , wi th
no automated shortcuts" (Bizony, p. 1l4) .
Described in a cli nical fashion , the h ierarchy-based technique deli neated by B izony m ay
seem to constitute a relatively straightforward operation. However , a rather more com plex
p ictu re emerges when one reflects that the com putation of motion - accur a te as this m ay be ­
does not automatically yield realistic (let alone aesthetically satisfyi ng) res u l t s . As Kev i n Kel l y
explains, " To calculate t h e move of a h u man figure i s marginally possible for today's compu t­
ers given eno ugh tim e . But done on the fly, as yo u r body does i n real life , in a world that
shifts wh ile yo u are figuring where to put yo ur foo t , this calculation becomes nearly i m pos­
sible to simu late wel l . . . . [E] ach pose of the body can be reached by a multitude of pathways . . . .
Locomotion is merely one facet of actio n . Simulated creatu res must n o t only move , they must
navigate , express emotion , react" (Kelly) .
The h u m a n face i s the most problem atic challenge i n the fabrication o f synthespians. I n
o rder t o come across a s truly realistic , a compu ter-generated m i e n must be neither too flawless ,
as this would deprive it of subtlety, nor too defective , as this would m ake it m e rely freakish .
Ed Catmull , a com p u ter graph i cs spearhead and a fo under o f Pixa r , argues that the c reation
o f credible human faces is the most daunting task an ani mator can expect to con front : "the
h u m a n face is a unique problem. We are genetically p rogrammed to recognize h u man faces .
We're so good that most people aren't even aware of it while they t h i n k abo u t i t . I t turns o u t ,
for i nstance , that i f w e make a perfectly symmetrical face, w e see i t a s being wron g . S o w e
want thi ngs t o be n o t q uite perfect, have a l o t o f subtlety, b u t if they're too i m perfect , then w e
think that they're strange" (quo ted i n Tyler) .
Kleiser corroborates Catmul l 's point, emphasizing that adva nces i n digital tech n o logy,
 Six - F i n a l Fantasy 99

though v i tal to the generation of effective synthespians, are not in themselves able to sec u re
the des i red results u n less the a n i mator's skills continue p l aying a cardinal role . Such skil ls,
moreover , cannot consist excl usively of a com petent handl i n g of cutting-edge so ftware and
digitally assisted cinematography: lively engagement i n the dynamics of act i n g , gro u nded in
a so und grasp of the performative fac u l ties of both the creators and thei r creatures, must come
i nto play at all times . T h u s , gro u nd-breaking i nstru m ents and tech nologies i n ev itably col­
l ude with traditional p ractices even i n the u n folding o f a p rocess that would seem capable o f
reconfiguring not o n l y the ani mation i ndustry but t h e concept o f h u m a n evo l ution itself. As
Kleiser maintains,

The m arch toward p h oto-realism w i l l march i n exorably forward, with a l o t of devel opment req uired to
accurately model the structure and function of facial muscles to allow for conv i nc i n g d ramatic perform­
ances i n close-up. This i s extremely d i fficult to do techn ical ly. Most of us spend all day long watc h i n g the
morion of the facial exp ressions of people with whom we i nt e ract and we are very good at discerning emo­
tional conrenr or sub-textual i n formation from that process . . . . Systems currently exist for rendering con­
vi ncing hai r a n d cloth i n g a n d the faci a l textures can be simulated th rough p h o tograph i c studies a n d
sophisticated texture map p i ng , bur t h e a n i m ator of t h e furure w i l l n e e d to bc a talented actor i f he o r s h e
intcnds to create a dramat ic performance i n a synthetic actor [ Kleiserl .

I n the making o f Final Fa ntasy, one of the keys to the creation o f believable faces resided
with the handli n g of details - for example, of wri nkles, skin blem ishes and age spots . Aki was
apparen tly the most arduous real ization insofar as the imperative to make her look attractive
e ntailed the danger of her looking too impeccable and hence u nreal . The addition of freck­
l es and occas ional exp ress ion l i nes was an indub itably insp i red touch, in this respec t . I n addi­
tion , the character's m ien derives considerable realism from the v i s i b i l i t y o f p o res and delicate
lip creases . The extent to wh ich Fina l Fa ntasy's vi rtual heroine attained to p h o to realism is
p roved by her placement o n the cover of the men's m agazine Maxim as a sexy icon two months
before the fi l m's American debut in the summer of 2 0 0 1 . The i mages looked l i ke h igh -qual­
ity photographs o f an entirely real , b reath ing and enticing being, even though the you n g
wom an they depicted is actually a post-Frankenste i n ian amalgam com posed fro m legion
human images t h ro ugh a p rocess of incremental morp h i n g .
T h e extent to w h i c h A k i was conceived of a s a character so realisti cally rendered as t o
acq u i re someth i n g of an i ndependent l i fe o f i ts own is l i kewise attested to by the follow i n g :
" Prior to the fi l m's release (and s u bsequent box office fai l u re) , Square had i n dicated p lans for
the Aki Ross 'synth etic actress' to appear i n other films, possibly even i nteract i n g w i t h l ive
actors . A sam ple of what this might have looked l i ke can be seen on the i ntroduction to the
second DVD in the Special Edition rel ease , wh ich shows Aki ' b reaking character' after fi l m i ng
a scene and wal k i n g th ro ugh the s t u d i o , i nterac t i n g w i t h b o t h eG I a n d real people"
( Wikipedia, the Free Encyc lopedia - Fi na l Fa ntasy: The Spirits Within). Like the idol s i n ger Rei
Toei described by Wi l l i a m G i bson i n h i s novel Idoru, the Aki Ross contem plated by Square
is essent i a l l y "a perso n a l i t y co nstru c t , a congeries o f software age n t s , the crea t i o n o f
i n fo rmation -designers" (Gibson 1997, p. 92) .
Synthesp ians h ad been accorded supporti ng roles fo r some t i m e p r i o r to the production
of Sakaguch i's fi l m , serv i n g as dou bles fo r mortal perfo rmers i n the fi l m i ng o f especially per­
ilous stunts. Additionally, the generation of digital extras meant to stand in for l arge c rowds
o r armies had already abetted producers as a ma rkedly cost-effective reso u rce . Fina l Fa ntasy
radically reformulated the ex isting understan d i n g of the synthesp ian's ro l e by u p h oldi n g its
1 00 ANIME INTE RSECTIONS

p romotion from extra to starring role and, by i m p l ication , i ts a b i l i ty to compete wi th the l ive
performer. News o f the i m m inent advent of v i rtual actors on the eve o f Fina l Fa ntasy's p re­
m iere spread considerable anxiety among some of the more traditional Hol lywood personnel ,
particularly as i t coincided w i th the 2 0 0 1 Screen Actors G u i l d (SAG) strikes . Tom Hanks is
rep u ted to h ave been especially vociferous in the exp ress ion of w i despread anxieties about the
future of real performers . This is somewhat i ron ical i n consideration o f the role p l ayed by
Hanks in the execution o f the film Pola r Express (dir. Robert Zemeckis, 2004) , a p roduction
held to have fu rther raised the bar for tech n ical ach ievement i n the growing gen re of com p u ter­
gen erated movies reliant on mo-cap.
Pola r Express i n deed marks one of the most recent developments o f mo-cap tec h n o logy
w i t h i n the dom a i n o f a n i mati o n , cond ucted by a p o p u l o u s team o f v is u a l effects artists
at Sony I m ageworks u n der the aegis o f effects gurus Ken Ralston and Jerome Che n . As J u l ian
P h i l l ips exp l a i n s , the mo-cap p rocess used in Zem eckis's movie - termed "perfo r m a n ce
capt u re" n o t as a synonym b u t as a develop ment o f existing motion-capture tech n ol og y ­
was

designed to digitally collect every discern ible movement and subtle h u m a n expression . . . . U n l i ke exi s ti n g
nlO-cap , Performance Cap ture can simul tancously rccord 3- d i mc n s i on al facial a n d body movements from
multiple actors, using a system of digital cameras that p rovide 360 degree vi ews . . . . With thi s system , tbe
d i rector could l i terally create custom shots during the editing p rocess, sel ect i n g from a range of dcpths and
perspectives, and mov i n g characters i n their eyber-world to em phas ize specific deta i l s , w i t h natural cam­
era moves . . . . I t took nearly two hour s to apply as many as I S O re flective "j ewels" that were clustered on
tbe actors' faces and scalps. adhcri ng to all l i nes of muscu laturc, eyel ids, b rows. upper and l ower l ip s , c h i n
l i ne and cheeks [ P h i l l i ps ] .

Another audacious advance i n the fi e ld of v i rtual cinematography, resulting from t h e j o i nt

efforts of visual effects wizards Joh n G aeta and Kim Libreri . is "un iversal capt u re" ( u - cap) , a
technique developed i n the execution of the Wachowski brothers' T he Matrix: Revolutions
(2003) . This is a form of motion capture focusi ng on facial performance : h igh-defi n i t i o n
cameras a r e a rranged i n a semi-circle aro u nd t h e actor a n d photograph h i m o r her from every
possible a ngl e . recording skin texture. pores, foll icles and exp ressions down to the m i n u test
detai l . Un iversal capt u re is also deployed to record w i th i n com parable fidelity legion aspects
o f a performer's dynamic and sartorial attributes . All of these data can then be stored i n i mage
l i b raries and appl ied to CG characters as and when appropriate . Ma trix producer Joel S ilver
has com m e nted on the technique as fol lows : "Using unco m p ressed data cap t u red by five h i ­
def cameras . . . t h e computer calculates the exact shape a n d textu re o f the acto r's face , move­
ment and clot h i ng . . . . Gravi ty-defying camera moves that have p revio usly j ust been paper
pipedreams are now a real ity, with the action fl i p p i ng between real foo tage and v i rtual con­
tent , acto rs and virtual actors" (quoted in Kennedy, p. 90) .
According to CG ani mator Kevin Mack, the day is rap idly approac h i ng when CG cha r­
acters m ight be not merely animated but actually directed. "The ideal is," he explains, "yo u
tell them , 'Walk , ' ' Bend ove r, ' or ' Pick up that object' . . . 'Now walk w i th more anger, more
flamboyance . ' When yo u direct these guys , you won't need keyfram i ng [the tech nique whereby
a n imators draw a few crucial frames fo r a sequence and al low the com puter to create , by i nter­
polation . all the i ntermediate positions] or performance ca pture [a . k . a . motion capture , as
described] . The only p roblem will be when the CG characters get too smart and say they j ust
don't want to do i t any more" (quoted in Bizony, p. 1 3 7 ) . (Some o f the software used in the
 Six � Final Fantasy 101

p roduction o f v i rtual actors for Peter Jackson's T he Lord of the Rings fi l m s largely ful fi l Mack's
prognostication by granting the performers a degree of autonomy.)
Whereas productions such as the Ma trix and Lord of the Rings trilogies and Pola r Express
bear witness to remarkable advances in the domain of d igital motion capture s ince the exe­
cution of Sakaguchi and Sakakibara's Fina l Fa ntasy, no less worthy o f n o tice is the recent
return to the rotoscope namely, as pointed o u t earl ier, mo-cap's most eminent ancestor. This
�

tendency is most eloquently attested to by Richard Lin klater's A Sca nner Da rkly (2006) , a
filmic adaptation o f P h i lip K. Dick's novel of the same title wherein the u n p a ralleled degrees
of realism affo rded by the rotosco pe are further enha nced by its integration w i t h sophisti­
cated software . As the W ikipedia entry for A Sca nner Da rkly explain s , the movie constitutes
a ground-breaki ng i ntervention i n the real m of contemporary digitally assisted a n i mation : '/1
Sca n ner Da rkly was fi l m ed d igitally using the Panason i c AG-DYXlOO and then animated w i t h
Rotoshop, a proprietary graphics editing p rogram created by Bob Sabisto n . Rotoshop uses a n
animation technique called interpolated rotoscope, which was previo usly used i n Linklater's
film Wa king Life. . . . [It] m akes use of vecto r keyframes, and interpolates the i n - between frames
automatically. . . . Each m i n u te o f a n i m ation requ i red 500 h o u rs o f work" ( W ikipedia, the Free
Encyclopedia - A Sca nner Da rkly [film]).
Central to the execution o f the movie was the shooting o f live action onto d igital fi l m
a n d subseq uent traci ng and pai nting of each frame b y entirely m a n u al m e a n s . O n t h e tech­
n ical p l ane, the artisanal d i m ension of A Sca nner Da rkly is arguably the fi l m's most com­
mendable feature , as well as a n eloquent testament to the e n d u ring h o l d of hand-drawn
a n i m ation . T his aspect o f the work has been exp l i citly u n dersco red by Sabiston himsel f:
"There is no texture model ling or digital mo tion capture . Everyth i n g is traced . . . drawn onto
the frames freehand . . . We don't use a mo use, nor do we see what we d raw o n the pad behind
each pen stro ke" ( q u o ted in " S canner Darkly B l u rs Lines b e tween Progra m ming a n d
Artistry") .
Employing top-notch graphic-novel artists to paint over the digitally shot frames, the
movie yields deeply defamil iarizing effects . Wh ile the source actors (including Kean u Reeves,
Winona Ryder, Robert Downey J r . and Woody H arrelson) p reserve their fundamental somatic
traits, performance styles, voices and modalities of del ivery, the superimposition upon their
faces and overall p hys iques of black conto urs, flat colors and dancing beads o f l igh t causes
them to d issolve i nto phantasmatic entities even as they assiduo usly cont i n u e to resemble their
non-animated scree n co u n terparts . The cumulative impressi o n is a n i ntoxicating cocktail o f
com ic-book eeri ness and realistic i m p ressionism.2
According to Robert La Franco, L inklater adopted this particular technique insofa r as
"the paint erly, pop-art look of rotosco pi ng" (at times rem i n iscent o f Patrick Caul field's work
but with a sinister twist) was ideally s uited "to cap ture the trippy reality described by science­
fiction author P h i l i p K. Dick i n h i s 1 9 7 7 novel . " Furthermore , and n o l ess importantly, in
harnessing his pioneering methods to the production of an animated feature that b o l dly trans­
gresses mainstream expectations concerning the medium as a whole, the d i rector
also sees an opporru n i t y ... to bring ful l -length a n i m ated movies to a btoader, ol d er aud ience. Outside of
a few proven television p roperties l i ke Beavis and Butthead and So uth Park, n o successful a n i mation for
adults has been released i n the US s i nce the 1981 fantasy epic Heavy Metal. " There is k i n d of an a n i m a­
tion ghetto that exists i n the industry," [ Li nklater) says . " From the beg i nn i n g , we l i ved w i th the Holly­
wood truism that adu l t s don't see a n i m ated movies. B ur I have always had the response that, yeah , adul ts
don't go see ani mated movies u m i l they do! Al l i t t akes i s one movie" [ La Franco) .
1 02 A :-.J I M E INTERSECTIONS

Thus, at the same time as it aptly com plements the tech nical develop ments outli ned i n
the course of this chapter b y p roviding a n i nnovative contribution t o t h e fl o urish ing real m o f
CG I , Linklater's 2 0 0 6 mov ie concu rrently benefits t h e p resent book's ove rarch i n g argu ment
t h ro ugh i ts eloquent peroration of ani mation's standing as an autonomous medium whose
accomplish ments are not u lti mately reducible to the genus of c h i l d is h rec reation . (This p o i nt
w i l l be retu rned to i n Chapter 1 1 with reference to both Linkl ater's work a n d other conte m ­
porary p roductions.)
In conclusi o n , Fina l Fa ntasy: The Spirits W ithi n may have disappoi nted v iewers who had
looked forward to its release as the apotheosis of d igital ani mation and then discovered that
the fi l m's i m p ress ive grap hics were not matched by an adequately fleshed-o ut storyl i n e . How­
ever, the work rema ins h istorically significant as a fo rmal and cultural hyb rid, subtly poised
between video games and cinema, ani mation and l ive action , East and Wes t , and hence yield­
i n g an imagin ative experiment w i th both technical and thematic cross - p o l l i nation in the
domain o f conte mporary a n i m e .
 SEVEN

Ghos t in the Shell 2:

Innocence

One may question making an adult drama in anime, but I made it with a hope that it may even­
tually be IISeful for younger audiences some day. - !'vfamoru Oshii 2004a
If the essence of 11ft is information carried in DNA , then society and civilization are jllSt colossal
memory �ystems and a metropolis like this one, simply a sprawling external memO/yo - Batou, Ghost
in the Shell 2: ImlOcence

An uno rthodox sequel to the cultish and Matrix- i nspiring Ghost in the Shell ( 1 9 9 5 ) based,
l i ke i ts p redecesso r , on a manga classic by Masamune S h i row, the film was released domesti­
cally i n M arch 2 0 0 4 , obta i n i n g a U.S. release in September of the sam e year. Most no tably,
Innocence was also the first anime feature film ever selected fo r competition at the p restigious
Cannes F ilm Festival (2004) . The Palme O ' O r i n that year was eventually awarded to M ichael
Moore fo r his documentary Fahrenheit 9111, but the shortlisting of Osh i i 's film re mains in itself
a tri u m p h fo r anime fa ns and scholars the wo rld over. Moreove r , it is most li kely that O s h i i
h i mself would not have rega rded t h i s o u tcome a s a crush i n g defeat, w h e n one considers that
the world he sought to capture in Innocence is - q u i te rega rdless of obvious thematic and s ty­
l istic divergences - p recisely the same kind of world that Moore addresses i n h is film : namely,
a "cultu re of fear and anxiety" (Os h i i 2004b) .
Innocence is set i n the year 2 0 3 2 and p roceeds fro m the assumption that by t h is date,
cybertechnology will have pervas ively infiltrated human society irrespectively o f any cultu ral
or political bou ndaries, and that traditional lines of demarcation between the orga n i c and the
arti ficial, the human and the mach i n e , the self and the other w ill have become down right
redu ndant . The film focuses on the Special Anti -Terrorist agent Bato u , who is essentially a
cyborg , and on h i s mai nly h u man partner Togusa in their investigation o f the company " Locus
Solus , " an industrial colossus governed by the cybercr i m i nal Kim and responsible for m a n u ­
facturing "gyno ids , " l i felike fe male do l l s designed fo r sexual enterta i n ment . The attention o f
t h e anti-terrorist forces is drawn t o Ki m's corporation a s one o f t h e creatu res suddenly goes
berserk and slaugh ters her owner, in the aftermath of which several other gynoids go on the
rampage , and eventu ally com m i t suicide, in luri dly grotesque displays of self-loath i n g . The
narrative follows Batou and Togusa in thei r deali ngs w i th scientists, gangsters, politicians a n d

1 03
1 04 ANI M E INTERSECTI ONS

b u reaucrats u nt i l they eventually reach Locus Sol us and, despite Ki m's elabo rate attempts to
repel them by means o f cyberlabyrinths and brain hacks, discover the truth at the heart o f
t h e manufact u r i ng giant and, b y extension , of i ts dolls' aberrant conduct .
Innocence's landscape is tantalizingly composite : i n the early segments of the story, fo r
example, a sprawling nocturnal megalopolis l icked by fl i tting orange flares is j uxtaposed w i t h
a blindingly w h i t e and frigidly aseptic forensics laboratory i n w h i c h t h e p o tentially dys func­
tional gynoids are meticulo usly exam ined. This scenario is q u i te j arri ngly disp l aced by i m ages
of a murky yakuza den and of Bato u's h u mble cyborg-bachelor apartment . These are in tu r n
overtaken by a city of sky-piercing Goth i c spires and b y a mock-Tudor manor where stained
glass, flagstones, peo p l e , a n i m als and fire itself are glacially i m mo b i l ized i n both space and
t i m e . What lends coherence to th is potentially d isconcerting m ix is Oshi i 's elega nt joining of
overtly hand-drawn graph ics and alternately l uscious and crystall i ne computer-generated visu­
als.
I ndeed, while open to the incorporation of state-o f-the-art d igital a n i mation , Innocence
remains profo undly l oyal to the traditional roots of anime artistry and its u p h o l d i ng o f m a n ­
ual techniques a s fou n dational . T h e result is an eye- melting synthes is o f 2 0 draw i ngs and
3 D CGl. The former were used primarily i n the depiction o f the characters, which consis­
tently come across as cartoon ishly styl ized ; the latter played a key part i n the rend i t i o n of
i ntensely photo real istic backgro unds, mach i nes and veh icles . As noted i n the Everything2. com
review of Innocence, " I n most cases, the hand-drawn characters move th rough o bsessively
photorealistic C G I - rendered scenery, looking eerily out o f place , al most l ike the Ghosts the
title i nvokes . Their muted tones a n d simple shading different i a tes them from their s u rro und­
i ngs , which are sometimes so sharp-edged as to be almost p a i n fu l " ("The Custodian") . Most
i m p ortantly, as Osh i i has remarked i n an interview with IGN FilmForce, "Whether it's back­
gro u n d material o r the characters, the source material has been hand-drawn" (Osh i i 2004c) .
Mech a n i c layout designer Atsushi Take uch i confirms t h i s crucial p o i n t : " Every t h i ng was
p lanned aro u n d the 2 0 artwork, and the effect creators added on layers while hav i ng the cam­
era map as the base" (Takeuch i) .
The p reservation o f 2 0 hand-drawn images alongs ide 3D CG I serves to th row i n to relie f
t h e fi l m's constructed nature - a vi tal aspect of i t s u nderlying essence w h i c h t h e p h o to realis­
tic element may have otherwise effaced . Radical ly disrupting the m i metic fal lacy, Osh i i asks
the audience to acknowledge that h is work is an inherently synthetic artifact and not a slav­
ishly reportorial "slice of l i fe . " The d i rector thereby invi tes us to ponder the s ignificance of
the entire apparatus u t i l ized by the med i u m of a n imation to com m u n i cate ideas o f develop­
ment and change : not j ust the strategies adopted i n order to convey the i l l usion of movement
b u t also the devices that enable audiences to com p ly with the i l l usion , on the o n e hand, and
consciously appreciate i ts manufactu red status, on the other. Innocence- l i ke all a n i m ation at
its finest - encourages us to endorse and participate i n the ci nematic i l l usion t h ro ugh a com­
mod ious suspension o f disbelief, and yet recogn ize i t exactly for what i t is instead of m is tak­
ing it for e m p i rical ev idence of the existence of a "real ity" out there. Furthermore, the blend
of20 and 3 D elements effected i n the ideation and execution o f Innocence constit u tes a fitting
tech n ical correlative for the fi l m's thematic emphasis on the nebulo usness of the b o u n daries
putatively separating "natural" human organ isms from cyborgs, automata, clones, holograms ­
or i n deed dreams.
At the same t i m e , Osh i i p u ts no less effort i n the evocation o f a close - u p o f water slosh-
 Seven - Ghost i n the Shell 2 1 05

i ng down a ki tchen s i n k , or of the play of l ight reflected off the smooth s u rface o f a movi n g
veh icle, t h a n i n m agni ficent s e t p ieces replete w ith p rowli n g submarines redolent o f mechan­
ical sharks or sleek crow-l ike p l an es endowed with legion i n dependently movi ng segments .
Concurrently, while the di recto r revels i n the representation o f veh icular l i fe forms that equate
to a futuristically bizarre menagerie , he is no l ess earnestly devo ted to the depiction o f anony­
mous cars darting in and out o f shadows and rai n , and b l u rring the ci tyscape as they cap t u re
i t from legion angles with their gliste n i ng surfaces .
Osh i i is also com m itted to the perpetuation of an orthodox a n i m e style i n h i s approach
to cinematography. This is most exp l icitly demonstrated by the u t i lizati o n o f exaggeratedly
slow-paced and wordless sequences that only have a recognizable p l ace and significance w i th i n
t h e domain o f Japanese a n i mation . I n such pieces, the m i n u test nuances o f bodily motion are
lovi ngly foregro u n ded, in preference to the rap id-fire action sequences favored by much H o l ­
lywood a n i m a t i o n . Equally remarkabl e , cinematographically speaki ng, is Oshi i's u s e o f the
camera as a means o f constellating lyrically refined graphic scenarios, i n spected gradually fro m
diverse perspectives . A p aradigmatic i n stance is provided b y t h e three i n terrelated sequences
supplying alternative versions o f the segm ent in which Batou and Togusa challenge Ki m i n
h i s palatial residence . These sequences tease the audience's mnemonic facul ties w i t h alacrity
by reiterating the same key event w i th fine variations in pace and rhyth m .
The sequences where the integration o f cel ani mation and CG I i s especially noteworthy
include panoramic su rveys o f fut u ristic arch i tectural monsters, such as the ones o ffered in the
p re-credi t segment and upon Bato u's and Togusa's descent into Ki m's city, and the shoo tout
i n a cra mped grocery store where i n each single s hard of glass see ms v i b rantly a l ive . Most
memorable, for many viewers, are undoubtedly the sequences u n fo l d i ng in Kim's mansion ,
with their profusion o f holograph ic i m ages, o pulently rendered substances and textures a n d
mes merizing ornamental details - ranging from polished polych romatic marbl e , stained glass
and carved stone to patterned t i l i ng and countless metallic elements. A veritably Escheresque
ensemble, the b u i lding discl oses new vistas at each step thro ugh a profusion o f see m ingly
i m p robable angles and dimensional i n congruit ies that feel i m palpable even as they are solidly
supported by t i m ber and stone .
Compositing is u nquestionably one o f the most important digital tec h n i qu es brought to
bear upon the execu t i o n o f those scenes . The process revolves aro und the digitization o f var­
ious i m ages by means o f scanners and s ubsequent transfer o f the material to comp u re rs , where
it can be edited. The compositors gather together all the elements n eeded for a scene a n d
combine t h e m to ach i eve t h e des i red results. T h e pioneering t o o l s p rovided by t h e American
software giant Adobe (e . g . Adobe After Effects) were especially usefu l in the production of
Innocenc e. These ado pt a system of layers and a timeli n e , whereby ani mators can place d i fferent
o bj ects on different layers of a composition and control the size, position and opacity o f each
layer along the timeline to produce a smooth unfolding of effects . So-called "thi rd-party" p lug­
ins further enable the generation o f a w ide range of visual i m p ressions, i nclu d i ng rea l istic ren ­
ditions o f s moke , fire , ra i n , steam and snow.
The fi l m's p re-credi t sequence is worth dwell i ng upon , h owever cursori ly. Especial ly
remarkable is i ts knack o f grad ually b u i lding up a distinctive atmosphere , desti ned to resur­
face periodically throughout the fi l m as someth ing o f a musical refrai n o r leitmotif. This par­
ticular mood emanates from a subtly o rchestrated contrast between the stately grandeu r of
the metropol is's upper strata , here exe m p l i fi e d by a quaintly tech no-visionary hel i co p te r cir-
1 06 A N I M E INTERSECTIONS

cling a tower redolent of B lade Runner's omi nous struct u res, and the u rbanscape's d i ngy u nder­
belly, with i ts amorp hous crowds and sprawling streets , ubiquitous flash i n g l i gh ts and s i rens.
The contrast is cinematographically sustained by the adoption of d i fferent rhythms in the ani­
mation o f the flying mach i n e , which is invested with a relatively fluid pattern o f motion , and
o f the street-based shots, where a pervasive sense of tension and fear i s tersely conveyed by
i ntentionally j i ttery transitions. Also worthy of notice, in the aerial shots, is the use of an
i ntensely warm palette i m bued w i th amber and och re tones. A typically Osh i i a n touch, this
stylistic ploy i ron ically i nverts the conventional association of warm color schemes w i th notions
o f psycho l ogical and emotional comfort by l i n k i n g them i nstead with a n i m p e rv i o usly
u n friendly env i ro n ment.
Com menting on the no less memorable sho p sequence a s a representative case of h is team's
demanding assignment, CGI art d i rector Toru S h i nozaki has p o i n tedly u n derl i n ed that each
single product on d isplay, as wel l as each of the n u merous shelves and refri ge rators p resent in
the ven u e , were execu ted on computers . "The entire set o f the store ," S h i nozaki explai n s , " had
to be recreated i n CG. The amount of elements was outrageo us, and the work was extremely
pai nstaki n g . " Harmonizing his team's graphics with the visuals created by separate depart­
ments was n o less challengi n g : "The movements [of the characters] are made by a d i ffe rent
tea m , while the textures o f the space had to be drawn by the backgro u n d artists a n d mapped
onto the elements . . . . Ligh ting was vi tal in integrating these separate elements i nto a s i ngle
p icture" ( S h inozaki ) .
T h e present ation of any one of the nu merous shelves , for exam p l e , was arrived at b y tak­
ing a digital armature as the p o i n t of departu re and then incrementally add i n g va rious ch ro­
matic layers in o rder to evoke a satisfyingly realistic palette . D i ffe rent textures capable of
emulat i ng the visual and tactile qualities pecul iar to speci fic m aterials were s ubsequently com­
posi ted with the i n itial color scheme and appropriately l i t . The explosion o f cou ntless glass
panes was l i kewise reliant on compositing : layers rep resenting the glass fragments as m i n i ­
malistic black-and-wh ite objects were created t o isolate t h e details o f each shard's u n ique
shape and then composited with layers that d isplayed the objects as real istic entities by recou rse
to h i ghly sophist icated shading and nuancing too ls.
The i nvo lvement o f several depa rtments i n the execution of the sequence's various build­
i n g blocks requ ired the d i rector and his assistants to carry out sustained monitoring and super­
vising tasks in order to secure the consistent harmon ization of those co mponents . I nt egrati n g
t h e 2 0 and t h e 3 D elements to make them l o o k a s tho ugh they h a d issued if n o t exact ly fro m
the same hand, a t least from coherently i nteracting hands, was n o t an easy j o b b u t actually
took considerable finesse, sensitivity and a willi ngness to confro nt quite u nexpected challenges .
Compu ters abetted Osh i i and h is troupe to unparalleled degrees, yet i t was thei r ongo i n g com­
m itment to the legacy o f tradi tional a n i m e , ultimately, that enabled them to come u p w i t h
s o l i d centers of gravity to wh ich b o t h t h e setting and t h e characters would b e attracted . An
understanding o f softwa re packages alone co uld never have yielded such stunning results. In
fac t , i t is by relyin g n o less significantly on their backgro und mastery o f a classical , hand­
d rawn approach to ani mation than on cutting-edge expertise that Innocence's creators have
b rought forth a gro u n d-breaking achievement in digi tal tech nology that far exceeds in both
tech nical scope and affective im port the moni tor's cool glow.
In addition , as the d i rector has emphasized, it should not be automatically p resu med
that technological advances invariably make the ani mator's task less difficu l t . In fact , Osh i i
 SelJen --� G ho s t i n the S h e l l 2 1 07

contends , the momentous b reakth roughs i n cinematograph ical and an i mational p ract ices w it­
nessed over the past decade rendered his p rogress from script to screen even more arduous :
There wasn't a singl e t h i n g that has been easier as a result of a tech nol ogical ad vancement . All of the ani­
mation tec h n iques that h ave arisen [ s i nce Ghost in the Shem have added to the amount of work . A n i m a­
tors are al ways doing the best they can , a n d with d igital tech nol ogy, they could keep repeat i n g [t he level
of quali ty] . They had done a scene ten ti mes more [careful ly] than they did with the l as t mov i e , b ur it
actually translated into m e having to check ten ti mes more carefully w i th the ma teri al than I did on the
l ast one . . . . When I made the first mov i e , it took overn ight to ren der one scene, h ut now they have a l o t
more m aterials to ren d e r ; each person actual ly h a s t w o or t h ree computers worki ng at the same t i m e , and
that also added to the amount of the work . D igi talization d i d n't actual l y l essen the amount of work I O s h i i
2004cl .

The film's p ivot is arguably the sequence that dramatizes a sum ptuous parade i nundat­
ing the streets of Ki m's seedy wo rld . What is most beguiling about this sequence i s the idea
that Oshi i's team should h ave deployed most liberally the d i gital tools available to them for
the purpose of rep resent i n g elements of Eastern culture at i ts most p o i gnantly trad itional . The
disjuncture between the i nn ovativeness of the tech n ical tools underlying the sequence and the
custom-soaked lavish ness o f i ts subject matter is a classic illustration o f Oshi i's penchant for
establi s h i n g i ro n i cal tensions meant to whet h i s audience's speculat ive appetite . The sequence
i s profoundly i n debted to various traditional rituals and icons, and i ts appreciation accord­
i n gly benefits from some familiarity with the i ndigenous frame o f reference on which i t con­
sistently draws . I t is especi ally i m portan t , i n this respect , to recogn ize the exalted cultural role
played by the matsu ri ( "fest i val") over the ages w i t h i n Japanese society in its entirety, and con­
currently acknowledge the significance o f masks, used p rofusely i n the parade sequen ce i n
conjunction w i t h splendid costumes and floats, in both Japanese and broadly Asian ri tuals
and theater. An understanding of relevant Eastern ap p roaches to acting and perfo rmance , the
codes and conventions o f which bear upon the sequence's stylistic identity, i s also bound to
be of some critical assistance .
The online com panion to Japan's traditional beliefs , customs and ri tuals , ti tled Japanese
Religion To day explains, '' 'Ma tsu ri' is a nou n , der ived from a verb, matsu m ean ing to wait o r
t o invite or in a w i der s e n s e r o be sub m issive . I n s u ch a feel i n g o f worsh i p and esteem some­
thing superhuman i s wai ted for and invited . . . . Having lost the religious s ig n i ficance , ' mat­
suris' today are enj oyed by partici pants and onlookers more fo r what used to be only additive
to their essential mean i n g . Some of them provide shrine p roteges wi th opportun ities fo r recre­
ation and amusement and some others demonstrate scenes of i nterest in the name of tradi­
tion" (" Festival [Matsuri J") .
G iven that practically every shrine i n Japan has its own local festival, innume rable mat­
suris are held th roughout the yea r. Most of these are celebrated on an annual bas is, either to
solemn ize eve nts such as the advent of the farming season and the ha rvest or ro commemo­
rate historical occasions . Parades and p rocessions constitu te a key element o f S h into festivals .
As these p rogress , eHigies rep resenti n g the ka mi (Shi nto spi rits and deities) are carried through
the bus tli n g streets - fringed by stalls loaded with food, toys and trinkets - in mikoshi (pala n ­
quins) by people garbed i n ceremon ial gear. An i m portant ri tual rol e is also played by opu­
lently decorated kasahoko ( floats) , several of which accom modate drum and fl u te players or
magn ificent dolls .
I n evaluat i n g the s ign i ficance o f masks with i n the overall visual rhetoric o f Osh ii's p ro­
cession , it should be noted that although these feature i n virtually all cultures, they are espe-
1 08 A N l M E INTERSECTlOf'S

cially prominent i n Asi a . As entities endowed with concurrently monstrous and n u mi n o u s

appeal , m asks have p layed v i t a l roles over t h e centuries i n contexts a s diverse a s B uddhist tem­
ples, S h i nto shrines , aristocratic and m i l i tary c i rcles, sanctuaries, parades and street festivals,
and for p u rposes as varied as ani m istic magic , esoteric l i t u rgy, p ropitiatory ceremon ies tied
to venatorial and agrarian mores, in itiation and fertility rites, shaman istic p ractices and seances .
Masks also occupy a p rivi leged space i n traditional Japanese theater, h e l p i n g the p e r former
to maintain a stab l e , sym bol- laden exp ression and the audience to access a n alternate fantasy
world . Maskmakin g can be traced back to Japan's p rehistory and its i n itial p u rpose was to
del iver visible icons o f gods and demons to be deployed i n the p u rs u i t of either i ngratiati n g
or exorcisizing ri tes ; they could therefore b e said t o emanate from a desire t o bridge t h e gap
between the human and the su pernatural di mensions . It was also ass umed that h u mans don­
n i n g masks co uld divest themselves of their earth bound i ndividuali ties and metamorphose
i nto the masks' very souls, hence beco m i n g breathing incarnations o f other mysterious enti­
tles .
Masks are s t i l l used abundantly today in Japan's many festivals, rituals and dramatic per­
forma nces . Noh theatre , i n particu lar, owes its very identi ty as an i ncontrovertibly u n ique
cultural form to masks . The execution of a Noh mask is a very com p l ex art , req u i r i ng its cre­
ator to abide by extremely p recise tech nical rules at both the scul p t u ral and the chromatic
levels. The majority o f Noh masks appear to be devo id of any exp ressi o n whatsoever but
nonetheless excel at conveying particular and highly defined feelings and moods by means of
concentrated abstract i o n . M i n ute en gravings and barely perceptible grooves o r i ndentations,
for exam p l e , can be i nt roduced so as to p roduce del icate l i nes capable o f communicating very
specific emotions . Moreove r , the performer's body language augments consistently the mask's
affective i m port : even the sligh test turn or tilt of the head w i l l cause the mask's see m i n gly
vacuous orbs to fill with pathos o r sadn ess .
The masks displayed throughout Innocenc e's festival sequence reve rberate w i t h m u l t i p l e
iconographic echoes o f pan-Asian derivation. T h e i r styles alternately h a r k back to the S h i s h i
masks w o r n i n t h e co u rse of the Shishi-mai (" Lion Dance" ) , o n c e performed to wa rd o ff evi l
demons a n d s t i l l e n acted i n s u bstantial n u m bers today through o u t Jap a n ; t h e satirically
gro tesque Kyogen and O n i masks, typically depicti ng the w i ldest side o f various gods and
spi rits ; Chinese opera masks inspired by ancient face-painting styles ; Korean wh ite masks w i th
beak-like noses and black eyes ; I n dian fa nged m a s k s frequently used i n Kathakah perfo r m ­
ances - and the l ist co u ld no do u b t stretch further.
As far as the performative modal ities ev inced by the sequence are conce rned, these are
veritably steeped in a distinctively Eastern heritage , dom i n ated by the methodical e m p l oy­
ment of repetitive ritual ized gestures, postures and other kinetic clues . In Eastern theater at
large , the actor's p r i o rity is not variety, i m p rovisatio n or the exp ression of m utable m essages
but rather to convey - through p ractically i nvariable and h i gh ly sym b o l i c acts - stylized rep­
resentations of u n fa i l i n gly recu rrent states and actions. The goal , in abiding by this aesthetic
tenet , is the e l i m i nation of ambiguity, equ ivocation and m isu nderstanding. I t is v i tal to appre­
ciate, however , that the suppression of these ele ments of potential l i nguistic i nstab i l i ty is not
designed to inculcate dogmatic lessons i nto the audience b u t rather to i n t i m ate that the thirst
for constant change is not conducive to deeper and more satisfying truths b u t merely to a
form of escap i s m . Therefore, the assiduous return to archaic techn iques and gra m mars is a
means of suggesting that the desi re fo r cont in ual mutation s i m p ly ignores the existential roots
 Seven - G ho s t i n the Shell 2 1 09

of performance - and i ndeed o f the u rge to perform - by dismissing the o l d as staid a n d out­
dated, when those tech n iques a n d gra m mars i n fact carry metaphysical messages well i n excess
of their conti ngent i ncarnations (as plays, puppet shows or p arades , fo r exa m p le) .
The propos ition that the retu rn to the ancestral does not s i m p l y amount to stubborn
traditionalism but is actual ly a way o f commun icating enduring human concerns in evo l v i n g
social milieux is attested to by Innocence's parade : t h e ancient languages and performative styles
to which i t consistently all udes are not deployed in order to seek refuge in a n i dealize d past
but rather to comment on the p resent and on a hypothetical fut u re - most notably, thro ugh
the j uxtaposition o f tradi tional m asks and p u p pets, on the one hand, and novel h u m a n s i m ­
u lacra (such as cybernetic o rgan isms) . T h u s , t h e p rocession abides i n memory as a pulsating
p iece of spatial poetry that is fai t h ful to the most ancient traditions a n d yet adventuro usly
specu lative at once .
A further aspect o f Eastern perfo rmance worthy o f consideration i n the p resent context
is the use of s ilence as an integral com ponent of theatrical lan guage . The art of a n i m e in gen ­
eral and Osh ii's oe uvre i n particular eloquently confirm t h i s formal p reference. A s Anton i n
Artaud has argued, the p roclivity towards si lence is quite at o d d s w i t h Western approaches
to performance, where "the lines gain the upper hand " :
This notion, the predominance o f t h e l i nes i n theatre, i s deeply rooted i n li S a n d w e view theatre s o milch
as j llst a physical reflection of the scri p t , that every t h i n g i n theatre outside the script . . . appears to l i S to
be a pan o f staging, and i n ferior to the scri pt . . . . To link theatre with exp ressive form potential, w i th every­
t h i n g in the way of gestures, sollnd, colours, movement , is to return it to its orig i n al purpose, to restore
it to a rel igious, metaphysical pos i t i o n , to reconcile i t with the universe [An aud, pp. 5 0 - 5 \].

Authentic emotions, Artaud intimates, cannot be nakedly exp ressed, fo r nake d exp ressi o n is
bound to betray the i r significance , to lessen their atavistic v i go r and to d omesticate them in
the name of an arrogant rationalis m : "Any strong feel i n g produces an i dea o f e m p t iness w i t h i n
u s , and l ucid language which p revents t h e empti ness also p revents poetry appearin g i n tho ugh t .
For t h i s reason an i m age , an allegory, a fo rm disguising what i t means t o reveal , h a s more
meaning to the m i n d than the enl ighten ment brought abo u t hy words a n d their analys is" (p.
5 3) .
I n In nocence, d i alogue does play a key part i n the u n fo l d i n g of the fi l m's p h i losoph ical
strand but non-verbal elements are no less v i tal to the work's total effectiveness . The p roces­
sion sequence , specifical ly, inv ites the audience both to savor its opulent grap h ics and to reflect
upon their broader cultural im pl ications not by reco u rse to either d ialogue o r voiceovers b u t
b y emphatically proclai m i ng i ts wordlessness thro ugh Kenj i Kawai's glorious m us i c . Wi t h i n
the sequence , mo reover , disparate s i g n systems of a non -verbal natu re c a n be s e e n a s equally
exp ressive - i m portantly, not so much through the content they expl icitly reveal as t h ro ugh
the inexhaustible semiotic variety to wh ich they i m p l icitly refer. Hence , they self-conscio usly
and deliberately operate as snapshots, captu ring merely an i n fin ites i m al p roportion o f the
world 's unceas i n g becom i n g . In fo regro u n d i n g the non-verbal d i m ension , moreove r , the fes­
tival sequence epitomizes the Japanese conception of theater as a total art i n which harmonies,
rhythms, motions a n d the performer's body as a whole are often more p aramo u n t than any
scrip t . Significantly, the original Japanese term for "theater" is geinou, "artistic s ki l l , " which
suggests that the i n d igenous culture does not priv i l ege notions o f plot a n d character devel­
opment over other aspects o f performance, i n the way Western criticism h as tended to do
s ince at least Aristotle .
1 10 ANI M E INTERSECTI ONS

I n embracing this comp rehensive approach to performance , Osh i i s i m u l taneously p ro ­

poses a h o l istic take on t h e value of i m ages . Putatively inani mate constructs and i cons - such
as the majestic floats and colossal effigies moving thro ugh an u nceas i n g deluge of snow- l i ke
petals - are posited as no less al ive than their h u man (or cybero rgan ic) beh olders . Although
Western crowds may be inclined to dismiss those i mages as fake concess ions to idolatry, their
aliveness resplendently shi nes forth once the viewer is willing to a p p roach them as e p i p h a n i c
gli m pses of an otherwise i nscrutable beyond.
In the comment a ry j o i ntly provided by Oshi i and by Innocence's a n imation d i recto r ,
Tos h i h i ko Nishi kubo - included i n t h e Dream Wo rks H o m e Enterta i nment Special Edition
DVD of In nocence released i n 2004 - the creators usefu l l y el ucidate their approach to the fes­
tival sequence , dissecting the often formidable difficulties sprinkled along the path to visual
excellence :

OS! I I I : When I was d o i n g t h e storyboards I knew t h i s part was go i n g to be lOugh, b u t I never real­
ized i t was going 10 be this tough .
N I S H I KUIlO: When it comes to i t , every th i ng i n this scene was tax i n g . Lots of stuff is a n i mated by hand,
b u t you real ly h ave to look to see i t .
O S H I I : I n terms of backgrounds, there are someth ing l i ke several h u n d re d p i eces i n d ependentl y mov­
ing here . . . .
N I S f l I KUIlO: There's lots o f m i n ut e movement i n b ack that most people probably won't notice. B ut the
atmosphere would n't be at al l the same wi thout those l ittle movements.
OSfll1: The c rowds here , about a th i rd of them arc s h i fting abou t . ... D i d n't want to d o thi s l ike Dis­
ney does mob sce nes. They m ake me lj ueasy. Constant movement every each way.
N I S fl I KUIlO: Slight movement can leave you with a distinct i m p ress i on.
O S H I I : The human e y e i s designed t o scale back excessive i n fo e n te r i ng i n . So w he n y ou h ave con­
s t an t movement eve rywhere, i t gets to be unnerv i n g ["Commentary by Mamoru Oshjj and
Tos h i h i ko N i s h i kubo" ] .

As p o i nted o u t i n the course o f th is same acco u n t , a m aj o r i n fluence behi n d the execution o f

t h e parade sequence was a popular festival attended i n Taiwan b y t h e tro u p e as p a r t o f thei r
preparatory fiel dwork . This detail confirms the pan-Asian , rather than strictly and solely Japa­
nese , roots of the sequence . Also no tewo rthy are Ta keuch i 's com m e n ts concern i n g the
sequence's CG/cel ratio : "in the festival scene, 98% of what you see is hand-drawn m a terial ,
and about 80% o f the movements were supported by CG. The rest (2 0%) , including the char­
acters and mobs, were cel animation" (Takeuchi) .
The fi l m i s also thematically imbued with other all usions to traditional Japanese culture .
Central t o i ts u n derlyi ng p h ilosophy i s the Shi nto-based belief that a l l entities - i n o rgan i c ,
artificial a n d i n a n i mate ones included - a re endowed w i t h s p i ri tu a l attributes . T h is hypoth­
esis is most assiduously p romulgated w i th reference to the ningyou ("do l l " ) i mage , n umerous
i n c a r n atio ns o f w h ich p u n ctuate Bato u's a n d Togusa's in ves tigatio n . Ja p a n ese c u l t u re h as
evi n ced a deep attachment to the symbo l ic attributes of dolls of co u n tless gu ises for many
centuries. Dolls s t i l l feature promi nently i n contemporary Japan , as evinced by the ongo i n g
h o l d on t h e collective i maginary of celebrations such a s t h e Hina Ma tsu ri (" G i r l 's Day, " 3
March) , an event marked by the public display of ornamental dolls as symbolic means of ensur­
ing young girls' well-being.
All the various m a n i festations of the ningyou proposed by Innocence are cari ngly d e p icted
i n accordance with pai nstaki ng backgro und research on Osh i i 's part, which entai led trips to
various doll museums situated in both Japan and the Wes t . The m a i n i n fl uences u n derpin-
 Seven - Gh o s t i n the S h e l l 2 111

n i n g Osh i i 's fi l m , i n this regard, a re the works of the Surrealist artist Hans Bellmer and o f
t h e contemporary Japanese artists S i m o n Yots uya , H i roko I geta and Etsuko M i ura, a s w e l l as
wax anatomical models molded from actual corpses held at La Specol a museum in F lorence .
Innocenc e h i nt s , mo re or less overtly, at a broad range o f d o l l - related indigenous arts and
rituals that are simultaneously relevant to both t raditional and contem p o rary contexts . I t is
first of all worth noting that the figure of the doll is closely related to that o f the mascot , as
evi nced by the adoption i n n u merous tradit ions and cults of symbol i c entit ies w i th h u ma n
or h umanoid appearance s u pposed t o bring good luck. T h e word "mascot" derives from t h e
Proven<;:al " mascotto," t h e fem i n i ne d i m i n u tive of " masc o," i . e . "witch . " Dolls and mascots
have been engaged i n a mutually sustai n i n g relations h i p over the centuries, si nce dol l s ca n be
used as mascots and mascots can take the �o rm of dolls. Rather fel icitously for the p resent
discussion , " masc o" is also related to the medieva l Latin term " masca," wh ich means "ghost . "
Innoc enc e also intim ates that a t t h e same t i m e a s doll - l i ke icons pervade trad itional cul­
tures as ubiquitous spectres, n ovel ghostly fo rms conti n ua l l y develop in tandem wi th chang­
ing media and tech nologies . Both tradi tional and contempo rary channels o f i n formation and
com munication are pe rvaded by p hantasmatic presences - or crypto-presences, as the case m ay
be . The I nternet itself could be seen as the producer and di ssem inator o f ghostly entities akin
to techno -ectop lasms .
As Jeffrey Sconce argues, the tendency to associate electro n i c channels o f commu n i ca­
tion w i th otherworldly and i ncorporeal fo rces can be traced as far back as the advent o f the
telegraph and i ts somewhat u n o rthodox marriagc to early spiritual ism . S i n ce that t i m e , he
mai ntains, Western (and especially American) culture has remained " intrigued by the capac­
ity of electro n i c media to create sovereign yet d isplaced, absent and parallel worlds" (Sconce,
p. 2 5 ) . The reason he then add uces for this enduring p ropensity to "ascribe mystical powers
to what are u l t i m ately very m aterial tech nologies" (p. 6) is that h u mans need to conceive of
each new m ed i u m as somehow al ive in order to be able to accom modate i t w i t h i n thei r par­
adigms. Endow i n g a tech nology with l atent spectral energies is a way of sym bolizing i ts al ive­
ness. In the specific case o f Innocenc e, i t could be argued that Maj o r Kusanagi represents (at
least in Batou's perception o f her ongoing legacy) the soul at the core of cyberspace - the "ghost
in the mach i ne" - and even though she is not "al ive" in any conventional sense of the word,
she is u n den iably associated w i th i m mense vitality. She thus provides the cyborg cop w i t h
t h e necessary emotional res o urces to i nteract successfu l ly with an otherwise c o l d , function­
oriented and u l t i m ately dehuman izing tech nology.
The phrase "ghost in the m ach i n e , " i ncidental ly, is used by G ilbert Ryle in T he Conc ept
of Mind (1949) to describe ( rather deris ively) the blatantly dualistic nature o f the Cartes ian
syste m , where the body is rega rded as a purely mechan ical apparatus, and the soul o r s p i r i t
p utatively dwell i n g there i n and gove rn i n g it a s an utterly incorporeal agen t. Osh i i persist­
ently refutes th is model - not only i n Innoc enc e b u t actually through o u t h i s o ut p u t - by i n t i ­
mating t h a t b o t h t h e so-called body a n d t h e so-cal led so u \ , and i n d eed both a n im a te a n d
i n a n i mate entities, partake at once o f t h e mechan ical and t h e spiritual .
ImlOc enc e capt u res s i m u l taneously the tradi tional significance of the doll icon (and o f the
cognate figures o f the mascot and the w i tch) and the contemporary ubiqu ito usness o f phan­
tasmatic presen ces w i t h i n the pervasive networks of cyberculture . The character o f the Maj o r
from Innocenc e's p requel fu nctions a s a benevolent spectral p resence, fo l l owi n g B a t o u a s a dis­
cmbodied "gu ardian angel" 2 and only briefly revis iting a corporeal dol l - l ike shell i n the fi l m's
1 12 ANIM E I NTE RSECTI ONS

climax i n o rder to assist the cyborg cop in the completion of h i s m ission . Kusanagi's deft han­
dling of cybertech nology, intended to enable Batou to b reak through Ki m's v i rtual snare , is
choreographed by reco u rse to a visual rhetoric that vividly recalls magical practices - wh ich
e l l i ptically equates the Maj o r to the other traditional figure mentioned above , that of the
w i tch .
The magical dimension is fu rther re inforced by the pro tean alchemy o f Ki m's mansion .
The i nclusion of Gothic elements is particularly i ntrigu i n g , i n this regard, given the etymol­
ogy of the term "Goth ic" and i ts attendant symbol i c connotat ions. "The wo rd ' G o th i c' , "
James Rol l i ns explains, "comes from the Greek word 'goetic . ' Wh ich translates t o 'magic . '
And such arc h i tectu re was considered magical . I t was l ike noth i n g seen a t the time : the t h i n
ribbi n g , t h e flying buttresses, t h e im possible heights. It gave an i m p ression o f weightlessness"
(Ro l l i ns, p. 406) . It is therefore not surpris i n g , given their sett i n g , that although Ki m's strat­
agems are sustained by state-of- t he-art cybernetics, they noneth eless ex ude an esoteric feel
that draws them into closer p roximity to the realm of ancient magic than to the d o m a i n o f
advanced technoscience .
Where the ningyou figu re is concerned, Innoc ence is also steeped i n trad i t i o n at t h e
specifically cinematic level , insofar as d o l l s feature i n varying shades o f p ro m inence i n n umer­
o us Japanese films. Two classics arc particularly worthy of no tice i n the p resent contex t : Akira
Kurosawa's Yume (Drea ms, 1992) and Takesh i Ki tano's Dolls (2002) . The section o f Yume enti­
tled "The Peach Orchard" shares with Osh ii's film the theme of dolls' latent aliveness . This
is poetically articulated as the dolls from a yo ung gi rl's collection come to l i fe on Hina Ma t­
su ri. Dolls is even closer to Innocence in tone insofar as it dramatizes w i th u nsettl i n g po tency
the doll's haunting powers by p resenting part of a B u n raku (puppet) show and then uncan­
n i l y i nverting the puppets /audience relat ionsh i p by hav i n g the artificial creatu res t u r n to
observe the human spectators with dispassionate eyes .
The figure of the doll supplies Osh i i with a culturally resonant symbol t h rough wh ich
qui ntessent ially h u man anxieties regarding the very mea n i ng o f the h u ma n can be fathomed.
Innoc enc e conti nually draws attention to the construction o f dolls o f various kinds as symp ­
tomatic of h u m a n beings' obsess ive proclivity t o rep l icate themsel ves . I n designing dol l s i n
their ow n i m age , h u mans ado p t a creational stance that ulti mately bears witness not r o the i r
godlike o m n i potence b u t rather t o deeply i ngrained preoccupations abo u t t h e i r own onto­
logical status . H u mans, the fi l m intimates, make dolls because they themselves feel akin to
play t h i ngs i n the hands o f a superior force which, though not necessarily malevo l e n t , i s
nonetheless callo usly indifferent t o t h e i r destiny a n d t o t h e i r p l igh t . The fab r icat ion of syn­
thetic creatures thus constitutes a pathetic attem pt by h u mans to assert their autonomy and
i n gen u i ty.
U l t i mately, we are betrayed by the a nt h ropomorp h ic entities we i nvent in order to per­
petuate our self- i m age and thus efFace, albeit transiently, o u r i n exorabl e l i m itations i n the face
of the firmament's overpowering ampl itude . This is because those creatures are meant to be
fl awless and are therefo re bound to fail us, in their supposed fu nction as p leas i n g simulacra
of actual people, fo r the simple reason that they do not capture h um a n i ty's most distinctive
trai t - namely, i m p erfection. "The h u man ," the villain Kim argues , "is no match fo r a dol l ,
i n its for m , i ts elegance i n motion , i ts very being. The i n adequacies of h u man awareness
becom e the i nadeq uacies of l i fe's reali ty. Perfection is possible only for those w it h o u t con­
sciousness, or perhaps en dowed with infinite consci ousness . In other words, fo r dolls and for
 Seven - G ho s t i n r h e S h e l l 2 1 13

gods . " Kim then i n c l udes "an imals" i n rhe l isr and corrobo rates this p roposition by pointing
out that " S helley's skylarks are s u ffused w i th a profo u n d, i nstinctive j oy. Joy we h um a n s ,
driven b y self-consciousness, c a n never know. "
The film subtly interweaves the thematic strand j ust outl i n ed with cognate speculations
abo ut the intractabl e hazi ness o f the notion of al iveness. Ki m maintains that dolls "haunt"
humans - and have indeed done so for time immemorial - because they look e m inently human ,
yet are "nothing but h um an. " They thus compel us to wonder, by implication , to what extent
creatures that appear to be alive are really alive, and the extent to which ostensibly l i feless objects
m ight actually be animate. By implication , dolls "make us face the terror of being reduced to
simple mechanisms and marter. " These troubling reflections are l argely a corollary of scienti fic
advancement : in endeavoring to explain the workings of the universe in mechanical terms, h uman
beings have unwittingly ushered i n the possibility of thei r own existence being "reducible to basic,
mechanical parts . " Ascertaining and quantifying the p recise degree to which h u man beings and
their artificial co unterparts differ becomes, at this point, i mperviously hard . (A comparably
poignant reference to the doll-like status of humans is made i n Episode 21 of the N eon Genesis
Eva ngelion television series, "The birth of NERV/He was aware that he was still a ch i l d . " ) I n the
l ight of these speculations, it is hardly surprising that visitors of dol l museums should frequently
remark on the singularly disquieting sensations evoked by the glassy-eyed exhibits. Obviously
inanimate, these creatures nonetheless exude an aura of awareness, of knowingness .
I n addi tio n , Osh i i harbors a proclivity to co uple the figu re o f the doll w i t h that o f the
dog - an aspect of h is p h ilosophy he describes thus i n the documentary suppl ied with the
a forementioned DVD :

Both were created by h u m a n s . D ogs are originally nor w i l d a n i m a l s . They h ave been captured by the
humans and made to meet their convenience. 1 fcel that the h i s tories, cult ures, a n d civil izations of h umans
are symbol ical l y represented i n the m akin g of dol l s . I n othcr words, h u m an s have been c reati n g them­
selves . They have been reproducing their own i m ages. As a res ul r , rhe world h as become worthless, and
created d isastrous h istories. There are a few beaut ifu l and decen t t h i n gs i n this world, bur I can't help to
think that rhe m ajority is IlO good [ O s h i i 2004al .

As emphasized by character designer Tetsuya Nishio, moreove r , the execution of effective

dolls requ i red a keen grasp o f the synth etic creatures' peculiar anatomies and related patterns
o f motion , which sometimes entailed ignoring the key tenets inculcated in a n i m ators fro m
t h e very begi nni n g o f t h e i r careers a s p ivotal to t h e accomplish ment o f conv i n c i n g effects . For
i nstance , the notion that human l imbs never quite move i n isolation insofa r as the entire body
is at least margi nally affected by the s h i ft o f even a s i ngle par t , o f absol u tely card i nal val ue
when i t comes to rep resenting peop le's motion , loses currency where dolls are i nvolved . Hence,
the ani mator must be prepared to neutral ize his inveterate capaci ties, and a n i mate separate
body parts i ndependently i n a fashion that could feasibly be deemed defective a n i mation i n
the handling of the h u man form .
At the same t i m e , Nishio and h i s associates had to nego tiate the con u ndru m o f how to
i n vest the dolls with exp ressiveness w i thout endow i n g them w i th naturalistic exp ressions :
"Dolls have the same shape as humans b u t they do not have facial exp ressions . I t actually
makes the key a n i mation work much tougher. Normally, when a h u m a n gets sho t , the facial
expression changes . B u t when it comes to dolls, their exp ressi o n doesn't change a bit. For a
key animator, it's diflicult to [sh ow] that a character's been shot w i t h o ut relying on the change
of her facial express ion" (Nish i o ) .
1 14 A N I M E I NTERSECTI O N S

The exten t to which the artists involved were able to i mbue the dolls w i th com munica­
tive powers without actually saturating them w i th anthropomorp h i c traits is paradigmatically
evi nced by the early sequence i n which a murdero us gynoid, hav i n g al ready assass i n ated her
owner and played havoc w i th the agents sent i n her p u rs u i t , attacks Bato u , is held a t bay by
the cyborg's en hanced arm and ends up teari ng herself asu nder after whispe r i n g a barely audi­
ble " help me . " The doll's exp ress ion remains im mutable, yet her h i ghly styl ized body lan­
gu age , h e r harmon i o u s and yet unearthly mo tion and the a u r a o f- p a radoxically
radiant - spooki n ess she evokes at every turn of the camera i mpart u p o n the creatu re a u n iq u e
degree of v i s u a l a n d dynamic consistency.
Dolls are not o n ly p ivo tal to Innoc enc e in a thematic sense , however . Osh i i is no less
com m i tted to the cultivation of self- reflexivity than other di rectors discussed in earl ier seg­
ments of this book, primarily Kon , Anno and Rintaro . What Osh i i finds i n the doll is pre­
cisely a mean s o f com menti ng from within the ci nematic tapestry on the art o f a n i mation and
on the tools i t em ploys . Innoc enc e's director is speci fically i nterested i n celebrating the mediu m's
madeness and therefo re seeks to rem ind us constantly of the const i tutional artificial i t y of a n i ­
mated characters regardless of t h e degree of realis m t o w h i c h they m a y atta i n . Even as those
characters and their environ ments become i ncreasi n gly l i felike thanks to tremendous advances
in digital technology, they are essentially artifacts and should be consciously appra ised as such .
The doll , when approached fro m this angle, epitom izes the world of a n i m e at l a rge as a rea l m
where i n heightened real ism - es pecially of the type afforded b y CG I - is never q u i te allowed
to s u p p ress the joy and toil of the construction process .
Qu ite appositely for a movie com m i tted to sel f- reflexiv ity, In noc ence uses i ts ve ry credi t
sequence , where the p roduction of a prosthetic body i s m eticulo usly docume nted, t o reflect
tangentially on the p rocess of its own maki ng. The lengthy and laborious p roduction meth­
ods adopted by Osh i i and h is team thro ughout the fo u r years o f Innoc enc e's execution is here
symbol ically replicated . The sequence opens with an allego ry of natural fer t i l izat i o n that sub­
tly paral lels the conception of the i n dividual orga n i s m and the ge n esis o f the u n i vers e . This
m icrocosm - m ac rocosm co rrespondence is represented as the p rogressive m u l t i p l ication o f cor­
puscles i nto n u m erous globular sha pes , suggestive at o nce of cells afloat i n the a m n io t i c stream
and astral bodies suspended i n cosmic i n fi nity. The p rocess leads to the emergence o f a s t u n ­
n i ngly p l astic sphere t h a t rap idly mu tates thro u gh a series o f mesmerizi n g metamorphoses .
Abetted by state-of-the-art morph ing tech nologies and an insp i red use o f constructive sol id
geometry, this part of the sequence p u rsues the m icro - m acro parallelism by caus i n g the i n i ­
tially smooth globe t o acquire fu rrows a n d i n dentations that b r i n g t o m i n d t h e i m aginary grid
of parallels and merid ians associated with the Earth , on the one hand, a n d a h ighly schema­
tized and neatly o rdered version of the h u man b rai n , on the other. No less fasc i n a t i n g are the
biomorp h i c segments and cable-like sinews (redolent of s trands o f D NA) s p ro u t i n g from this
shape as it evolves at an exponential rate before o u r eyes .
The follow i n g i mages , cen t red on an exquisitely slow-paced p a n across a mecha n i cal
s p i n al chord from which myriad nerve-l i ke fi laments emanate, arguably o ffe r some o f the
entire sequence's most unca nny moments . Emphatically arti ficial in i ts glorification o f gl ea m ­
i n g metal and pai nstaki n gly conceived microtechnology, the mechanism n o netheless comes
across as v i b rantly alive : the ci nematography is so passionately photo realistic as to i nd u ce the
viewer to believe that no object that does not actu ally exist i n the em p i rical do m a i n co uld
ever look q u i te so real . The co n fluence of the syn thetic and o rga n i c di mensions is aga i n h igh-
 Sellen - G host in the Shell 2 115

l ighted i n the following portion o f the sequence , where a meticulo usly rendered cyborg hand
is the center of attention . I ts anato m i cal stru c t u re and p roportions are u t terly consonant w i th
those of a l i v i n g h u man hand, yet i ts artificiality is th rown i n to rel ief by the p reternaturally
fl.awless textu re of i ts "ski n . " The i m p ression of constructedness is rei n fo rced as the hand t u rns
upon an invisible p i vo t , revealing its intricate mechan ical co re .
The screen then sw i tches to a com posite creature i ntensely redolent o f Bellmer's d o l l s .
T h i s entity is at fi r s t m ade to look q uite gro tesqu e b y i ts seem i ngly u neasy i ntegrati o n o f d i s ­
parate and somewhat i ncongruous segments but u nexpected l y s p l i ts i nto two , identical , doll­
l i ke fo rms, po ised as though they were each other's specular refl.ections, endowed with the
attributes o f symmetrical , harmon iously constructed and - above all - b reathtaki n gly elegant
manneq u i n s . (Th is i mage could also be seen as an u n obtrusive a l l usion to the m ass - p roduc­
tion of clone-l ike individuals i n post-cap i ta l ist dispensations . )
T h e cyborg/dol l eventually surfaces from a vortex o f radiant t h reads , i ts fetal position
em phasizi ng the creatu re's latent h u manity even as the biopo rts and cables i n i tially p u nctur­
ing i ts body operate as u neq u ivocal rem i n ders of its intractably fab ricated nature . In the clos­
ing part of the sequence, the camera focuses on the dol l 's head and face , c u l m i nating w i th an
extreme close- u p of a disturbi ngly photoreal istic turquo ise eye . The degree o f p h o to reali s m
achieved b y Osh i i's team is, i n a sense , encapsu lated b y t h i s one frame : w h a t m akes i t gen ­
u i nely u n forgettable, u l ti mately, is not s o much i t s perfection - wh ich co u l d actual ly have
become u nconvincing had it fel t too extreme - but i ts i n corporation of a peripheral element
o f i m perfection. Th is is borne out by the marginally i rregu l a r distribution and t h i ckness o f
t h e lower lashes . This effect co u l d be usefull y compared a n d contrasted w i th the re ndition o f
[ h e hero i n e's eyes i n }Ina ! Fantasy: The Spirits Within, where Aki's excess ively and u n i formly
abundant lashes partial ly give away her synthetic nat u re . I mportantly, for the p u rpose o f the
overall argument here advanced, the iconography employed i n the representation o f the hybrid
artifact is at once e m i nently Nipponic i n i ts adoption o f a h a i rs tyle a n d approach to m ake­
up readi ly associated w i th traditional Japa nese culture, and yet Western ized by i ts s u rprisi ng
choice of ocular coloration .
Them atically speaki n g , Innocence is no less firmly rooted i n Western t radition than i n
i ndigenous mythology a n d l o re . This i s borne out b y the p ro tago n ist's a l most obsessi ve ten­
dency to reflect upon thorny existential issues concern ing the essence o f h um a n i t y - and u p o n
t he possible reasons b e h ind h u mans' entrenched proclivity to perpetuate thei r i mage i n artificial
cou nterparts - by reco urse to citations and aphorism s drawn fro m sou rces as varied as Con­
fucius, Isaac Asi m o v, the Bible, Ren e Desca rtes , Jean-Luc Godard, Jakob Grim m , Jo h n M i l ­
t o n a n d Ludw ig Wittgenste i n , a s w e l l Rena issance magic and spiritual i s m . Evidence of Oshii's
appetite fo r p h i loso p h i cal speculation is fu rther consol idated by his t rea t ment o f the haunt­
i n gly charismatic persona o f the forensics lab d i recto r, Coroner H araway.
The character is named after the c u l t u ral theorist Donna H araway, whose sem i n a l work
on the cyborg figure u n questionably bears salient aHini ties with Osh i i 's own world view. Har­
away's "A m a n i festo for cybo rgs" in deed "posi ts the cybo rg body as a radical challenge to the
myth o f stable identities due to its em phasis on the i nterpenetration o f self and other. By t ra­
versing the b o u n dary between rile h u man and the mach i n e , the cyborg concu rrently disru p ts
other b i nary opposites (cul t u re/nature ; rea l i ty/appearance ; male/fe m ale) . . . . The cyborg body
i n habits a non-teleological and non-etiological u n iverse which m akes the fantasy of ret u r n ­
ing t o an Eden ic state of i nnocence q u ite irrelevant" (Cavallaro, p . 49) . I n the p h i losopher's
1 16 A N I M E I NTERSECT I O N S

own word s : "it is n o t made of mud and cannot d ream of returning to d ust" ( H araway, p. 1 7 5 ) .
The argument p u rsued by H araway's epoch-maki ng article is reso nantly echoed by Osh i i 's
sustained critique o f the u n i fied self typically glorified by l iberal h u m an i s m as a specious
my th .
Thus, wh ile d raw i n g on tradi tional sources of conco m i tantly Eastern a n d Western p rove­
n ance , Innocence also engages with a decidedly post-h uman ist v ision o f global magn i t u d e .
T h i s is encapsulated b y t h e p roposition that anthropocentric h u manism is a fallacious creed,
i nsofar as the incremental penetration of human organisms and mental i ties by tech n o logical
i nstruments, codes a n d p rostheses i nvalidates the claim to the superiority of the h u ma n species
onto which that doctrine obstinately holds. In Innocence, the d i rector's vision gives l i fe to a
world where i n mach i nes and both human and non-human ani mals u n relentingly coalesce .
Osh i i 's problematization of conventional notions of aliven ess and sentience t h ro u gh the sym­
bol o f the ningyou captures his a nt i-anthropocentric lea n i n gs with disar m i n g candor.
I n 200 5 , Bandai Entertainment released the DVD Ghost in the Shell 2: 1121zoc[l1ce - Music
Video Anthology, a collection of seven an imated music videos (" I ncubation , " "Civilizatio n , "
"Abyss," "Con fusion ," " Sabbath ," "Rum ble" and "Pathos") i ncorporating t h e gorgeous back­
ground artwork used to bring Inllocence's un iverse to cinematic l i fe, Kawai's score , addi tional j azz
pieces and the songs performed by the acclaimed j azz vocalist Kim i ko I to . As stated in the review
of the anthology supplied by The Armchair Empire, one of the collection's greatest vi rtues u nques­
tionably resi des with its ability "to showcase the most overlooked character i n Ghost in the Shell
2: Innocence, the background. Removing all of the characters that m ight evoke emotion w i th their
own p resences, we deal with only the inhuman and the backgrounds" (Tazman) .
The compilation constitutes a paradigmatic i nstance o f the phenomenon of "remedia­
tion" theorized by Jay Dav i d Bolter and Richard Grusin - namely, the p rocess whereby novel
visual media (and the artifacts associated with such media) ach ieve a certa i n cultural status
by reco nfiguring earl ier media and artifacts, and hence i nvesting them with fres h fu nctions:
"What is new abo ut new media comes from the particular ways i n which they refash i o n o l d e r
m e d i a and t h e ways i n which older m e d i a refashion themselves to answer the ch a l l e n ges o f
n e w media" (Bolter a n d Grus i n , p. 1 5 ) . On t h e one h a n d , this p rocess a mo u n ts to the rep u r­
posing of the content of one medium into another (as evinced by the adaptation for the screen
o f classic fiction) . O n the other, it consists of the transformation (th ro u gh partial d isp lace­
ment) of one med i u m into another (as exemplified by the transition from stage p ro d uction
to cinema, or from traditional painting to photography) .
The music anthology's "remediati ng" nature ren ders it especially relevant to t h i s study's
concern w ith the collusion of trad ition and innovation . I ndeed, remediation p o i nts to the pos­
s i b i l i t y o f virtually any establ ished art fo rm and v i rtually any ostensibly fi n ished p ro duct
becom ing open to creat ive metamorphoses capable of t ransla t i n g them i nt o novel fo rms o r
objects . Relatedly, remediation is i nherent i n a medium's very essence : there w o u l d be n o
med i a , Bolter and Grus i n inti mate , were remediation not constantly at work : "A m e d i u m i s
that w h i c h re m e d i ates . I t is that which appropriates the tech n i qu es , fo r m s , a n d s o c i a l
signi ficance o f o t h e r m e d i a . . . . A med i u m i n our culture c a n never o perate i n isolation , because
i t must enter into relationships of respect and rival ry with other media" (p. 6 5 ) . T h u s , the
body of artifacts - and the attendant nexus of modes of production and consumption - char­
acteristic o f a particular society can never be taken as i m m u table givens . By extensio n , trad i­
tion co u l d be said to harbor within its very fabric the seeds of i nnovation.
 Seven - G host i n t h e Shell 2 1 17

The medial relationsh i p between Osh i i 's feature film and the music anthology is partic­
ularly i ntrigu i n g insofar as i t alludes to a third possible level o f remediation . This does n o t
s i m p ly a d d up to either t h e adap tation o r t h e displacement o f o n e m ed i u m by another. I n
fact , i t i s capable o f engen deri ng a new form en dowed wi th autonomous aesthetic and tech ­
nical signi ficance through the coalescen ce of two distinct media by m eans o f a p rocess o f
hybridization. Wi th i ts i ntegration of awesome visuals capable of recreat i n g O s h i i 's vision i n
detai l and of t h e soundtrack conj u red up b y Kawai to impart l i fe and atmosphere upon them ,
the anthology co u l d i n deed be deemed not so much a supplement to , as a n alternate versi o n
of, Innocence the mov i e .
A s a work endowed with i ndependent stand i n g , t h e collection plays a n especially i m por­
tant role, i n the cu rrent context , insofar as it enables the viewer to appreciate and closely i nspect
many of the fi l m's tech n ical ly disti nctive features in a more focused and objective fashion than
the feature allows for. This is by no means i ntended as a n indictment on Innocence's techn i ­
cal qual ity - what is being p roposed, rather, is that the music v ideos enco u rage t h e spectator
to concentrate i n t i mately on the visuals themselves, and hence to reflect o n the modali t ies of
their execution and i mpact , without being distracted by plot-related compl ications a n d con­
vol u t ions, n o r i ndeed by elaborate dialogue . (Innocence was not dubbed into English prior to
either its theatrical release o r its appearance on OVO , and audiences unequipped with ful l
com mand of t h e Japanese langu age therefore depend on subtitles . These may pose a n addi­
tional encum brance , a t least upon first viewing.)
The h istory o f collaborative p roj ects bringing together Osh i i 's and Kawai's p ro l i fic i m ag­
inations is not only extensive but also studded with veritable j ewels of both a n i mated a n d
l ive-action cinema . Beside Innocence, these i ncl ude : The Red Spectacles ( 1 9 87) , Patlabor 1: The
Mobile Police ( 1 9 8 9 ) , Mobile Police Patlabor OVA 1 ( 1 9 8 8 - 19 8 9 ) , Mobile Police Patlabor TV
Series (1989-1990) , Mobile Police Patlabor OVA 2 (1990-1 992) , Stray Dog: Kerberos Panzer Cops
( 1 9 9 1 ) , Talking Head ( 1 9 92) , Patlabor 2: The Movie ( 1 9 9 3 ) , Ghost in the Shell ( 1 9 9 5 ) , Avalon
(2001) , Killers: .50 Woman (2002) and Tachigui - The A mazing Lives of the Fast Food Grifters
(2006) . As i n p revious collaborations, no efforts were avo ided and no challenges eluded i n
the generation of a composite world wherein Innocence's aco ustic a n d visual identities could
mutually enhance and sustain each other. Particularly worthy o f notice , among the many her­
culean tasks undertaken by the two artists and their versatile tro u p e , were the exacting con­
struction o f a colossal music box , accompanied by sound effects recorded in a frozen quarry
i n order to capt u re a n u n canny atmosphere of reverberant spacio usness w h i l e s i m u l taneously
evoking the icily metall ic sou rces of the melody. The lengths taken to create the fi l m's so und­
track and the related v ideo anthology are also eloquently demonstrated by the decision to
bring over seventy fol k s i n gers together i nt o a concert hal l for the pu rposes o f record i n g the
more tradi tional vocal p ieces . In assessi n g Innocence's c u m u lative effectiveness, O s h i i has
i ncontrovertibly honored Kawai's music as a vital force : "I t h i n k the sound accou nts for half
o f the mov i e . Of co u rse, vis uals are i m portan t , but they're easier to j udge than s o u n d . In that
sense , sound lets yo u expl o re more possi b i l ities" (Osh i i 2004a) .
I n the "Exclusive North American I nterv iew" wi th Kawai conducted i n April 2 0 0 5 for
i nclusion in the booklet accompanyi ng the original mov ie soundtrack, the composer has com­
mented as follows on the schedule involved i n the creation o f the score for Innocence: " The
compositions themselves took abo u t a month . Th ree maj o r parts o f the film score - the fol k
chorus, music box , a n d t h e ending so n g - each req u i red a totally d i ffe rent method o f record-
1 18 ANI M E INTERSECTIONS

i n g , so I bel ieve it took a b i t more than two months to co m p l ete . " Asked specificall y to com­
ment on "the most difficult part of worki ng on this p roject," Kawai r iposted : "For m e , this
was the first time composing fo r the music box , so i f yo u i n c l ude the p reparation period, it
took q u i te a long t i m e . B u t , i t was a lot of fu n" (Kawa i , K.) . This is p recisely what o n e wou l d
always w i s h to h e a r , when all is s a i d and done, from musicians and a n i m a to rs a l i ke .
I t cou l d i n deed b e argued that it i s from the hands of artists who are n o t a fraid o f mix­
i n g work and play that the most inspiring p roductions ensue. The "work" element is certa i n l y
tax i n g , req u i r i n g a s i t i n variably does an ability to watch o u t at a l l times fo r a n y i ndication
o f cu rrent o r p rospective trends and to keep one's aesthetic a ntennae t u n ed no less consis­
tently. However, what could easily deteriorate i nto an exhausting chore actually blossoms into
candid enjoyment once those critical ski lls are subsumed to a j oyfu l pu rsu i t of i nterm inable
experi mentatio n . T h us, no amo u n t of d rudgery ca n ultim ately erase the sheer elan ent a iled
by a creative enterprise conducted in the name of s i n cere inquisi tiveness, as well as a w i l l i ng­
ness to let the med i u m occasionally run amok even as its potential i ties a re j udicio usly rei n ed
i n by the art ist's overarch i n g vision and co mpositional rigo u r .
I n t h e fi r s t v ideo, " I ncubation - T h e Ballade of Puppets : Flowers Grieve and Fall ," w e
are p resented w i t h the equ ivalent of t h e fi l m's open i n g sequence and related score . A s m e n ­
t i o n e d earl ier, this focuses on t h e genesis of an arti ficial b e i n g com b i n i n g the m o s t sal i en t
traits of b o t h the cyborg and the dol l . T he seco nd p iece , "Civilization - River o f Crystal s ,"
u t i l izes i mages fro m the early phases of the investigation a n d from the conven ience-store i n ci­
den t , deftly j uxtaposi ng the two contrasting sides of Innocence's hybrid cityscape : a colorfu l
l u m i nosity al luding to a p rosperous a n d cheerfu l society, on t h e one h a n d , and an i mpene­
trable tenebrousness symbol izing its u nderlying corru ption and ubiquitous cri m i nali ty, o n the
other. A slow j azz a i r p rovides the connective tissue between these adversarial , yet comple­
mentary, dimensions. In the t h i rd video , "Abyss - Attack the Wakabayash i ," the grimly intri­
cate arch itectu re , at times rem i n iscent of H . R. Giger's art, o f the factory where the gyn o i ds
are equipped w i th s i m ulated "ghosts" provides the setti ng for a silent speculation abo ut the
mean i n g o f l ives thus engendered, to the accompani ment of a n appositely frosty tech n o beat .
( I n the fi l m , the factory is not explicitly b rought i nto play until the action's ful l - t h rottle cli­
max . )
T h e fi lm's p r i m ary score is again e m ployed i n t h e fo urth p iece , "Confusion - T h e Bal­
lade of Puppets : Tn a New World, Gods will Descend," where the utban architecture is endowed
with autonomous l i fe and acco rdi ngly i mbued with energies that appear to ebb and flow of
their own accord, regardless of h uman p resence and agency. I mages of the m aj estic cathedral
(rem i n i scent of the Milanese Duomo) within which Batou and Togusa l a n d upon reach ing
the v i l l a i n's city and shots fro m the parade sequence p rovide the b u l k o f the vis ual material
for th is section of the collect io n . I n the central portion o f the festival-based segment , o p u ­
lently shaded fra mes exh ibiting high ly plastic 3 D shapes are consistently i n terc u t w i th shots
o f the sternly m i n imalistic hall where the agents obtain p recious clues to Ki m's l ocation . Espe­
cially rive t i n g , from a tec h nical perspective, is the a l ternation between close-ups of the majes­
tically made- u p and attired stage performers and the hall's frostily monochromatic eeriness .
This atmosphere , i ncidentally, is graph ically heightened by an imposing wal l i nscription , exe­
cuted by hand by a C h i nese master, that co uld be regarded as an encapsulation in n uce o f
Innocence's entire p h i losophy: "Life and death come and g o l i ke marionettes danc i n g o n a
table ; once thei r strings are c u t , they easily crumble . "
 Seven - - G host in the S h e l l 2 1 19

The fi fth video, " Sabbath - The Doll House I ," p l ays the music-box harmony associ­
ated w i th Kim's nefarious schemes as the backgrou n d to the i mage o f the painting hanging
i n the o ffi ce occu pied by Aramaki , Bato u's and Togusa's boss . Thanks to a deft handl i n g of
rack focus, the spectator is slowly d rawn into the space o f the picture -- a l ush fo rest tee m i n g
with i nvisible energies - to t h e p o i nt t h a t its status a s a framed commodity is rapidly forgo t­
ten. At the same time, the hyp notic pace at which the v iewer is i m m ersed i nto the simulated
environment m i rrors the p rotagonists' unwitting absorp tion by Kim i nto h is malevolent dream
worl d . "Rumble - The Ballade of Puppets : The Ghost Awaits in the Wo rld Beyond," the sixth
p iece in the series, revisits Ki m's attempts to overpower Batou and Togusa by means o f increas­
i n gly cruel brain hacks, w i th the i r halluci natory musical backdrop. This consists of a subtly
varied vers ion o f the main score , maxi mizing to considerable dramatic effect i ts characteris­
tic i nt e rspersal o f haunti ngly beautifu l vocals, frantic dru m m i n g and clanging o f cymbal s . The
latter part of the v ideo captures the action's cli mactic moments, us i n g a markedly vigorous
rhythm i n o rder to build u p momentum and enfold the entire setting - l iving a n d i n a n i mate
entities alike - in a mood o f impending catastro p h e .
The seventh and clos i n g v i d e o , "Pathos - Follow Me," dep icts Innocence's hypothetical
aftermath against the auditory backgro und o f the fil m's theme song, i ndeed titled "Follow
Me . " S h o ts of the city's fetid and crime-infested alleys, saturated w i th a p o i ntedly n a i r fee l ,
are i ntercut w i t h im ages o f t h e fo rbiddingly sterile fore ns ics labo rato ry, and w i t h iconic rep­
resentations of n u merous p rosthetic bodies undergo i n g assemblage and p rogra m m i n g . A par­
ticularly cap tivating moment consists o f the wholly com p u ter-generated scene del i n eati n g in
a digitally encoded, amber-h ued guise the molding o f a doll from distinct geometrical p r i m ­
itives - suitably depicted a s they w o u l d in deed appear on a sophisticated monitor. The p rocess
is inspected in a veritably clin ical fashion from multiple a ngles as the camera search i ngly c i r­
cles the v i rtual body. ( I n the mov i e , this scene is n o t actually i ncl uded i n the laboratory
sequence but in a later sequence, set i n Aramaki's office , where Batou and his partner are first
briefed on their miss i o n . ) The contrasting visuals employed i n the final video elliptically i nv i te
the viewer to reflect on humani ty's fate w i t h i n a rampantly prosthetic enviro n m e n t , thus p ro ­
viding an aptly open -ended culm inatio n .
T h e two bonus v i deos i ncl uded i n t h e anthology a r e also worthy o f consideration a s fu r­
ther experiments in the art o f remediation. The firs t , "Gabri e l , " consists o f a montage o f var­
ious images fro m the fi l m in which Batou's cherished basset hound features prom i n ently, to
the accompaniment of the music-box t u n c . The second, "Settings , " uses a s i m p l e o rchestral
score punctuated by melodic echoes from "Follow Me," and focuses on the ever-changing
u rba nscape . This piece once aga i n fo regro u n ds the coexistence o f squalor and opulence, dusky
u n de rbel l i es and dazzl i n g surfaces, while also drawi n g attention to the u n relenting - tho ugh
not u n p roblematically fcl icitous -- displacement o f the old city by the n ew.
For viewers who are only appeased whe n a film comes with a generous s i de o rder o f
clari fication a n d closure, In nocence m a y wel l prove frustrat i n g . The p l o t does p rovide q u i te
lucid explanations fo r Locus S a l us's nefarious p l oys , show i n g that i n order to e ndow the
gynoids with h u ma n attribu tes that would make them more desirable as com modities, legi o n
children have been kidnapped and h e l d capt ive while their s o u l s were being d ubbed and
grafted upon the dolls' operati n g system s . It also explains the p rosthetic creatu res' malfu n c­
tioning as the resu l t of a p rogrammer's deliberate i n fusion i nt o their ghosts o f a gli tch intended
to trigger aberrant conduct , draw attention to the d o lls' p lace o f o rigi n a n d, eventual ly, lead
1 20 ANIMl: IN TERSECTI O NS

to the core o f the company's sin ister secrets . Nevertheless, these elucidations do n o t - and
i n deed are not meant to - s upply a comprehensively reparatory finale .
The i mages we are left with, at the very end, are those of Togusa, at last reu n i ted w it h
his beloved daughter, a n d of Batou holding h i s treasu red p e t . Neither character c a n con fidently
indulge in these p recious moments of peace . Togusa will never be able to s u p p ress his deep­
seated anxieties concer n i n g h i s safety as a special agent and he nce the secu rity o f his fam i l y ;
t h e warmth he experiences at t h e e n d of t h e fi l m is i nevitably p recarious. Where B a t o u i s con ­
cerned, the only truth h e conclusively possesses i s the knowledge o f u n relievable isolation . As
the engulfing night sky closes in on the cyborg and his hound, we , too , are drawn into a world
where havens, i f at all attainable, are by definition ephemeral and h u man interaction , i f at all
entertainable, i nexorably c u l m i nates i n loneliness .
 EIGHT

Apples eed

When the main character of a story is computer-generated, it used to be difficult for the audience
to get emotionally involved with them. There was 110 title that succeeded in that regard. So, in the
process ofmaking Appleseed, disclJ1!crillg how the audience could empathize with the characters was
the key. That's where we wanted to foms - and it was lJery challenging. - r" mihiko Sori
Realism is /Jery hard to define. Realism is supposed to portray the real "thing, " but of course,
what is "rea!"? A lid so the incorporation of realism ill anime is all issue. A nimation is able to por­
tray all things so there is a lot of information that you need to both abbreviate and exaggerate in
the cinematography. The jim ofdoing animation is that you can create the imagery thllt you have
ill you r mind, whatever it might be. - Shinji A ramaki 2005

Appleseed is based on the ma nga o f the same title by Masamune S h i row - a work which,
right from its original p u b l icatio n , has been regarded as a m i l estone in the h istory o f the
mediu m . Like the vast maj o rity o f S h i row's oeuvre, Appleseed combines various aspects o f the
mecha and cyberpu n k genres , with a generous dosage o f philosoph ical , p o l i tical a n d socio­
logical speculation deftly i nserted into the cocktail . Book One, Appleseed: The Promethean Chal­
lenge, was originally p u b l ished i n Japan i n 1 9 8 5 , and rap idly fo llowed by Book Two , Appleseed:
Prometheus Unbound, Book Three, Appleseed: The Scales ofPrometheus, i n 1 9 8 7, a n d by Book
Fo ur, Appleseed: The Promethean Balance, i n 1989. The American run o f S h i row's m a n ga began
i n 1 9 8 8 with a five-volume series fo r the comic-book label Ecli pse I nternational . As of today,
Appleseeas popularity has escalated to record levels, i ts grap h i cs and n arrative being w i dely
regarded as one o f S h i row's most glorious accompl ishments . The series' p ro tago n ists them­
selves have risen to the status o f venerated icons among manga and anime fans of d i fferent
generations .
The manga was adap ted i n OVA (Original Video An i mation) for m at i n 1 9 8 8 by di rec­
tor Kazuyoshi Katayam a , yielding an entertainingly fast-paced but techn ically quite u n remark­
able piece of ani mation , bligh ted by unappealing character designs, that regrettably m i n i m izes
the intellectual import of S h i row's graphic o p us in favor o f formulaic action sequences . S h i ­
row was d i l i gently con s u l ted on S h i nj i Aramaki's 2 0 0 4 adaptati o n , a s w e l l a s actively involved
in the mappi n g out of its conceptual gro u ndwork . The d i rector has described S h i row's rol e
i n t h e movie's p re-production stages a s follows :
Shirow was i nvolved w i th working Ollt the scenario, and we met several t i m es to exchange i deas, bur he
said that he was going to l eave the mov ie to the staff and he woul d not be giv i n g li S d i rections a n d tel l i ng

121
1 22 A N I M E INTE RSECTI ONS

us not to do t h i s and that k i n d of t h i n g . He would let the schedule evolve on i ts own accord, and he would
p retty much stay u n i nvolved . I 'm sure, hav i ng seen what we completed, he m ay have had much to say. He
told me that h e was satisfied with the work that I had done on i t , so I am very happy to h ave gotten that
evaluation from him [Aramaki 2004aJ .

The manga artist was i ndeed u n reservedly enthusiastic abo ut the final product a n d i ro n i ­ �

c a l as t h i s may s o u n d iss u i n g from t h e l ips of a comic-book artist del ighted to s e e h i s work

�

translated i n to a p red o m i n antly 3 D un iverse .

S h i row h i mself h as qual i fied his response to Aramaki's fi l m i n a "Message" p u b l ished
aro u n d the t i m e o f Appleseeds theatrical release (thereby also supplying some acute reflections
on the essence of Japanese aesthetics) :
The h istory of u s i n g i l l ustrated p ictures to exp ress l i fe , albeit more p r i mi ti ve, goes back fu rther than that
o f using film to record i t . But now, the formcr i s catchi n g up to the latter, as t h e cumulative effect of
advances i n computer graph i cs tech nology are finally shedding the shackles that h ave h i ndered the art of
telling stories w i t h ill ustrated mov ing pictures (standard cel ani mation i s fraught with l i m i tations) . Yet
computer graph ics is a double-edged sword : by allowing the creator to express w i t h a brush wh a t more
closely i mi tates h i s or her i m agi nation, the v iewer is i ncreas i ngly deprived of the joy of using h i s or h e r
o w n i magination to fi l l i n the gaps.

However , these reservations regarding digital tech nology's potentially res tricting agency have
not h indered the manga artist from welcoming its i n novative capab i l ities, and passionately
p rofessi n g his intention to advance its aesthetic cause :
Once, when I was wo rki ng on an a n imation project , I spoke up about the tremendous advantages tha t I
fcl t 3D computer graphic backgrounds m ight have to offer. At the time, my comments were unusual . For
my part , i t was just the i n fl uence of my playing Doom. l O n more recent a n i mation projects, I made the
argument for the need for 3 D characters and mecha - aga i n , comments that stuck out l i ke a sore thumb.
The reason was to m ake i t possible to freely move characters and mecha within sp ace . For so long, we've
been on the sideli nes, d i stant onlookers witnessing the great strides that fi l m med i a h ave achieved . But
now, a n i m ated i m ages are fi n al l y heading i n a d i rection that m atches my own ideals [Sh i row J .

Accordi n g to p ro ducer Fumih iko Sari , also a com p u ter a n i mator o n James Cameron's
Tita nic ( 1 9 97) , what attracted the creators of the 2004 movie most potently to S h i row's orig­
inal manga was i ts "sheer density" and "expansive world view . " Also appeal i n g was the artist's
depiction of the story's female lead as already "an i mated " even befo re being t ransposed to the
screen (Sari) . The trai ts highl ighted by Sari are emphatically cultivated in the version o f the
story developed by Aramaki and his troupe. This is set i n the year 2 1 3 1 , in the aftermath of
an apocalyptic war that has left i n its wake a scorched a n d desolate planet beyo n d hope o f
reconstruction. Like several other su rvivors, t h e p rotagonist , Dellnan Kn ute, is u n aware that
the war is over and wanders the wastelands alone, occasionally exhi b i t i n g i m p ressive martial
skills in her con frontations with other bel eaguered humans and legion nzecha-armored foes .
I n the course of a particularly hazardo us skirmish p resented at the beg i nn i n g of the fi l m , she
is ambushed by robotic p redators a m i d the cru mb l i n g remains o f a n old m etro p o l is that
" i m medi ately b r i n gs to m i n d , " as M i kh a i l KO ll l ikov has n o ted, " C rozny o r Fal l uj ah"
( Ko u l i kov) . Deunan is about to be conclusively va nquished j ust as a heavily armed helicop­
ter and an assault team materialize out of the blue (or rather the murk) and nonchala ntly
q uash the mechan ical aggressors . The heroine is the reafter captured by her rescuers and con­
veyed to Olympus, a futu ristic utop i a .
Tech nically, t h e opening (pre-credit) sequence is characterized b y a n i magi n at ive use of
b u l let-time tech nology. This rel ies on the implementation of slow motion to i m part a comic-
 Eight-Appleseed 1 23

book feel to the action while also allow i n g the director to move the camera at regul a r speed .
I n p ragmatic terms, b u l let-time tech n ology depends on two motion cameras p l aced at the
begi n n i n g and at the end o f the shot , and on several still cameras eve n l y sp read berween the m .
The mot ion cameras are rol led and the s t i l l cameras are fired i n rap id seque nce , one after the
other, to p roduce a chain o f i m ages i n which the point o f view s h i fts aro u n d the performer.
The still pictur e s are then i m p o rted i n to the co m p uter sequ e n t i a l l y a n d i n te r p o l a t i o n is
deployed i n o rder to create additional frames between the avai lable p i c t u res and thus engen­
der a seamless blend .
Olympus, i t grad ually trans p i res, is the seat of a new global government that managed
to fill the vac u u m left beh i n d by the war as a result o f the lack of any clear v ictors . The city's
atmosphere is one o f pervasive seren i t y and h armony, which t u rns out to be due to the fact
that h a lf of Olymp us's popu lace consists o f " B ioro i ds," a genetically engi n eered species w i t h
a l i m i ted l i fe s p a n and a b u i l t - i n - tho u gh rescindable - i n a b i l i t y to rep roduce . Devoid o f
human beings' destructive emotions, t h e Bioroids have b e e n designed p recisely i n order t o
serve humanity b y i n s t i l l i n g benevo l ent a n d peacefu l energies i n to Olym p u s . S h ortly a fter
her arriva l , Deunan discovers that she has been fo rcibly recru i ted to join the city's ES.WA.T
(Extra Special Weapons and Tactical) tea m . One may legit i mately wonder why a utopia should
need an ES.W.A.T. The film suggests, w i th disarm ing s i nceri ty, that the a nswer to this ques­
tion is horribly simple : i n s p i te o f its su perficial peace , Olym pus is actually riven by hatred
and mistrust . Especially m i l i tant and b igoted factions w i t h i n the regular h u m a n armies, in
particular, fear and resent their B i o roid cou nterparts and w i l l stop at n o t h i n g in order to gai n
unchal l e n ged dom i nance over the ci ty. 2
Taken to t h e Olympus Legislature b y t h e Bioroid Hitom i , t h e hero i ne is i nt rod uced to
the counci l , an ensemble of seven wise Elders who engage i n a p rocess of ongo i n g "conver­
sation" with a superco m p u ter known as "Gaia," the city-state's AI b ra i n . D i rect responsibil­
i t y fo r the p rotection o f Gaia, u nder constant th reat from violation by the anti-Bioroid rebels
led by General Uranos and Colonel Hades o f the "Regular Olym p u s Armed Forces , " rests
with the profou ndly charis matic senior Rioroid Athena and her right hand Nike. Unfortu­
nately, the Elders themselves harbor a h idden agenda, the i r u l ti mate o bj ective being the total
annihi lation o f h u m a n i t y and its replace ment by Bioroids. This, we grad ually d iscove r, i s to
be acco m p l ished by u n locking the synthetic creatu res' latent reproduct ive capab i l i ties a n d
p reventing h u mans themselves from pro pagating.
Before she even knows it, Deunan is hauled into a nefarious struggle that requ i res her
to contend with swarms o f increasingly u nscru p ulous and m a n i p u lative o p p onents so as to
p rovide Athe na with "Ap p l eseed" - the key to the salvation o f the h u m a n species . In the
p rocess, the pro tagonist is also fo rced to confront her own personal demons, as traumatic
childhood memories are reactivated by current eve n t s . In a disqu i e t i n gly c h o reographed
sequence , Deunan d iscovers that her own mother had been the i nventor o f B i o roid tech n o l ­
ogy and refused to s u rrender control o f i t to the Elders , as a res u l t o f w h i c h she h a d been
assassinated by the council's e missaries -- an act which Deunan had w i t n essed and then v i g­
orously rep resse d . (Th is sequence w i l l be examined i n some depth later i n the chapte r . ) I n
her mission , D e u n a n i s aided by a small b u t loyal army, co nsisting o f her fo rmer lover a n d
com rade-in-arms Rriareo s , who is n o w a cyborg w ith a 7 5 % mechan i cal body ; H itom i , w h o
h a s developed deep affection towards the human soldier ; and the i n ge n i o u s weapons des i gner
Yosh i . Throughout the adve ntu re , a ta n tal izi n g so u n d t rack com b i n i n g the varied talents o f
1 24 ANI M E INTERSECTI ONS

Boom Boom Satelli tes, Basement Jaxx , Ryu ich i S akamoto and Pau l Oaken fol d cont r i b u tes
significantly to the action's develo p i n g momentu m .
On t h e thematic plane, AppLeseed fu nctions preva i l i n gly a s a cau tionary tale w i t h Fa us­
tian h ubris at i ts hub. The sto ry does not attempt to deb u n k the val ue of idea l i s m a priori,
conced i n g , in fac t , that drea m i n g about a better future is a respectable exercise . What it ass id­
uously commu n i cates, however , is a wa rn i n g about the dangers that loom over the overa m ­
bitious strivi n g fo r perfectio n . Accord i n gly, t h e fi l m bravely eschews s i m p l istic utopian v i s i o n s
and t h e i r customary rhetoric , b y subjecting t h e futuristic u n iverse o f O l y m p u s to u nsenti­
mental scrutiny. In so doi n g , Appleseed i nti mates that a world overflowi n g w i th the b o u nties
o f p rogress may simultaneo usly b reed the cancer of rep ressive dogmatism i n its m idst . The
dubious version of utopia brought to trial by Aramaki's mov i e, Aaron H. Byn u m contends,
could be said "to plague fo u r fields of i n terest" at once : n a m ely, those o f " Self, Emoti o n ,
Knowledge , a n d . . . Enviro n ment . " A l l of these areas of l i fe "un less m a naged properly h ave
the potential to i n activate h u man will . " At the level of the self, the utopian thrust refers fun ­
damentally t o the yea rn i n g for "personal glory. " This procl ivity is a d i rect corollary o f Olym ­
p us's societal makeup :

I n a city as magn i ficent as Olympus. it becomes clear that a l ack of con fl i c t , or rather, a l ack of concern
for divers i t y fuds person al asp i rations . U nderstandably, the goal of any i n d i v i d ual w i s h i n g to make a
d i fference i n the world is also the goal of an i n d iv idual so corrupt as to generously neglect all that is true
and j ust for that wh ich i s merely superfluous. This is the most personal puzzle p iece o f societal p e r fect i o n ,
where i n one h a s t h e potent ial to become so engaged i n h i s or her o w n ach ievcment s t h a t i t s u d d e n l y
becomes p a i n ful to d ivert any attent ion to anyth i n g perccived as l e s s reward i ng .

The obvio us repercussion of this attitude is a callous n eglect for all those citizens whose
agency is deemed redu ndant to the quest fo r self-glorification and solipsistic advancement .
The Hobbesian dictum "homo homini Lupus" succ i n ctly encapsulates such a state of affairs.
Wh ile the " Utopia of Emotion" may at first be seen as a welcome corrective for t h i s ruth­
less and rapacious p u rsu it of self-aggrandizement , being i n p r i n c i p l e gro u nded on "respect"
and "compassion" towards others, i t easily degenerates i nto an exten s i o n o f t h e " Utopia of
Self" : the " Utop i a of Emotion is sought when an i ndividual weathers the o rd i n a ry to become
extraordi nary ; howeve r , i n doing so loses the altruistic fo undation o f his act o f gen e rosi t y. . . .
An excess rel igiosity o f Emotion . . . has the ab i l i t y t o evolve into a senseless a n d ambitious
search for a h igh on admiratio n . " At this p o i nt , sel fl e ssness actually amou nts to l i ttle more
than a t h i rs t for worsh i p p i n g recognition. I ntimately tied i n with both forms o f u t o p ian ide­
ology del i neated above , the " Utop i a of Knowledge" p ivots on a totali tarian "co ntrol o f i n fo r­
mation" whereby power is ulti mately coterm i nous with the degree to which the d o m i n a n t
classes choose to divulge knowledge or else occlude i t from t h e i r s u bj ects i n order to perpet­
uate their u ncontested ascendancy. Concomitantly, the rul i ng powers themselves risk beco m ­
i n g blinded b y their l ust for knowledge , m istaking t h e mere possess ion o f data w i th gen u i n e
wisdo m . F i n a lly, t h e " Utopia of Environ ment" poi nts t o a del usional creed that seem i ngly
asp i res to ach ieve "a workplace, natural world, and/or j udicial structure that are idea l " and
i n exorably conceals, in so do i n g , that such an asp iration is plagued by m e ndacit y : "It is the
p retending of a relationsh i p , a social system , or o f a circumstance to be perfect which often
i ncl udes the neglect o f said relationshi p's, social system's, or circu msta nce's i m perfections . "
As t o the reasons for which a fecund metropolis bathed i n buco l i c composure s h o u l d
nonetheless harbor terrorism and cri me, Byn um advocates t h a t those s u bvers ive forces "serve
 Eight-Appleseed 1 25

as a balancing p o i n t for Olymp us's public se rvants ," ful fi l l i n g the "function o f gro u n d i n g
those public servants firmly to t h e reality t h a t they seek t o p reserve" (Byn u m 2 0 0 5 b) . T h i s
argu ment is i ntensely redolent o f P a u l B rown's speculations regardi n g t h e essential nature o f
colonial a n d post-colonial dispensations. Central t o B rown's argument is t h e p roposition that
colon izers constantly - and endlessly - need to renew the i m age o f the colon ized as a n overtly
or l atently th reatening p resence i n o rder to legitim ize thei r own strategies o f p rogram matic
repression and exp l o i tati o n . The moment the colonized were to appear harmless , j usti fyi n g
their s ubj ugation would become i m possible ( B rown) . Likewise, the "pu b l i c servants" Byn u m
speaks o f feel compelled t o p reserve a potentially destabi lizing element w i t h i n the c i ty-state's
fabric quite s i m p ly in o rder to go on asserting their rightfu l n ess as rulers, and hence i m p l ic­
itly denying the plausib i l i ty of authentic democracy.
In engagi n g with the ideological and ethical preoccupations del i n eated in the p reced i n g
paragraphs, Appleseed methodically del ivers a trenchant c r i t i q u e o f t h e very concept o f uto p i a
upon which Olympus's entire civilization is supposed t o rest . Portrayi ng u t o p i a a s a n i ntractably
ambiguous and i m p l icitly h ubristic notion at both the collective and the individual levels, the
film intimates that the p u rs u i t o f over- ideal ized projections of p o l itical stab i l i t y, personal suc­
cess, emotional gratification and - ultimately - o m niscience is doomed to degenerate into
utter self-destructiveness.
Whereas i n i ts treatment of postapocalyptic anxieties and fears Appleseed thematically
reverberates with both Eastern and Western motifs, its affective emphasis on the v i rtue o f loy­
alty - and on the related pri nciples o f group aHil iation and sel fless conduct - strikes its roots
in an emi nently Japanese eth ical code that can be traced back to ancient times. The movie's
debt to tradition is also grou nded in a speci fically Western heritage , h oweve r : "Olympus,"
"Athena," " N i ke , " " Ga i a , " " Uranos" and " H ades" are by no means the sale references to C l as­
sical civilization contain ed i n the film. In fac t , Appleseed is peppered t h ro ugho u t w i th ger­
mane allusions to G reek mythology, not only in i ts choice o f character and p lace designations
but also in i ts elaboration o f architectu ra l , ornamental and vestimentary styles . The c ity-state
as a whole is symbolized by a twi n structure comprising "Tartaros" and " Daidalos," the edi fices
wherein Olymp us's legislature and adm i n i stration operate . A detailed study of the storyboards
and model sheets executed in the p l anni n g of Appleseed instantly reveals a mesmerizi n g pro­
fusion o f Classical allusions, many of which feasibly go u nheeded i n the co u rse o f the actual
view i n g but subl i m in ally com mu n icate an extraordi narily coherent graph i c vision. Moreove r ,
several panoramic sequences designed to h ighligh t Olymp us's v i s ual u n iqueness i n t h e con­
text of an otherwise charred Earth are rendered i n an emphatically Aegean palette .
It is also noteworthy, i n this regard, that the fi l m consistently i nvokes chromatic con­
t rasts that serve to differentiate the polis allegorically fro m the rest of the wor l d . For a sub­
stantial portion of the action , Olympus's unfail ingly sap p h i re skies, emerald gardens, glittering
h ighways and elegant towers are starkly contrasted with the war- ravaged zones, where the dom­
inant palettes range from mu ted through sombre to undil utedly tenebrous h ues, and not a
s i n gl e b u i l d i n g or monument stands i ntact. (The i mage o f the disintegrati n g - yet still eerily
beautifu l - rel igious statue shown at one one point i n the open i n g sequence encapsu lates this
mood with great exp ressive poignance . ) Sandy tones evocative o f a hostile mood o f barren­
ness are also employed i n the dep iction o f the simulated battle sequence played out by D eu ­
nan's new emp loyers to test her ski l l s . Nevertheless, eve n Olymp us's j oyfu l l u m i nosity is
eventually exposed as a vap i d m i rage . When i t becomes patent that beneath the glea m i n g sur-
1 26 AN I M E I NTERSECTI O N S

face o f its soari n g edifices , a plot is being hatched l i kely to p recipi tate the fu turistic c i ty-state
i nto a quagm i re o f an archy and violence, the scenery changes drastically. Torrential rain and
suffocati n g darkness rudely displace the former brill iance, wordlessly s uggesti n g that what l ies
at the heart of the story, fo r all its v isual sumptuo usness, is an uncomp ro m i s i n g exp l o ration
o f humanity's i n nate bell icosity. It is at this point that Appleseed also succeeds in co m m u n i ­
cati ng most harrow i ngly t h e idea that anim ation is n o t necessarily o r i ndeed p r i m a r i l y
� �

" kids' stuff. "

The sorts o f color contrasts used for the arch i tectu ral settings are also i n voked b y cos­
tume design i n order to h ighlight a character's most sal ient persona l i ty t raits o r to signal broad
s h i fts of tone in the action . Chromatic effects undoubtedly play a central part i n the rep re­
sentation of Athena's and Nike's o utfits someth ing Jean-Paul Gaultier could conceivably h ave
�

assembled fo r Luc Besson's The Fifth Element ( 1 9 97) with th e i r eccentric blend of fu tu ris­
�

tic audaci ty and n eoclassical deco r u m . As far as the hero ine is concerned, i t is particu larly
notable that the m i l i tary version of Deunan seen i n the opening scenes, appropriately garbed
in classic fatigue gear, gives way to a peace-time i ncarnati o n o f the character as she begi n s to
settle i n Olym pus that is sartorially defined by an u ltra-bright o range s u i t . Paradoxically, it
is i n this costume that the hero i n e engages in one o f the entire mov ie's most exp l icitly b reath­
taki ng fight sequences, as she confronts some of the scariest cyborgs ever to have made i t to
the big screen . These entities, incidental ly, a re rendered especially lethal by the i nsertion i n
practically every part o f their bodies o f h ighly soph isticated p rosthetic weapons, such a s syrin ge
needles capable of shooting o u t of their fingertips and monofil ament w i res capable o f grab­
bing and disab l i n g even the most fo rmidable opponents from a considerable distance .
I n articulating its m u lti-faceted visual rhetoric w i t h colorfu l flamboyance , Aramaki's
remake o f Appleseed does not, however , i n dulge i n theatrical ity as an end i n itself. In fact , it
does ample j ustice to the speculative and psychological complexity o f S h i row's origi n al m a n ga .
This i s most notable i n the fi lm's dramatization o f the painful p rocess through which D e u ­
nan a n d Briareos, alienated from each other by t h e latter's portentous transfo rmation , grad­
ually reestablish and eventually even deepen - their erstw h i l e i ntimacy and m u tual respect .
�

I t must be stressed, i n th is regard, that the manga series itself introduces Briareos from the
start as being al ready a cybernetic orga n is m , living w ith Deunan outside Olym p u s . Aramaki
altered th is aspect o f the original story specifically to add pathos to the u n folding o f the two
characters' mutual feeli ngs upon becoming reu n i ted after a protracted separatio n . " I wanted
to emphasize the dramatic aspect of the relationsh ip between Oeunan and Briareos," the d i rec­
tor explains, "so I bega n the story w ith them being separated" (Aramaki 2 0 04a) .
It is arguably for its tech n ical novelty, however , that Appleseed has received most o f i ts
n u m erous accol ades . Irs eclectic hybridization of tradi tional a n i me i ndeed fuses 2 0 method­
ologies and 3 D eGI i n utterly u n p recedented ways , usheri ng i n a style known as " 3 D Live
A n i m e . " As noted, Aramaki and his team were drawn most powerfully to S h i row's work by
its cornucopian rich ness and i ntricacy, compel l i n gly borne O llt by the astonish i n g abu ndance
of meticulously detailed machines, robots, cyborgs , vehicles and firearms mushroo m i n g o u t
o f practically every page . I t was precisely the textural solidity o f t h e world dep icted i n the
original manga, moreover, that i nduced the anime director to turn h is attention to 3D eGI
as idea l ly s u i ted to i ts depiction.
An unequ ivocal tri u m p h , on this front , consists of the "Mobile Fortress" (a . k . a . " Mu l ­
t i ped G u n Platfo r m" ) , a m u l t i -legged arch i tectural monstro s i t y m a d e u p o f m y r i a d co-
 Eight-Applesced 1 27

articulated parts designed by mecha ge nius Atsushi Takeuch i . The construct cons ists of bat­
tery u n its equi pped with a n intricately detailed ra il gun control led by Gaia and several gun
t urrets . Normally stationary, the metal lic brute becomes o m i n o usly mobile i n extreme emer­
gencies, using its six legs to perambu late at w i l l . The a Hi n ities which this o m i nous stru c t u re
bears to both the satanic " S team Castle" i n Katsuh iro Otomo's Steam boy and the magician's
errant abode in H ayao M iyazaki's Howl's Moving Castle i n vite potentially intriguing com par­
ative analyses for any v iewer interested i n the integration of 3 D CGr with traditional a n i ma­
tion tech niques . O ther rem arkable mecha feats showcased by Appleseeds action sequences are
the various p ieces o f both ground and air equ ip ment used by ES.W.A.T a n d the i r antago­
n ists : fo r exam p l e , the " Landmate ," a combat battle suit that endows its wearer w i th p reter­
natural s peed and s u p pleness; the "Gatlink Tan k," a ten-wheel armored veh icle ; and the "Tilt
Rotor , " a transport ai rcraft akin to a giant helicopter. Three-D CG r played a vital ro le i n the
real ization of all these m achines.
Appleseeds cutti ng-edge di mension w i l l shortly be retu rned to . What should first be
noted is that des p ite h i s mon u ment a l rel iance on digital tech nology, Aramaki endeavored to
preserve all the most cherished fea t U res o f traditional Japanese animation. For one t h i n g , the
penn i n g o f the script was fol lowed - as is the case with tradi tional cel a n i mation - by the
execution o f hi ghly descriptive storyboards , the autonomous aesthetic value o f which glori­
o usly demonstrates the a n i mators' artisanal skills. An u n fl i nch ing com m i tment to the hand­
drawn 2 0 i mage is also attested to by the many character and mechan ical designs i n tended
to translate S h i row's frames i nto fi l mable objects while reta i n i n g the m a nga's un ique feel and
multi-layered rich ness . The d i rector h i mself, whose backgro u n d is i n mecha design , chan­
nelled at least two t h i rds o f the overall amo unt o f time - and energy - which he devoted to
the p roject into the man ual execution of p u nctiliously refined models.
Arguably the most eloquent testament to Appleseeds tenacious allegiance to manually
executed graph ics - alongside the motion p i cture itself, o f co u rse - comes from the Appleseed
Complete Book - Prometheus A1ontage, a volume docu menti ng the construction o f the fi l m
with reference n o t only t o l avishly reproduced frames organ ized in chronological o rder b u t
also , a n d perhaps more impo rta ntly, t o rep rod uctions o f black-an d-wh ite sketches o f the key
characters and locations. Audie nces m ay feel that they could never get to know Delman , Hit­
omi, Briareos or Athena better by any means other than the movie itself, given i ts profusion
of i ntensely tactile deta ils and atmospheric palpab i l i ty. Cur i o usly eno ugh , however , i t is by
closely i nspect i n g the s partan , yet meticulous, graph i c work contai ned w i t h i n the covers o f
t h e Prometheus Montage book and abso r b i n g its l i near s o p h i s t i cat i o n , grace a n d l a t e n t
dynamism that those ( a n d other) characters' i ntrinsic vi tal ity and disti nctive personal i t ies
manifest themselves most forc ibly.
As the eye travels across various sketches of the hero i n e , fo r exam p l e , one finds that
different costumes and rel a ted accessories, details o f which are o ften reproduced sepa rately i n
o rder t o supply add i tional visual i n formation , are consistently matched b y relevant s h i fts i n
posture a n d exp ress ion. Thus, a hlack-an d-wh ite draw i n g o f Deunan i n ful l combat mode
tends to be accompan ied by appropriately feisty hody- language ma rkers and facial exp res­
sions. The same character garbed in snazzy u rban cloth i n g , conversely, exudes an a u ra of art­
less glamor, while a s i l h o uette of Deunan wearing s i m p l e u n dergarments com m u n i cates a
mood of casual relaxation. The sheer energy emanated by such images is aston ish i n g , con­
s ideri ng the i n controve rtibly static nature o f the medium i n which they a re rendered . The
1 28 A N I M E I NTERS ECTI O N S

character designs are also very effective i n their recording o f the passage o f t i m e over the fab ­
r i c of a s i n gle person a's face a n d body. S ketches of Athena p rovide an especially stri k in g case
in p o i n t . The contrast between the younger version (co i nciding w ith Athena at the time of
Oeunan's mother's death) and the older version ( pertai n i n g to her current role) is conveyed
t h ro u gh the addition to the mature Athena of see m i ngly marginal d i fferen ces a few expres­ �

sion l i nes, a gently accentuated sense of presence that work powerfully p recisely by v i rtue
�

of their unobtrus iveness .

The urban montages contained in the Prometheus vol u m e are the most ex h i laratingly
demanding visual texts one could dream of. Patient and p rotracted scrutiny is i n deed the
i nevitable p rerequisite to a grasp of their dizzying proliferation o f edi fices, monu ments, p l azas,
boulevards, domes, arches and turrets not to mention a plethora of arch i tectural appendages
�

whose fu nctions are at t imes obvio us, at others amb iguous and at others downright u n fath­
omable.
Aramaki and his team were especially concerned with creat ing com p u ter-gen erated char­
acters with whom the audience could ge n u i nely em pathize, aware that the average a n i m e
viewer would be disaffected b y t h e appearance of glari ngly digitized figu res . T h i s obj ective
led to the creation of u tterly original characters that are concu rrently invested w i th p h o to re­
al istically plastic m asses and visibly conto u red silho uettes faithfu l to the traditional styl e . F u r­
thermore , though convinced that 3D CGI were best suited to the rep resentation o f S h i row's
world (as argued earl ier) , Ara maki still felt that the essence of indigenous a n i mation a n d �

art i n general lies w i t h 2 0 graphics . Exa m i n i n g t h e reasons fo r h is des i re to rem a i n loyal

�

to the 2 0 cel-based element o f anime, Aram aki has i nvoked the hold o f a specifical ly Japa­
nese "sensibil ity" and attendant approach to "design" as the guidi n g " l egacy. " In using " 3 - D
CG , " he therefo re "wanted t o somehow incl ude that essence" (Aramaki 2 0 0 5 ) . Hence , the
director came to see the perpetuation of the traditional element as a n incontrovertible aes­
thetic and eth ical i m perative . Sh i row confirms this idea i n the a fo rementioned "Message , "
where h e explicitly m a i ntains that " M r . Sori a n d Mr. Aramaki have chosen ' live 3 D a n i m a­
tion' to take the u tmost adva ntage of the Japanese m i l ieu o f compositio n : the tech n iques o f
symbolic representation fo und i n cel ani mation and puppet theatre , a n d the c u l t u ral g ro u n d ­
i n g i n m e t i c u l o u s c o m p o s i t i o n fo und even i n stage drama u s i n g h u m a n actors (such a s
Kabuki) " (Shirow) .
I t took a considerable amount of time and effort to arrive at the tech n ical formula even ­
tually adopted i n the execution of Appleseed. A s the experi ment developed, t h e d i rector dis­
covered the fu ndamental nature of the animational style which he sought to perpetuate and
synthesize with the p ioneeri ng component. Aramaki has com mented on the p rocess a n d on
i ts o u tcomes :

I wanted to h ave characters that one would feel comfortable with and so the style you see i n t h e movie i s
the one that we settled o n , so to s p e a k , i n this process. I fel t that this w as a type of approach that the Japa­
nese a n i mation was still fam i l i a r with and would not feel too foreign or uncomfortable w i th . . . . As far as
the Japanese a n i m ation genre is concerned, j ust because i t's traditionally 2D and because this i s a 3D
-

CG film - doesn't mean that Appfeseed doesn't fit. I bel i eve that the film i s s p i ri tually i n l i n e with a n i me
i n general . It i s , i n a sense, a new type of a n i mation , which I bel i eve w i l l be able to spread aro u n d t h e
w o r l d while s t i l l p reserv i n g its Japanese essence [Aramaki 2005 ] .

"Toon Shading" was the p ivotal cutting-edge tool brought into p l ay t o i nvest C G char­
acters with an u n m istakably cel - l i ke look (hy rendering 3 D C G l i nto 2 0 i mages) . " Toon
 Eight-Ap p leseed 1 29

Shader characters , " accord i n g to CG di rector Yasu h i ro Otsuka , "are watched as symbols by
the audience . It is easier to get empathy. Toon Shader characters are more modern than real­
istic CG characters" (Otsuka) . While giving l i fe to CG person ae that wo u l d convincingly i m i ­
tate old-school a n i m e types , yet move more or less l ike "real " peop l e , Aramaki 's team also
resorted to software i nclusive of highly advanced fac i l i ties fo r the ren d i t i o n of u n usually
expressive faces, the accurate mapp i n g o f vo ice recordings over their respective characters and,
most crucial ly, the production o f photoreal istic perspectival adj ustments . These were m ade
possible by a "conto ur-renderin g" digital tool that co uld alter the t h ickness , refinement and
prominence o f i ndividual l i nes i n accordance with a character's distance ftom the camera .
Conto u rs were also occasionally used i n the rep resentation o f p i eces of mach i nery (alth o u gh
these were customarily rendered i n an essentially photorealistic fash i o n ) i n o rder to make
them more consonant with the characters i n their vicinity.
On the cutting-edge fron t , Appleseed asserts itsel f as one of the first Japanese a n imations
to approximate l ive-action cinematography by v i rtue o f i ts adoption o f a 2 4 - frames-per-sec­
ond ratio, whereas a n i m e typically functions on the basis o f a n 8 - fram es-per-secon d model .
Concurrently, 3 D c i n ematography enabled the fi l m m akers to i ncorporate a tremendous vol ­
ume of details i n t o t h e backgrou n d artwo rk which t h e camera c o u l d capt u re by m o v i n g freely
i n three dimensions. (Th is is most evident i n the panoramic v istas of Olymp us offered through­
out the fi l m . ) "Though i t's still a n i mation-like , " the d i rector has commented, "we can freely
move cameras around. So we are able to show the depth o f the backgro u n d and the charac­
ter p resence in a coherent manner. Tha t's how we wanted to establish character p resence and
ultimately the p resence o f this s tory's world view" (Aramaki 2 0 04b) .
What is most rem arkable, where Appleseeds trailblazi ng rep utation is concerned, is the
fi l m's employment to m ax im u m effect o f the latest motion-capt u re tech nology. This enables
ani mators to s i m ulate a v irtually u n l i m i ted range of dynamic moves and hence accom p l i s h
degrees of fl u i d i t y and a cumulative sense of reality t h a t a r e comparable to - and occasion­
ally even i n excess o f- those fo und i n l ive-action action-adventure cinema at its best . The
animators' startin g p o i n t was a set of low-resolu tion polygonal models representing charac­
ters and backgro u n ds as meshes . Mo-cap data would then be i m p o rted i nto the com p u te r a n d
mapped u p o n those geometric skeletons . Fol lowing this key p hase i n the p re-visual ization
p rocess, decisions would be made regarding layo u t , camera angles, character a n i m ation , the
length of each cut and overall scene construction. At this poi nt , the team wou l d be able to
sw itch to high-resolution polygonal models on the basis o f which the final characters and back­
gro unds could be generated .
Whereas earlier forms of motion capture allowed fi l m m akers only to fi l m one actor at a
time, the advanced tech nology used i n the p roduction o f Appleseed makes i t possible for the
movements o f several pe rformers to be captured simul taneously. Not only does this method
ensure the ach i evement o f h igher degrees o f dynamic coherence ; i t also enables the com mu­
n i cation o f a realistic i m p ression o f interactivity and relational i ty. The type o f mo -cap used
in Appleseed therefore su rpasses the l i m i tations posed by older tech n iques, which Maureen
Furn iss has descr ibed as fol l ows :

Motion capture o ften req u i res performers to be recorded separately. This is true of mul t i p l e motion cap­
ture characters or even one character who is composed of data from separate voice and body performers.
When performers are composi ted, there i s less i nt egration of the characters w i th each other - because they
were not toge t h e r when the y were " fi l m ed . " The same i s true for d u bb i n g sessions, for exam p l e . Some-
1 30 ANIME INTERS ECTIONS

ti mes voice performers are recorded separately and someti m es as an ensemb l e . When performers a re n o t
together a s t h e y a r e recorded, t h e y cannot a c t off each o t h e r [Furn i ss ] .

Further com plexity a n d subtlety were i n fused i nto t h e overa l l performance, speci fically
where Appleseeds female protagonist is concerned, by the emp loyment of m u l tiple actors for
the execution o f distinct task s . Accord ingly, Tsubasa Akimoto suppl ied the movements fo r
Deunan's acrobatic stu nts, Ai Kobayash i provided the facial exp ressions and voice , and Asu m i
Miwa contributed t h e acting a s such . Miwa's assessment o f her approach t o t h e part i s par­
ticularly worthy o f attention , i n that it eloquently demonstrates that a mo-cap thespian i s not
merely a mechan ical supplier o f data but actually a serious performer whose thou ghts and
feelings concerning a part play no less significant a role than they would i n l ive-action cin­
ema (or i ndeed theater) . M iwa's acting derived important inspiration from Aramaki's encour­
agement to perform as though Deunan were a real character, which enabled her to e m b race
the persona as a n actual flesh-and-blood woman endowed w i t h wh at she describes as a w i de
"range of emotion s . " Com menting on her personal perception of Delm an's character a n d on
how this inRuenced her onstage conduct , the actress has stated : "She is versatile, which allowed
me to h ave many op tions . If yo u take away her actions, Deunan is j ust a n o rd i n ary girl . My
goal was to help the audience feel close to her. . . . So, I never tried to detach mysel f fro m the
character . I tried to bring her closer and closer to me" (M iwa) .
Additionally, the i mplementation of facial capture i n the ani mation o f all o f the charac­
ters contribu ted crucially to the action's cumulative i m pact . This technique u t i l i zes h u ndreds
o f styrofoam pieces aho ut I m m i n diameter that are appl ied all over the perfo rmer's facial fea ­
t u res a n d used a s t h e sensors through w h i c h motion data are captured a n d recorded . As C G
p roducer Yusaku Toyosh i m a stresses, facial capture is im mensely usefu l i n t h e do m a i n of mo­
cap c i nematography, and especially beneficial to the recording of lip motio n . It i ndeed enables
the detailed depiction o f countless movements much faster than would ever be the case i f the
frames were being created "from scratch manually. " Nevertheless, Toyosh i m a also maintains,
"wi thout additional m a n i p u l ation , i t looked kind o f d u l l and sloppy" (Toyosh i m a) . T h i s
remark serves as a p i thy rem i nder o f t h e ongoing legacy o f hand-drawn styles a n d , relatedly,
of the undying appeal of the visual effects wh ich they alone may delive r : vivaciousness, warm th ,
grace , finesse - i n a wo rd, animation.
To emphasize the extent to which Aramaki and his associates were in a position to benefit
from state-o f-the-art tech nologies is not to say, howeve r, that Appleseeds p roduction t rajec­
tory was not fraught with difficulties . A major problem faced by the team resided with how
to i ntegrate Toon-Shaded (and therefore cel - l i ke) character faces and realistic motion-cap­
tured movements . For the faces to be entirely i n keep i n g w i th the expectations o f tradi t ional
anime, i t wo uld have been normal for mouth motion to also abide by conventional p rinci­
p l e s . Yet , whe n j uxta posed with real istic body movements, trad itionally a n i m ated l i ps l o o ked,
q u ite s i m ply, abnormal . " I n mid-production ," O tsuka explains, the a n i m ators d iscovered that
"character facial movements . . . did not fit with the tradi tional a n imation mouth movement
styl e . Traditional Japanese ani mation does not care abo ut l i p syn c . At first , we used this tra­
ditional style . . . . F i nally, we could not accept the resu lt o f traditional lip movements w i t h o u r
real istic motion captured a n imation . . . . A s a res u l t , w e chose a new way where a n i mators ed i t
t he facial an i mation based on th e facial capture data . " T h e result, Otsuka argues, is an entirely
"new style of expression" that enables audiences to relate to the characters i n ways to w hich a
hyperrealistic aesthetic co uld never attain (Otsuka) .
 Eight-App ICSl:cd 131

I t wo uld be p reposterous to c l a i m that Appleseeds app l i cation o f mo-cap tech nology is

an u n d i luted success . The performance actually comes across as rather contrived in some o f
t h e more subtle movements ( a n d not merely l i p - related ones) - e . g . t h e b l i n k o f an eye , the
wave of a hand, the casual turn i n g o f a head . It is, however, undeniable that as the fi rst m aj o r
effort to marry motion captu re a n d ani mation to have emerged fro m a Japanese vent u re s i n ce
H i ronobu Sakaguch i 's Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within, Appleseed rep resents a considerable
step forward i n the fiel d . As shown i n Chapter G , Final fantasy endeavo red to repl icate real­
ity with absol u te accu ra cy, down to each i n d ividual strand of hair o n a characte r's head .
Regrettably, i n te naciously p u rsui n g the goal of absolute real ism , the fi l m ended up convey­
i n g an u n canny sense of hyperrealism - of the "more real than real , " so to speak - that is q u i te
s i m ply i ncongruous w i t h a n i mation's self-declared madeness . Thus, Sakaguc h i and h is asso ­
c iates ulti mately del ivered a product that can neither be u n p roblemat ically regarded as a n i m e
i n t h e most strictly o rthodox sense o f t h e term -- given t h a t it m akes no o b v i o u s concess ion
to the drawn l i ne past the model l i ng stage - nor be classed with l ive-action cinema - s i n ce
the artificiality o f i ts perfo rmers cann o t be utterly suppressed . I n watch i ng Final Fantasy, one
repeated ly real izes that the actors are not h u man p recisely as a res u l t o f their m akers' possi­
b ly excess ive co m m i tment to p h o to realistic accu racy. The sensation which the characters
evoke , tangentially ech o i n g Mamoru Oshi i's Ghost in the Shell 2: Innocence, is comparable to
the eerie feel i n g elicited by dolls endowed with exaggeratedly h u m a n qual i ties . Appleseed steers
clear o f this trap by p reserv i n g a stro n g sense of two-dimensional l i n earity thro u gh o u t , and
hence exuberantl y asse rting i ts i r refutable cons tructedness .
The cal iber o f Appleseeds gro u n d- b reaking cont ri b u t ion to the development o f mo-cap
tech nol ogy is borne out by its com m i tment not merely to p u tting cha racters i nto motion ,
which u l t i m ately cons t i t u tes a fairly mechan ical exercise, b u t also to b r i n g i n g them v i b rantly
to l i fe . Both the performers' acting styles and Aramaki's direction consistently evi n ce an under­
standing of one of the most p ivotal dictates o f ani mation generally and a n i m e in particular :
the importance of co nvey ing a character's b reathing and sentient p resence (des p i te its appear­
ance , which m ay well be unnatural istic) , by punctuat i n g their move m ents and varying the
tempo o f the i r del ive ry. Ignoring these principles is most l i kely to yield poorly t i med and
Roaty movements that ap pear to have been robo tically p layed o u t , as i f by rote, rather than
truly enacted .
There is a relatively m argi nal , yet authentically affect i n g , scene i n which these skills come
to the fo re w ith restra i ned elegance . Oeunan and H i to m i are sitting in a bar, convers i n g about
the nature of B i o ro ids and at one po i nt H i to m i leans gently over the co u n ter and rests her
head upon her arms . Her body langu age and facial exp ression are suffused w i th tactfu l all u ­
s i o n s t o h e r l o n g i n g fo r a state beyond h e r reach and, b y i m p l ication , to her attraction to O e u ­
n a n a s both t h e embodiment o f that state a n d a physically a n d morally adm i rable person i n
h e r own righ t . I n so do i n g , they evoke a broader spectrum o f sensations tha n analogous i mages
from many l ive-action movi es . Thus, although some spectators m ay cherish the rap id-fire
action sequences as the apotheos is o f Appleseeds n ovel styl e , it is v i tal to acknowledge that i t
is from t h e qu ieter moments that both aesth etic a n d sensuous solace m a y frequently derive .
The principal challenge faci n g Aramaki's troupe as the production p rocess entered the
3 D CG stages was the transition from a mode that allows the artist to choose from which
angle a character should be drawn - which is the case with 20 eel an i mation - to a mode
wherein any one character must be drawn from multiple angles, w i t h each o f the draw i ngs
1 32 A N l1\l E I NTERSECTI O N S

appeari ng consistent with the others so as to ensure the creature's overall coherence. This
requ i red ongo i n g tweaking of the tin iest portions of bodies and faces al i ke , even m i n utiae
such as eyelashes hav i n g to be subtly modi fied several ti mes in accordance w i th s h i fts i n a
character's overall exp ressi o n .
Concurrently, i n i n tegrating real istic motion data i nto t h e characters' actions, t h e fi l m mak­
ers had to sec u re the retention of an element of cartoonish ness in o rder to h o n o r t h e i r alle­
giance to trad itional an i mation. This was no m i nor h u rdle i f we consider, as F u rn iss i n v i tes
us to do, that "there tend to be differences between the way in which h u mans and classically
ani mated characters move : the speeds of acceleration and decelerati o n are d i fferent . Because
motion capt u re records movements at an even pace, reflecti n g natural h u man mot i o n , there
can be problems creati ng truly cartoony movement" (Furniss) .
I n i ts e ngage m e n t w i t h the production o f C C l characterized by degrees o f t h ree­
d i mensional i t y and solidity that are utterly unprecede nted in the context o f a n i me, Appleseed
also i nv i tes us to ponder the med i u m's relationsh ip w i th the disco u rse of v i rtual real i t y. Com­
menting on VR tech no logies supposedly capable of suspend i n g the l aw o f grav i t y a n d even
redefining the concept of sensory experience, Janeann D i l l has stated : "The more i m m e rsed
the collective 'we' become i n representing three-dimensional space, the less i n vo lved we become
w i th being in it. The old adage of the more you know, the more you know how much yo u
don't know has advan ced a parallel adage of contemporary i m portance : the more yo u sense ,
the more yo u sense how much yo u don't sense" ( D i l l , p. 1 2 ) .
Aramaki's fi l m , with i ts bold synthes is of 3D CCl and trad i t ional styles, o ffers a n e l l i p ­
tically resonant contribution t o t h i s debate . Appleseeds sculpturally palpable th ree-dimen­
sional spaces openly declare the i r status as rep resentations i n fl uenced by the discourses o f
v i rtual reali t y and d i gital gam i n g . They d o not for a second t r y to pass themselves off as snap­
shots of locations one could ever physically occupy. They do so, p r imarily, by i n t i m a t i n g w i t h
vary i n g levels o f explicitness that a photoreal istic 3 D space c a n be s l i c k , stylish a n d even cred­
ible without being charged w i th emotions, let alone sensuous density. At the level of sett i n gs
and p rops, therefore, Appleseed wo uld seem to del iver p recisely the k i n d o f world that D i l l
concep tual izes : a represented worl d that w e ca nnot i nhabi t , an amalga m o f sensory allusions
that we canno t actually feel .
The trad i tional an i m e element recti fies th is state of potential d isembodi ment and desen ­
sualization by i n fus i n g t h e state-of-the-art graphics w i th artisanal senti m e n t , and hence p ro ­
v ides the means of draw i n g t h e audience i nto a warmer a n d affectively richer real m . I t m ay
seem i ron ical that the fi l m's most poignantly human d imension should co i n c ide w i t h its least
naturalistic facets . Yet , this is not i m moderately surprisi n g when seen in the light o f a n i me's
deeply i ngra i ned tendency to eschew m i metic accu racy in favo r o f styl ized rend i tions of real­
ity that come across as realistic not by d i nt of any docu menr a ry veris i m i l i tude but because o f
the i r abi l i t y t o reach i nto deeper and even submerged recesses of h uman experience . A ramaki's
movie thus exh ib i ts a knack of evoking powerfu l fee l i ngs by reco u rse ro time-honored styles
rather than by merely relyi ng on eye-catching gl i tter - which could otherwise be dismissed
as an ephemeral "fashion statement . "
A paradigmatic i l l ustration of this styl istic trend can be fo u n d i n t h e p reviousl y m e n ­
t i o n e d sequence dramat i z i n g Deunan's b r u t a l exposure to the t r u e c i rcu mstances o f h e r
mo ther's death . No amount of CC pyrotechnics could ever commun icate, i n isolat i o n , the
pathos i m b u i n g the heroi ne's psychological j o u rney i n to her rep ressed past enabled by the
 Eight-Applcseed 1 33

simulated reenactment o f her ch i ldhood trau m a . What is i nstrumental to the sequence's over­
all effectiveness is i n deed Deunan's overtly styl ized and Fundamentally hand-drawn m i e n ,
w i t h i t s ability to convey i n an econom ical n umber of shots equal measu res o f grieF, shock,
Fear and compassion. At the same time, the sequence exe m p l i fies a Further stylistic p roclivity
detectable throughout the fi l m as a whole . This consists o f a sustained alternation between a
rap port between the spectator and the screen centered s i m ply on viewi n g and one centered
on affective involvement and participation . Time and again , we are enco uraged to s h i Ft Fro m
a space that w e grasp merely a s t h e p hysical location w i t h i n w h i c h certain actions occur to a
space that comm u n i cates symbol ically the emotional import of those actions a n d d raws us
i nto their flow. Richard Maltby defines these two types of spatial o rga nization as "rep resented
space" and "ex p ressive s pace" respectively.
"Represented space," the critic ex plains, " i s the area that exists i n front o f the camera lens
and is recoded by it. I t is the recogn izable space i n which actors stand, i n which props a re
placed, and in which t h i n gs happen . Un l ike the writer's pen , the camera cannot s i mply con­
j u re obj ects i nto existence . Whatever the camera reco rds has to exist i n material for m ; that
existence i nvolves its occupation of represented space" (Maltby, p. 3 13) . Mal tby concedes, h ow­
ever, that with the growi n g deployment of digital tech nology, "the need to construct cine­
matic i l l usions p hys ically has d i m i n ished" (p. 3 14) . This is most p o i ntedly true o f a film, l ike
Appleseed, that does not o n ly use C G I and other com p u ter-assisted tec h n iques pervasively b u t
does s o , specifically, w i th i n t h e domain o f a n i mation - namely, a med i u m defined p ri n c i pally
by i ts independence from material referents. Nevertheless, even in a production with Apple­
seeds techn ical specifications, a character is i nev i tably situated w i t h i n a represented space by

the movements and gazes o f other characters, and indeed must be so i f the i l l us i o n o f its p res­
ence i n an i nters u bj ective rea l m is to be s ustai ned.
Thus, in the case of the memory-si mulation sequence , D e u na n's existence as both a n
adult a n d a c h i l d at the s a m e t i m e depends on i t s occupation of a rep resented space constructed
by the actions and reactions o f the co-participa nts i n the scene . Concurrently, howeve r , t h i s
rep resented space metamorphoses i nto a sett i n g more a k i n to the kind o f space which Maltby
designates as "exp ressive" - that is to say, one "endowed with meaning beyo n d the l i teral" (p.
3 14) . By suspend i n g l i teral signi fication (denotation) in favo r o f allusiveness (connotation) ,
the fi l m compels us to transcend the safe parameters o f a p utatively obj ective rep resentati o n
of material rea l it y. O u r attention is accord ingly Focused on the characters, t h e i r fee l ings and
mind sets, their possible pasts and conceivable fut u res and on feasible develop ments i n the
p l ot's trajecto ry.
I n the sequence specifically u nder scruti ny, this is ach i eved by means of gest u res, pos­
t u res and - most crucially - facial modulations that m ake us feel from w i t h i n the setting how
the characters are experiencing their circumstances . Thus, we a re no longer m e re w i t n esses
but are actually persuaded to partake i maginatively of the scene's emotional i ntensi ty. This is
s uccin ctly encapsulated by the frame offering a close- u p of D e unan's face as she comes to
grasp the enormity o f the council's crime and of her mother's sacri fice . In this i mage , the per­
sona o f the ruthless fighter gives way to that of a vu lnerable yo u n g woman whose m i n d and
senses are l i terally flooded w i th empathetic sadness .
Striking oscillations between the poetics of represented and exp ress ive space abo u n d
througho ut t h e fi l m . Another notable example is t h e scene in which D e u n a n first faces Bri­
areas i n h is cyborgian configuration and is blatantly at a loss externalizing the seeth i n g m ass
1 34 A :-.r I M E I NTERS ECTI O N S

o f feeli ngs wh ich the sigh t , all ied to Briareos's relative gruffness, triggers i n her b e i n g . By dis­
consolately s l u m p i n g onto a bench, she wordlessly com m u n icates richer m essages than any
vol u m e o f verbal language could asp ire to . This effect is m ade possible by the sea m l ess trans­
formation o f the scen e's rep resented space i nto an exp ressive space subtly med iated by inter­
s u bject ive att i t udes and responses .
Ret u r n i n g to the seq uence dramatizi n g Deunan's epiphany, i t must be n o ted that this is
also i m portan t , within the movie's overall visual logic , insofar as i t p ro m pts an u nsettl i n g
reflection . I f p a s t occu rrences a n d t h e memo ries attached t o t h e m can be cybe rnetically
reactivated i n holograph i c form so faithfully that they seem undiscern ible from actual and
p resent events, there is no legiti mately dependable means o f defending - let alone demo­
nstrating - the greater reality of the latter i n comparison with the fo rmer. The notion that
su pposedly concrete and empi rically meas u rable entities, human bodies i n cl uded, m ay u l t i ­
m ately a m o u n t to cybernetical ly en hanced simulations has been a tavo r i te trope i n science­
fiction cinema o f both the l ive-action and the animated va rieties fo r rime i m memorial , gai n i n g
u n p recedented u rgency i n recent decades a t the behest of cyberpu n k . I n t h e l ive-action domai n ,
the Matrix trilogy u n eq uivocal ly prov ides a paradigmatic i ns tance o f that tren d .
I n the context o f Japanese ani matio n , an intriguing example is o ffe red by th e h i ghly
acclai med TV series di rected by Ryu taro Nakamura, Serial Experiments Lain ( 1 9 9 8 ) , here also
discussed i n Chapter 3 i n relation to Satoshi Kon's Perfect Blue. I n the p rogra m , the p rotag­
onist, Iwakura La i n , is l i terally s p l i t i nto a cybernetic self that grows i n c reasi ngly brash as the
story progresses and a real-world self that gradually loses confidence in its corporeal s u bstan­
tiali ty. Mo reover, the heroine is deserted by her entire fam ily, who are revealed by her p re­
s umed "father" to be j us t a tro upe of actors temporarily employed to support the fict i o n that
the real Lai n exists when she is only, i n fact , an ephemeral fab rication. S i m u l taneously, the
"real" girl's school friends u nceremon iously discard her, as a res u l t of cyber-La i n's malicious
disse m i nation o f their most intimate secrets and of increasi n gly distur b i n g rumors . Eventu­
ally, it is posited that the show's pro tagon ist is i ndeed an electronic construct created e n t i rely
within the cyberrealm of the "Wi red," and that her real - l i fe alrer ego (and associ ated body
i mage) is merely a hologra m . The dead scholar Masam i Eiri, speak i ng from w i th i n the Wi red,
argues that h uman beings fu ndamentally exist as m i nds i n terl i n ked w i t h i n vast electro n i c c i r­
c u i ts and that all bodies, as a corollary, have 1 1 0 greater solidity than holographic projections.
Prior to h is d i rectorial role on Appteseed, Aram aki had p r incipally been i nvolved fo r
approximately two decades i n the execution of mecha-design work for n umerous ani mations,
l ive-action films and games . He had also , however, contribu ted i n key capaci ties to two m aj o r
a n i m e ti tles : Bubblegum Crisis a n d Megazone 23. These productions deserve c l o s e attention ,
i n the c u rrent context, due to the i r poi nts of contact with Appteseed's generic and d iegetic
makeup. The OVA series Bubblegum Crisis, created and released between 1 9 8 7 a n d 1 9 9 0 , was
d i rected by Katsu h i to Akiya m a , H i roaki Gohda, H i roki H ayashi , Masam i Obari and F u m i ­
h i ko Takayam a . A r a m a k i h i msel f contr i b u ted the scree n p lay i n c o l l a boration w i th
Kats u h i to Akiyam a , Emu Ari i , H ideki Kaki n u m a , Tosh i m ic h i Suzuki and H i detoshi Yoshida .
Generally recogn ized as a staple i nstitution i n the galaxy o f Japanese a n i mation , Bubblegu m
Crisis is probably one of t h e first a n d most w idely accl a i m ed i nstances o f the " G i rls-W i t h ­
G u ns" s ubgenre o f science-fiction a n i m e .
T h e "gi rls" in question are a four-person team du bbed t h e " K n ight Sabers" and equ i pped
with form idable mecha s uits, who specialize in the pol i cing of a breed o f b i omechan o i ds known
 Eight-Applesced 135

as the " Boomers" : au tomata constructed by the industrial colossus " G e n o m" to act as a labor
caste i n the serv ice of h u mans but regrettably endowed with a knack o f go ing sensationally
berserk. The all-female band's combat and strategic skills provide apt p recedents for Deu­
nan's own talents and correspo n d i n g characterization in Aramaki's fi l m. Their v isual appear­
ance, moreover, anticip ates Deu n an's somatic traits: just as Appleseeds h e ro i n e rem a i n s
unequ ivocally appeal ing i n a distinctively fe m i n i ne ve i n despite h e r disp lays o f martial v i ril­
i ty, so the character designs used i n Bubblegum Crisis (created by Kenich i Sonoda) reta i n a n
all u ring a u r a o f sexy fem i n i n ity, speci fically t h a n k s to t h e style used i n the depiction o f t h e
meehl/-powered hards u i ts : cu rvaceo us graceful ness is n ever totally elided by the engu l fi n g
age ncy o f meeha gea r. Some wo uld c a l l t h i s a concession t o t h e d u b i o u s requ i rement s o f "fan
service." Whether or not o n e endorses this verdict, it is hardly deniable that action-d riven
anime with female characters at i ts center is seldom (if at all) w i l l i n g to fo rfe i t altogether the
typ ical markers of enshri ned ico ns of fem i n i n e comeli ness . Osh ii's Ghost in the Shell and its
sequel, Hideaki Ann o's Neon Genesis Evangelioll and Yosh iaki Kawaji ri's Ninja Scroll-- to d raw
merely on tides d i rectly connected with this study - bear clear witness to this trend.
AIegazone 23 is a th ree-part OVA series produ ced between 1985 and 1989. Ara m ak i wrote
the script for all th ree instalments i n collaboration with Noburo Ish igu ro. He also co-directed
Part I I I (1989) with Kenichi Yatagai, whereas Pa rr I (1985) was di rected by N o b u ro I s h i gu ro,
and Part II (1986) by Ichirou !tano. Affin ities between this work and Appleseed may not, at
first, seem blatant. I n d eed, while the 2004 feature exh i b i ts a fu ndamentally transh istorical
atmosphere by amalgamating both them atic and graph i c motifs that span over two millennia
o f h istory, mythology and lo re, A1egazone 2 3 is very much a p roduct of its time. I ts expl icit
references to m i d-1980s fash ion, musical tastes and, mo re b roadly, Japanese l i festyles i n formed
by global t rends o f that period gro u n d the OVA series qu ite firmly i n the cultural climate s u r­
rounding its execution and release.
Nonetheless, a philosoph ically pivotal similarity brings Megazone 23 and Appleseed inti­
mately together. T h e OVA presents us w i t h a wo rld akin to the o n e a r t i c u l ated by t h e
Wachowski brothers in the Matrix trilogy and all uded t o ea rlier i n this chap ter : a s the p ro ­
tagonist Shogo inadvertently finds h imself at t h e center of a whirlpool of uncontrol lable events,
it grad ually transpi res that h is entire world i s a s i mulation mai ntai n ed by a 2 5 th-century
supercom p u te r. Th is simulated e n v i ron ment is in many ways analogous to the society first
conceptual ized by S h i row fo r the Appleseed manga and subsequently brough t to the b ig screen
by Aramaki.
I n articulating this theme, Applesf'f'd could be said to rei nforce its affiliation to the Clas­
sical legacy, insofar as the s i m ulation trope finds one o f its earliest and best-known fo rmula­
tions i n the domai n of fifth-century B.C. Greek ph ilosophy - specifical ly, i n the gu i se o f the
analogy of the cave p ro posed by Plato i n the Republic (Book VI I). In that fa mous parable,
the Greek p h i losopher a rgues that h u m a n bei ngs are by and l arge aki n to captives held from
bi rth in an undergro u n d cave, able only to perceive shadows which they mistake for the real
world. As long as the prisoners remain chained to this pseudo - reality, they w i l l not be in a
position to grasp its authentic status as a decept ive simu lation. However, regardless of Clas­
sical paraphernalia o r allusions, Olymp us's utopia ulti mately symbo l i zes the essence o f any
totalitarian organ ization o f society as a fake, a simu lacrum, a hefty c h u n k o f delusional eye­
candy - whereas Appleseed itself, cinematic eye-candy as it u n deniably is, also succeeds in
prodding the neu rons .
136 AI\:IME iNTFRSECTIONS

At the end of the movie, Deunan and her associates stand amidst the baleful ruins of a city
that bears no traces of its erstwh ile glory. The wreckages of the tech nological monsters heroically
vanquished by our hero(in)es, steeped not in uplifting radiance but in stifling doom, fill the land­
scape. The imposing mach ines - and hence the tech nocracy they stood for - have clearly come
to a halt. These images invite us to reRect upon the likely future o f human subj ectivity beyond
the tech nologies that have thus far defined it. The finale's voiced message, uttered by Deu nan,
del ivers an optimistic vision in which the future is held to belong to the "childre n . " However,
this message feels a bit too much l ike a concession to the stereotyp ical notion of the saccharin e
"happy ending" t o b e taken seriously a s the story's unequivocal resolution. Alternative interpre­
tations of Appleseeds closing moments should accordingly be contemplated .
On the one hand, the denouement could be read as a bitter i ndictment of h u man (o r
post-h uman, as the case may be) fo lly. I n this read i ng, much as D e u n a n and her mates stand
o u t as "saviours," i t is by no means obvio us what exactly they have saved : the p reservation o f
t h e world seems i n extricable from its annihilation. I t is a s though t h e p ro tago n ists, governed
by a cruel paradox, had no cho ice but to erase reality in their mission to keep i t al ive . O n the
other hand, Appleseed as a cumulative creative enterprise co u l d be said to disclose a more
promising option, albeit implici tly, through its foregro u n d i n g o f the l i m i tless possibilities
i nherent in the art of animatio n . In this scenario, whereas the world articul ated narratively
by the film m ay have reached a bleak i m passe, the worlds brought to l i fe by advent u ro u s a n i ­
m a t i o n tech n iques clearly have n o t . I ndeed, i n showing h o w far the p u rv iew o f ani me could
be extended by means o f intrepid syntheses of hand-drawn and cutting-edge styl es, Appleseed
does not advertise itself as a conclusive result but rather alerts us to a vi rtually i n fi n ite range
of as yet u nexplored experiments.
This proposition is corroborated by Aramaki's decision to embark upon the p roduction of
a feature-length sequ el to the movie, intended for a 2007 theatrical release, in collaboration with
the renowned filmmaker John Woo . Aramaki welcomes this p roject, titled Appleseed: Ex Machina,
as an opportunity to expand on the i nnovative techn iques and styles developed i n the execution
of the 2004 film, and specifically on the team's expertise in the field of comp uter-assisted ani­
mation. Deeply bound by long-standing mutual admiration, both Aramaki and Woo have explic­
itly professed their desire to learn from each other's experiences in the ci nematographical domai n .
"John Woo is someone I really respect," Aramaki has stated i n the course of an i nterview cited
in the August 2006 issue of Newtype USA. "I love all of his films. As a CG-animated project, the
conventions parallel filmmaki ng more so than anime. Woo has been able to really help us with
the development of both the action and the story we are creating." In the same piece, Woo has
remarked : "After I watched Appleseed, I was shocked . I saw it as a work of art . . . the color, the
design and the action all look so beautiful and stunn ing. I really wanted to learn from worki ng
with Aramaki and his talented team" (quoted in Silva, p . 20).
F inal ly, wh atever else may be said of Appleseed as a total cinematic experience, i t can
hardly be denied that Aramaki's troupe met the many challenges posed by the deployment of
a h i therto u nassayed tech n ical synthesis of the old and the new with ever-expa n ding reso urce­
ful ness, creativeness and laudable forbearance . Alongside these u n de n iable v i rtues, what u l t i ­
mately h o l ds Appleseed ad mi rably together, imbu ing it with energetic appeal and yieldin g a
visually consistent and l usty p roduction, is Ara maki's d i recto rial style - above all, its b u stl i n g
vigor, im peccably calibrated tem po and deft i ntegration o f the narrative's v isceral a n d in tel­
lectual d i mensions .
 NINE

Steam boy

That Otomo sets his story at the d,lwn of the industrial age may come as a shock to those who had
the director pegged as a science-fictioll filmmaker, but the move makes perfect sellSe ifyol< cOlISider
that this was a period in which man, for the first time in its existence, had to learn to deal with
the presellce of machines in his daily lift. Not without reasoll has Otomo refirred to the film as
'steampullk, "illdicating the thematic similarities with cyberpunk .. . . You can u nderstand why this
film was delayed so many times just by looking at it; you can almost count the rivets on the vil­
lain 's mechallic mega-fortress. - Tom Mes.
ifAkira refined our notions ofscience fictioll, Otomo 's new film, Steam boy, expands them. jump­
ing back 140 years, Steamboy is a kind ofsci-fi creation myth, imagining the moment when humans
fint came foce to foce with machinery 's fiarsome power. . . . It 's no MIT dissertatioll- Otomo has
created a lavish, elaborate piece ofentertainment that's quite aware ofmaillStream audiences. Still,
Steamboy takes its subject- the corrupting illfluence ofscience- seriously. That alolle sets it apart
ji'01n most contemporary sci-jz'. -jasoll Silverman.

Steamboy is Kats u h i ro Otomo's first maj or anime release s i n ce the gro u nd-breakin g Akira
(1988). The latter's i m portance can h ardly be exaggerated when one considers, as Jerry Beck
u rges us to do, that
Akira's strength at the box office (in the U.S., Eu rope, as well as i n Japan) had s in gle­
handedly put anime on the international map and forced movie critics, film scho lars and ani­
mators to take the gen re seriously. I t encou raged U.S. distribu tors to import further t i tles for
direct home v ideo release - and insp i red several cable networks (Cartoon Netwo rk, the Sci
F i Channel, G 4 and MTV, among others) to run anime p rogra m m i n g blocks. The Pokemon
fad and D isney's distri b u t io n deal for Miyazaki's films h ave brought further financial success
and prestige to the genre in the subsequent years [ Beck] .
I n sp ite of substantial differences at the levels o f style, gen re a n d i m agery, Akira a n d
Steamboy unquestionably share an acute concern with t h e Janus-faced nature o f technology
as the potential harb i n ger of equal meas u res of prosperity and devastation. Otomo's i nterest
i n th is issue can, h owever, be traced fu rther back than e i ther the film version o f Akira o r the
parent manga, a mammoth two-thousand-two-hundred-page epic eventually yielding s ix vol ­
u m es o f u n ique graph i c virtuosity t h a t took Otomo t e n yea rs to complete. I n deed, the artist's
engagement with dysto p i a n science-fiction themes dates back to the u n fi nished manga Fire­
ball, published in 1979, where the focus is a classic man -versus-superco m p ut e r adventure.
It was with Domu: A Child's Dream, first serial ized i n 1980 and then p ubl ished as a co l -

1 37
138 ANIME INTERSECTIONS

lection th ree years later, that Otomo's oeuvre ach ieved u n p recedented p rom i n ence, gai n i n g
h i m t h e p restigious Science Fiction Grand Prix Award a p rize n ever befo re received b y a
�

com ic book. This manga ell i p t ically anticipates steamboy i n i ts depiction o f ge neratio nal
con fl ict a topos, as discussed i n some depth later in this chap ter, o f p i votal sign ificance to
�

the overall narrative i m port of the 2004 feature . In Domu, the adversa rial parties are ethically
untainted and psychologically mature chi ldren, on the one hand, a n d amoral c h i l d i s h adults
capable only of i rresponsible conduct, on the other. Domu's storyl ine bears n o obvious affin ities
to the adventures dramatized i n steamboy. Its plot i ndeed revolves aro u n d the i nves tigation
into the deaths of several res idents of a poverty-stricken housing p roject, see m i n gly the res u l t
o f u nrelated s uicidal acts .
Upon closer i nspection, however, Domu tu rns o u t to hold tangential p o i nts of contact
with steamboy. When the deaths are revealed to have been engineered by a tw isted old man
endowed with a vast array of psychic ab i l i ties and an u n fl i nching deter m i nation to handle the
m iserable tenants as pu ppets i n his absolute control, one senses s i m i larities between that char­
acter's malevolent agen cy and the power-crazy agendas p u rsued by steamboy's rogues . I t is u p
t o a young girl i n possession o f extrasensory powers capable of rivall i n g those of t h e sadistic
pup peteer of the dregs of Japanese society to challenge the villai n's schem e j ust as it is ulti­
�

mately up to steamboy's boy hero to challenge the nefarious plots contrived by both estab­
l ished and burgeoning structures of power. Moreover, Domu's stand i n g as a tale that transcends
the boundaries of horro r-driven fantasy by fathom ing the harsh real ities o f urban isolation,
poverty and disenfranchisement fo reshadows steamboy's com m i tment to the exp lo ration o f
all-too-real cultural and h istori cal iniqu ities.
I t may seem strange, given Oromo's exceptionally sol i d rep utation as a manga a rtist, ro
see h i m i nvolved i n a large-scale cinematic production of Steamboy's calibre . I ndeed, as Otomo
h imself has poi nted out i n a n interv iew for The Onion A. V. Club, "The cartoon ist's work is
soli tary; even when dealing with editors and assistants, there is n o such excitement as to c re­
ating u n expected drastic changes for p roj ects . . . . Manga can't be drawn by a l o t o f people, as
done i n fi l m . " This state of affairs co uld be seen to enta i l the develop ment over t i m e of a cre­
ative mental i ty that p laces i ndividual effort over collaborative enterp rise. However, O tomo
does not resent b u t actually appears to cherish the p l u ralist i m p l i cations o f fi l m m aking, and
i t is due to this openness to an alternative modus operandi that he finds d i recting a satisfy­
ing challenge :

During the production of this film, what 1 put my most effort in was the process of layouts, and I did my
best ro check every detail. Once this process is done precisely, we will get great backgrounds from our art
team. This makes the team effort fun. I can't create a movie by myself. It is worthy only because many
staff bring new ideas and techniques. I think the appeal of heing the director is to encounter such new
things, which I don't possess. It is absolutely wonderful ro create something new based on teamwork. It is
something that I couldn't appreciate in my cartoonist days [Oromo 2005J.

steamboy was released i n Japan in July 2004. Boasting an i nitial budget o f $22,000,000,
and eventually encompassing over 180,000 drawings and four-hundred comp uter-generated cuts,
steamboy is the most expensive and one of the most laborious feature-length anime movies pro­
duced to date . In the U.S., the film was released in March 2005 i n two different fo rmats : a full­
length subtitled release, and a slightly shortened and dubbed version featuring the voices of Anna
Paqu in, Alfred Molina and Patrick Stewart. Both the origi nal version and the edited version are
avai lable on DVD, with the longer one being merchandised as the " D irector's Cut . "
 Nine-Steamboy 139

Steamboy is overtly l i n ked by both i ts title and its subject-matter to the tradition o f
"steam p u n k . " A s u b ge n re o f alternate-h istory speculative scie nce fictio n , u s u a l l y s e t i n a
pseudo-Victo rian milieu , steam p u n k focuses on representations and appl ications of advanced
tech nology i n an imaginary past through the cultivation of a com pelli ngly retrofu t u ristic aes­
thetic . The term "retro futu ristic" is axial to an adequate grasp o f steam p u n k, as it indicates
that the time zone depicted by this s ubgenre is not the fu t u re as we may i m agine it today b u t
rather t h e fu ture a s imagi ned b y t h e tech no-visionaries of p a s t epochs . More o r less bizarre
gadgets, contraptions and mechanical toys - as well as full-fledged mechan ical p ro digies of
gargantuan d i mensions -- are the i n gredients that customarily ann o u nce a n arrative as an
experiment in steam p u n k . This is u ndou btedly true of Steamboy: the fi l m is ushered in right
from the start by a gl u t o f mechanical gear as an ani mated adventu re d rawn to every thing
that would conceivably h ave felt ingenio usly cutting-edge i n late ni neteenth-century England,
and to q u i te a few add itional things that could not have been envisioned at the t i m e .
Ascertaining t h e p recise origins of steampunk is p ractically i mpossible insofa r a s t h e ten­
dency to utilize elements o f a more o r less recent past within a science-fictional context can
be traced back to the likes of Jules Verne (1828-1905 ) and Albert Robida ( 1848-1926) . The
Difference En gine, W i l l i a m G ibson's and B ruce Sterling's collaborative effort p u b l ished i n
1992 , is generally recognized a s t h e inspiring fo rce behind t h e coinage o f t h e term "steam­
p u nk . " The novel applies all the u n m istakable trademarks o f G i bson's and Sterl i ng's cyber­
punk fiction to an al ternate version of Victo rian society, employi ng as a leadi ng th read the
theme of Charles Babbage's perfection of the D ifference Engine and the Analytical Engi ne­
that is to say, the "calculating mach i n es" held to constitut e the ancestors o f the modern com­
puter. Like The Difference Engine, several steampunk narratives now considered p ro totypically
representative of the fo rm are fundamentally cyberp unk adventures set in a transh istorical pas t ,
a n d characteristically u t ilizing steam-age tech nology either i ns tead of cybernetics, o r else i n
conj unction w ith allego rical refas h i o n i ngs of actual digital tech nology. Not i n frequently,
supercomputers and quasi-cybernetic interfaces coexist with clu nkier mechanical constructs .
The i n fernally intricate i n frastructure of the flyi ng island of Lap u ta i n Hayao Miyazaki 's Cas­
tle in the Sky (1986) epi tomizes the type of supercomp uter favored by steam p u n k , while the
fil m's legion experiments with quirky aeronautical des ign faithfully capture i ts p redilection
for pseudo-Victorian technologies . 1
Steampunk motifs have consistently pervaded mai nstream manga since the 1940s , a s elo ­
quently attested to by the science-fiction trilogy by Osamu Tezuka comprising Lost World
(1948), Metropolis (1949) and Next World (195 1) . An i m e has enthusiastically a p p ro priated the
narrative lessons divulged by comic books, on this fron t , and yielded a vari ety o f enticing
steam punk-inspired works - incl u d i n g , besides Steamboy, two further films exam ined i n this
study: Rinta ro's adaptation of Tezu ka's Metropolis (2001) and Miyazaki 's Howl's MOlling Cas­
tle (2004) . The fascination with old Europe evinced by these an d several other a n i m e artists
can be related to what the Japanese describe as "akogare no Paris" ("the Paris o f our d reams" ) ­
namely, a fantasized configu ration o f that world conceived through Eastern eyes comparable
to the West's imaginary versions of the East p redicated upon the myth o f the "exotic . " A cru­
cially important b ridge between this ethos and semi-h istorical manga and anime is u ndoubt­
edly Rose of Versailles, the manga by Ryoko I keda publ ished i n 1972 and subsequently adapted
both as an anime series and as l ive-action movies . Loosely based on actual h i storical fi gu res
a n d events, and p ri m a r i ly on the l i fe of Marie Anto in ette 0755-93) and her relationships
140 ANIME INTERSECTIONS

with the Swedish di plomat Axel von Fersen and the dash i n g female swashb uckler Oscar de
Jarj ayes, Rose o/Versailles i ntroduced Japanese popular culture to the h istory and cost u mes of
late eigh teenth -century France and to the cli mate of the French Revo l ution o f 1789. N umer­
o us series i n s p i red by that same h istorical period, though rarely based on real personages, rap ­
idly ensued.2
The retrofu t u ristic approach so typical of steampunk generally and o f Steamboy in par­
ticular was i m ported i nt o the domain of classic science fiction by Leij i Matsumoto i n 1976
w i th the show Captain Harlock, where the meticulo usly depicted spaces h i p s central to a
plethora o f breathtaki ng battles unequivocally resemble eighteenth-century galleons worthy
of the pluckiest p i rate o f o l d. Analogous visual tropes are deployed i n the TV series Elemen­
tal Gelade (d ir. Shigeru Ueda, 2005 ) , where the sky p i rates (i ntensely redolent of t hose i n
Miyazaki's Castle in the Sky) l ikewise rely o n flying veh icles overtly i ns p i red b y o l d vessels i n
both their basic structural conception and their fetch ing ornamental attributes. Matsumoto
developed the aesthetic first conceived i n the execution o f Captain Harlock i n a later series,
Space Cruiser Yamato (1978), where the futu ristic spacesh ips are blatantly modelled accord­
ing to classic World War Two battleships of the kind seen i n cou ntless Hol lywood war mov ies .
The steam punk b ranch of a n i m e acqui red a further, u n p recedentedly tantal izing, di mension
with the TV series Conan, Boy o f the Future, di rected by Miyazaki a n d b roadcast i n 1978. I n
this p rogram, the focus i s a fu ture world struggl i n g for s u rv ival i n the aftermath o f a global
n uclear holocaus t . I n the decades to follow, nu merous anime series i n corporated various steam­
p u nk motifs and visual tropes as varyi ngly prominent components o f their overall styles and
narrative curves . Most notable is Hideaki Anno's Nadia: The Secret o/Blue Water (1991) . Stu­
dio Gainax's first maj o r series, p roduced in the wake of their epoch - m akin g feature fi l m Royal
Space Force: The Wings of Honneamise (di r . Hiroyuki Yamaga, 1987), Nadia echoes Verne's
Twen�y Thousand Leagues Under the Sea (1870) as it follows the yo ung p ro tagonists' epic adven­
tu res aboard Captai n Nemo's Nautil u s. At the level of design, moreover, the stea m p u nk sig­
nature p roclaims itsel f most markedly i n the execution of the s p acesh i p - l i ke s u b m ar i n es
punctuati ng the na rrative's visuals . I n more recent years, steam p u nk has fo u n d n ovel elabo­
rations i n the "pseudo-western" TV series Trigun (di r . Satosh i Nishimura, 1998) , where sub­
lime vistas o f o uter space and n ineteenth -century American p rai ries seamlessly coalesce, and
i n the TV series Fullmetal Alchemist (di r. Seij i Mizush i ma, 2003-2004), where the fu t u re is
i m bued not only with vestiges of not-too-distant epochs but also with i n c u rsions i nt o the
ancient real ms o f occul tism and magic .
I n engineering multifaceted encou nters between the old and the new, recorded h istory
and hypothetical time zones, real istic mach inery and preposterous apparatuses, several of
steam punk's most memo rable accomplish ments succeed i n posing p h iloso p h ical questions of
existentialist magn itude . Past and p resent persistently meet, m ergi n g a n d v iolently coll i d i ng
by tu rns, depending on the extent to which their conflicting messages can be reconciled o r
else assert themselves a s stubbornly incompatibl e . I n the process, characters whose identities
are defined i n equal meas u res by past and present events have no cho ice b u t to con front the
rel i cs of buried horrors i f they are to develop an honest sense o f self- un derstanding a n d the
resulting capacity to choose and act autonomo usly. For all they know, what l ies at the e n d o f
t h e tunnel m ight well be impenetrable darkn ess, considering t h a t t h e societies w i t h i n w h ich
their laborious q uests are undertaken tend to be pregnant w i th greed and deprav i t y. N onethe­
less, the cou rage i m p l icit i n such quests and sheer p reparedness to embark u p o n them and
 Nine �Steamboy 141

see them thro ugh to completion rem a i n admi rable assets which an ethically m in ded artist o f
Otomo's cal i b re w o u l d n ever, i t seems, t i re of upholding.
Steamboy finds a n apt predecesso r i n " Cannon Fodder," the t h i rd segment i n the afo re­
mentioned trilogy Memories (please see Chapter 3) directed by Otomo, created by O tomo,
Kouj i Mori moto and Tensai Okamura, and released i n 1994. A n arratively sparse vignette o u t­
l i n ing a si ngle day i n the l i fe of a n ord i nary fam ily through i ts d is m a l rou t i n e o f c a n n o n main­
tenance and shell m a n u factu re, " Cannon Fodder" stands o u t as a n utterly unsenti mental
i ndictment o f h o llow patriotism ti nged with O rwellian p a rano i a . Its setti n g is a city consist­
ing primarily o f titanic cannons, where all reso u rces appear to be channelled i nto the lobbing
o f l i kewise h u ge shells at a n un identified and invisible foe . The c itizens themselves a p pear to
have forgotten (or perhaps they never truly knew) the nature o f the cause they are s u pposed
to be p rotecti n g . When the child pro tagonist asks his father why exactly they are fi gh ting,
the parent simply tells him that h e will u nderstand when he grows older and rapidly consigns
him to bed . I t is u ns u rp rising, at this point, that the child should respond to this u n satisfac­
tory answer by seeki ng refuge i n a fantasy world of his own making, i n which h e personifies
the leader whose magni ficent portrait (worthy o f the neoclassical painter Jacques-Lo u is D avid)
p unctuates the entire environment .
I t is i n the execution o f this relatively early p iece that Otomo's imagination was first cap­
tured by the idea o f a world dominated by steam-powered mac h in e s . I t is for this produc­
tion, moreover, that the di recto r bega n to experiment i n a methodical fash i on, and i n ways
deemed revolu tionary at the time, with the synthes is o f CGI and trad itional hand-drawn a n i­
mation . A s Adam Arseneau has observed, the app roach to a n imation evi nced by " Cannon
Fodder" comes across as a s ingular synthesis of "Metropolis-style a n imation blended smoothly
with 1984-esque i magery and themes, with the citizens being dressed i n WWI doughboy­
style helmets and gas masks . The colors, styles and i mages are rem i niscent of vintage warti m e
p ropaganda posters c o m e to l i fe i n a bewilderingly fascinating and tro u b l i n g b a l l e t o f warti m e
society gone m a d " (Arseneau) .
The digi tal component is most effectively evident i n the representation o f persuasively
a n i mated steam, smoke and vapor, as well as i n the execution o f extraord i n arily detailed dials,
con trol instrum ents and gauges . The traditional element, for its part, comes to the fore i n
overtly cartoon ish, hyper-styl ized and even i ntentionally unattractive character designs. These
work most memorably in the climactic sequence where the draw i n g sketched by the you n g
protagonist, a fai rly pedestrian a n d explicitly hand-crafted self-portrait i n the r o l e o f an ide­
alized mil itary hero, comes to l i fe befo re the bewildered gaze o f the yo u n g artist's father. I n
t h is sequence, Otomo ado p ts a deconstructive approach t o h i s chosen medium, deliberately
causing full animation to regress to rough l i nes and crudely applied colors . (An analogous
approach, i t will be recal led, is adopted by Anno at especially charged moments in Neon Gen­
esis Evangelion.) Also notable, where Otomo's technical adventurousness is concerned, is the
a rch i tectural style used i n the depiction of the city. As a means o f conveyin g the i n escapable
opp ress iveness o f the total itarian regime under which the film's beleaguered characters poi nt­
lessly labor from dawn till dusk, day after day and with no gl i m pse o f respite, the director
has resorted to an i ntensely claustrophobic environment in which the edi fices appear to be
stacked together regardless o f perspectival logic as they wo uld i n a typical medieval painting.
I n suppress ing the i m p ression o f depth, the arch i tect u re concurrently p recludes the poss i b i l ­
ity of open i ngs, of b reat h i n g spaces and h e n c e of free movement .
142 ANIME INTERSECTIONS

Faithfu l to the aesthetic of steam punk documented earl ier in this chapter, Steamboy com ­
bi nes a sem i - factual n i neteen th-century setting with technological a n d geo political phenom­
ena that were partly triggered by scientific advances that were al ready u nd e r way within that
particular m i l ieu, and partly occasioned by subsequent devel opments . I ntertw i ned with actual
circumstances perta i n i n g to either the Victo rian era or later h istorical periods are Oto mo's
own speculations about hypothetical situations (and attendant world views) that could h ave
feasibly e manated fro m the given paradigms b u t ca nnot be factually connected w i th a n y
officially recorded events. I t is through t h i s amalgamation of h is torically accu rate p e rspec­
tives, i m agi native refashioni ngs of occurrences drawn fro m different epochs i nto new fictional
wholes, a n d down r i g h t v i s i o nary p rojections that Oromo's movie p u rsues i t s dis t i n ctive
approach to steamp u n k .
Set i n t h e year 1866, Steamboy revolves around t h e i nventor p rodigy Ray Steam . T h e
boy's technological p recoc iousness is h ighligh ted righ t from the start : u p o n h is first appear­
ance, we see h i m stop single-ha ndedly and j ust i n the n ick o f tim e a mechan ical m a l fu n c­
tioning that could otherwise have resu lted in the catastrophic explosion o f a n entire factory.
We next discover his passion for newfangled gadgets of all sorts, and attendant flair for both
analytically dissecti n g existi n g mechanisms and i nventing h is own bizarre, yet surprisingly
efficient. gizmos from scratc h . The boy's relatively quiet existence in Victo rian Manchester,
England, is d ramatically hrought to a halt by his recei p t of a package conta i n i n g an e nigmatic
spherical ohj ect approxi mately the size of a tenp i n bowl ing ball sent by h is gra n d father Lloyd,
who is stationed in Alaska and undertaki ng pioneering research i nto the power of stea m . The
arrival of the mysterious sp here - which Ray has been u rged by a note fro m h i s ancestor to
h ide at all costs from the O 'Hara Foundation - throws the young h ero's l i fe i nto chao s . The
device, i t gradually transp i res, ho uses a novel form of energy p u tatively capable of powering
a whole co untry thanks to i ts extreme levels of both density and p ressure. Moreover, i t is a
key component of a m u ch more complex structu re designed to u n l eash p roportionately e n o r­
mous energy supplies .
The boy must make j udicious use of his precious b u t potentially nefarious treas u re n o t
only to p ro tect h is fam i ly's and h is own well -being but ultimately to save London a s a whole
(where the World Expo meant to showcase Britai n's scientific excellence is takin g p l ace) from
certain annihilation . As the plot u n folds, Ray finds h i mself very much at the center of a multi­
p ronged con fl i c t . The foundation, which has been sponsoring Ray's grandfather's experiments,
wants the steam ball back and indeed will stop at noth i n g to secure i ts retrieval, not o n l y
because of its primary v a l u e as an energy source b u t also - more crucially - because they v i ew
it as instrumental to t h e spawn ing of a vast and obscenely l ucrat ive m i l i tary arsenal . Despite
i ts hypocritical claims to a selfless com m itment to p rogress, the organ izati o n is essent ially a
corpo rational mam moth governed by sheer greed and hence u tterly unscrup u l o us when i t
comes t o t h e forgin g of a chilling array of ki lling mach i n es . Ho u n ded down by b o t h fo u n ­
dation agents and o t h e r tech nopolitical forces wh ich, though at first see m ingly benevolent,
harbor their own power-thirsty agendas, Ray is brutally torn away fro m the safety o f h is
domestic cocoon, with its p icturesque flower beds, lacy curtai ns, Bible lessons at the dinner
table and p rovincial placidity. The o utcome, cinem atically speaki ng, is a thrill-ride p acked
with action sequences of exponentially escal ating scale and momentu m .
It i s hard t o i magine a p rotagon ist more radically divergent than Ray fro m t h e l ead char­
acter of Otomo's first maj o r an ime production, Akira's Tetsu o . The youthfu l idealism and
 Nine-Stcamboy 143

aversion ro violence typ ically evi nced by Ray throughout the fi l m - w ith the exception of h i s
knocki ng o u t o f a derisive teenager early i n the action - are i n deed diametrically opposed r o
Tetsuo's utterly disaffected conduct and Clockwork Orange�style i n d u l gence i n brutal acts of
truly epic proport ions. Yet , this opposi t i o n is not surprising when one considers that Otomo's
more recent pro tagonist i nhabits a cultural context which, though i ntrinsically corrup t and
i n iquirous, still harbors o p t i m istic mental ities, whereas Tetsuo epitom izes the cyn icism of
alien ated and socially maladj usted adolescents trapped in a callous society that only acknowl­
edges youth ro the extent that it can fear i t . In s p i te of these obvious d i ffere n ces, h owever, i t
co uld ultimately b e argued t h a t l ike Tetsuo - a n d in deed l ike t h e child pro tagonist i n "Can­
non Fodder" - Ray, too, is very much the product of a n age that h as n o t (or, at any rate, n o t
yet) ascertained its u n derp i n n i ng rati onale des p i te i ts claims to excellence and e n l i ghtenment .
Accordi ngly, h e , too, is i n ev i tably stranded i n a nebulous no-m an's-land o f u n certainty and
do ubt without any guarantee o f reliable gu idance .
Wh ile Steamboy is fu ndamentally a cau tionary tale about the abuse o f technology, i t
steers clear o f mono l i t h i c i n doctrination a n d delivers in stead a m u l t i perspectival take on the
ideological and eth ical i m p l ications of scientific advancement. The most idealistic approach
on the h umanitaria n side is val iantly voiced by Ray's grandfather, who stau nchly defe n ds the
conviction that science should only be deployed for the good of h umanity and, condem n i n g
i ts association with financial gai n and m i l i tari s m , wo uld rather ado p t Luddite m easures t h a n
continue purs u i n g h i s research . Ray's father, Edd ie, also purports to fos ter a h u m a n i taria n
project i n n o less stridently i nsistent a fashion. However, his overt ch aracterizat i o n a s an i n car­
nation of the deran ged-scientist stereotype - i n d i genous ro futuristic cinema since at least
Fritz Lang's Rotwang (Metropolis, 1926) - makes i t clear that no agenda u l t i m ately u n d erp i n s
h i s m a n i c actions o ther t h a n m egalomania . Additional pathos, i n this c haracter's stunn i n gly
sin ister dep i ction , emanates from his hybrid status as somethi n g of a proto-cyborg : a condi­
tion resulting from Eddie's firsthand involvement i n an i nsanely audac i o u s experi ment that
has left him cri p pled and disfigured in both body and m in d . Thro ugh self-reconsti tution as
a part-mechanical entity, the scientist is able to merge w it h the tech no logy h e has con fi gured
as the path to om n i potence .
It seems h ighly apposite that in the English-language version o f Steamboy the figure o f
t h e m ad scientist s h o u l d h ave been voice-acted b y Mol i n a , who played a very s i m i l ar part i n
Sam Rai m i 's Spider-fofan 2 (2004) i n t h e role o f D o c Ock/Dr. O tto Octav i u s . Likewise, the
employment of Patri ck Stewart as the voice-actor for Ray's grandfather co u l d be said to echo
the l ive-action performer's role i n the X-Men movies (dirs . Bryan Singer, 2000�2003; Brett
Ratner, 2006), where his character's com m i tment to the peacefu l fosteri n g of the mutants'
special powers contrasts s harp ly w i th his rival Magne to's propensity towards belligeren ce .
Wh ile Grandfather Steam believes that science and technology will never effect i vely lead
the way to enl igh tenment as long as they are harn essed to the production of dan gero us tools,
to be wh i msically m a n i p u lated by expansion ist po l i t i cians, exploi tative entrepre n eurs and
p h ilistine shareholders , Eddie dism isses the old m an's world view as a "fa iry tale" vision o f n o
practi cal conseque n ce . This idea i s touch i n gly visual i zed i n the fi l m's cl i m actic moments,
where the villai n's m ega-fortress careens through London's smoky skies with a j e t-packed Ray
in hot p ursu it : a m id the edifice's behemoth assemblage of murky l evers a n d gauges, the "Steam
Castle" also flau nts a charm ing m e rry-go-round of amhenti cally Victorian pastel-hued horses .
At one leve l , therefore , Steamboy focuses on the dire repercuss ions o f a fu ndamentally
144 ANI M E I;-,JTERSECTIONS

fam i l ial clash engendered by radically different perceptions of the fu nction and p urpose o f
science . Through t h is father-son adversarial relationship, wh ich by a n d by req u i res Ray h i m­
self to take s ides as a son and a grandson i n his own right, O tomo explores the b roader issue
o f the transgenerational transfer of technopo litical acco u ntabi l i ty. A t a fu rther level, the
conflict dramatized i n Steamboy is a power struggle of i nternational p ro p o rtions, i nvolving
the aforementioned fou ndation, on the one hand, and the British government and army, o n
t h e o t h e r . Embarrassed (as a n y "proper Victori an" wo uld no d o u b t have b e e n ) a t hav i n g
allowed t h e O'Hara crew t o h i re a pavilion a t t h e C rystal Palace Exh ibition, a fter discover­
ing that the fo undation has deal i n gs w i th co untless nations that i nclude enem ies of t h e
"Emp i re," the latter s e e k to d iscredi t t h e inventions p resented b y the multinational g i a n t at
the event. In the process, they establish an alliance with Robert Stephenson - a scientist who
ought to represent British values legiti mately and i rreproachably. Yet, Stephenson h i mself
turns out to be guided by less than lofty ul terior motifs . Everybody - in dividu als, corpora­
tions, whole nations and govern ments - is ultimately exposed as more o r less tainted by solip­
sistic self-interest .
This may come across as a potentially simplistic message wh ich, some audiences would
argue, does not sit com fortably with the awesome soph istication and u n paralleled subtlety of
the mov ie's tech n ical makeup. However, this disparity between content a n d form becomes
understandable - i f not, n ecessarily, un iversally acceptable - when one entertains the v i ew,
as Kev i n O'Donovan does, that

all of this talk about science is peripheral because Steamboy's strengths do not lie in its themes but rather,
in its aesthetics.... It is a wholly modern, industrial film. Even as Otomo criticizes the misuse of science,
he does not question the material (and aesthetic) value of technology.... Sure, the movie is unrealistic in
the sense that the nineteenth century did not witness the mammoth, sophisticated devices on display in
Ray Steam's England; however, the movie's machines still look and operate like machines .... Oromo's bril­
liant creative vision lies not in forsaking material reality, but in pushing its boundaries to new limits
[O' Donovan].

Eve n critics who have found Otomo's latest film somewhat disappo inting i n com parison w i t h
his revolutionary Akira have conceded that t h e style, action, visual effects and special effects
associated with Steamboy's representation of tech nology - let alone i m plementation thereof­
is generally astounding and almost i nvariably beautifu l . Rene Wal l i n g's review o f the fi l m fo r
Frames per Second Magazine, fo r i nstance, is by no means u n d ilu redly com p l i m entary - i n
fact, Wal l i n g la ments the movie's lack o f adequate character develo p m ent a n d relatively weak
storyl i n e . Yet, her approach to Steamboy's mechanical i n frastructure i n d icates that t h i s sus­
taining aspect of the wo rk is possibly more than su fficient to make i t a memorable experi­
ence . "Al l the machi n ery," the critic has sta ted, "whether i n operation o r being destroyed, is
overwhelmi n g . More attention seems to h ave been placed on the mac h i n es, creating that par­
ticular aesthetic p roper to an imagined cuttin g-edge Victorian technology . . . than anyth i n g
else" (Walling, p. 15 ) .
Alternately functional and grotesque, the machines exude at once a lucid grasp o f tech­
n ical factors requiring realistic rendition and a ludic fascination with the alchem ical magic of
tech no-visionary fantasy. Th is proposition is eloquently corroborated by the Steamboy Adven­
ture Book, a truly inspired i ntegration of frames from the film intended to document its con­
sistent adop t i o n o f altern ative camera angles, ambiences and chromatic p a l e ttes, and of
black-and-w h i te character sketches, model sheets and - most i m p o rtantly - nzecha designs
 Nine-Steamboy 145

that aim at detail i n g the specifically technological facets o f each given scenario w i th a lavish
profusion of lovingl y rendered deta i l s . At times, the machi n es o m i n o usly exude a n over­
whel m i n g sense of crush i n g grav i ty. At others, their elegantly d rawn l i n es b r i n g to m i n d the
almost i m material grace o f fi l igree, with its lace-l ike ornamental work a n d i ntricately i n ter­
tw ined wires.
In assessing steamboy's thematic i m port, it is also i m portant to acknowledge that l ike all
the maj o r productions discussed in t h is book - tho ugh arguably less exp l i c i tly so upon its
first viewing - Otomo's film offers an imagi native synthesis o f Eastern a n d Western perspec­
tives i n the articulation o f i ts ideological preoccupation s . As G abriel Reldman has a rgued, the
movie is "a very s uccessfu l experiment i n Western-style storytell i n g , somethi n g that hasn't
been done . . . i n Japan i n recent memory. " Nevertheless, " W h i l e clearly tryin g to emu late
Western-style blockbuster plot structures, steamboy still retains enough o f a Japanese sensi­
bility to imbue i tself wi th a simple p h ilosophical question that drives the fi lm's narrative . "
The simplicity t o which Reldman refers is of the o rder o f a formal terseness that is most
p roverbially embodied, w i t h i n the domain of Japan's traditional arts, by l inear ink draw ings
and by the h aiku . That is to say, i t is a simplicity that does not seek to efface complexity
(which is precisely what many Hollywood blockbusters tend to do) but rather to e n capsulate
it i n a p ithy composition capable o f stimulating refl.ection and a n alys i s . The result, the critic
p roposes, is "thought-provoki ng, i ntelligent Japanese-style themes com b ined w i t h exciting,
Western-style action set p ieces and pacing" (Reldman) . Th us, alth o u gh some com mentators
have opi ned that steamboy occasionally overi ndulges i n ga rrulous debate over scientific moral­
ity, i t wo uld be hard to refute that beneath the verbiage cop iously issu i n g from the power­
mad Eddie and fro m the sabotage- m inded Lloyd, a sound u ndercurrent o f social satire can
still be detected.
I ndeed, even tho ugh steambo.y is the tale of a Victorian youth ardently resolved to become
an inventor, its p ivotal p reoccupation actually resides with the uses and m is uses o f science
and tech nology. The movie clearly does not asp i re to assert itself as a p h iloso p h ical o r ideo­
logical treat ise, s i nce Otomo's p rincipal aim i n the first place was the creation o f a p rod igal
p i ece o f entertainment that could realistically appeal to lay viewers fro m dive rse backgro u n ds .
Nevertheless, as emp hasized earl ier in this chapter, steamboy's ability to take a mat u re a n d
earnest approach to the t o p o s o f t h e corrupting im pact of scientific advancement s e t s i t apart
from much science-fiction anime of the p u rely commercial ilk.
At its p h ilosoph ically leanest, regardless of any ideologically driven pronou ncements
issuing from its various personae, Steamboy wo rks satisfyingly insofar as it is capable o f rem ind­
ing us, as Jason S ilverman has suggested, that "as with o u r food, we've lost track o f where o u r
machi nes come fro m . " T h i s message is sustained b y recourse to a p u nctilio usly o rchestrated
visual disco u rse that prioritizes the screen i mages themselves over verbal rhetoric p u re and
simple. It does so, as the critic goes on to argue, by urging us to recognize that altho ugh "mod­
ern m achinery is streamlined, mysterious and obvio usly mass - p roduced" to such a n exte nt
that we tend to forget or repress i ts true p rovenance, " h umans m ake m ach i nes, so h umans
should take respons i b i l i t y fo r the damage machi n es can do . . . . Otomo doesn't cure-ify h is
weapons, i nstead maki n g it clear that we are witnessing the i ntroduction o f modern kil l i n g
mach i nes. I t 's l ike see i n g a baby picture of Hi tler" (Silverman) .
The fi l m gathers momentu m i n accordance with the ever - i ncreas i n g i ntensity o f the
sequences devoted to the activation and destruction of steam -powered mach i n e ry. At the same
146 A:--JI ME INTERSECTIONS

time, the (indeed vaporous) i l l usions underlyi ng its p rogress-driven society are i ncrementally
exposed for what they t ruly are by having each and every p iece o f equ ipment r u n s moothly
at first and then i nvariably grind to a halt, splutter to a disappointing end o r else crash spec­
tacu larly i nto the vo i d . The fai l u re of the mach ines thus provides a sustained allego rical com­
mentary on the u nheal thi ness of a self-congratulatory ideology adept to disgui s i n g the q u est
for wealth as a p u rsuit of noble objectives . The fate met by Steamboy's ubiquitous m ach i n es
ultimately constitutes a more memorable and convincing i n dictment o f the culture with which
the film engages than the commonplace rhetoric deployed by Ray's grandfather i n h is effo r ts
to lay bare technology's evil potentialities.
Thus, even though Steamboy is not an animated docum entary i n the strict sense o f the
term (i t is patently not a reportorial replay of l ived events), i t does carry documentary valu e
a s a reflec tion on t h e intractable ambiguities pervading t h e notion o f tech nologi cal develop­
ment i n both its hypothetical and its realized manifestations . Relyi n g on a medium that is
more transparent i n its construction than practi cally any available form of l i ve-action c i n e m a,
the film clearly does not a i m at selling itself off as a genu i n e replica of e m p i rically demon­
strable occu rrences .
For those viewers who are disinclined to regard an imation as a vehicle for the com munica­
tion of anything other than fli msy fantasies, Steamboy's lack of reference to a quantifiable expe­
riential background will automatically exclude the possibility of its carrying docu mentary weigh t .
Nevertheless, Steamboy has no less t o say about actual, lived h istory than legion Hol lywood pro­
ductions purporting to mirror real events i n an obj ective fashion but effectively embodying deeply
biased ideo logical agendas . I ndeed, it offers a version of history which , though it may never have
physically obtained, still resonates with powerful echoes of officially documented h istory. Above
all, the film works as a thought-provoking template for virtually any regime motivated solely by
financially and territorially expansionist p riorities . Steamboy may not belong in the area of h is­
toriography as the supposedly d i spassionate, yet inel uctably p rej udiced, documentation of
identifiable facts . Yet, it does partake of the spirit of historicity as th e disco urse that does not p re­
tend to record incontrovertible truths but proposes that history as such is only ever brought into
existence by the p roduction of mutable textual interp retations. Through the trope o f temporal
displacement supplied by steam punk's retrofutu ristic logic, Otomo's movie contributes to our
current understanding o f h istory insofar as it encourages us to think abo ut the past as a plastic
dimension, a collection of m ight-have-beens, a galaxy of both ful filled and unfulfilled projec­
tions, rather than a crystallized set of data and dates .
A refresh i n gly comedic element is i n fused i nto Ray's tense adventure - and hence i nto
the dark lesson conveyed by Steamboy as a whole - by the p resence o f the character o f Scar­
lett O 'Hara, the fo undation chairman's tee nage scion. Arrogant, self-obsessed and annoyin gly
o p i n i onated, th i s character serves to throw Ray's own maturity i n to rel ief. When she d i s m i sses
his i n s istent tendency to ask questions regarding his father's research as a sign of h is stu pid­
ity, for example, Ray w isely retorts that it is precisely by askin g questions that ignorance may
be transcended . Otomo's female persona is named after the hero i n e o f Margaret M i tchell's
classic romance Gone with the Wind (1936) and indeed bears a crucial a ffi n i ty to the latte r :
j u s t a s Mitchell's spoiled a n d willful sixteen-year-old beauty matures a s a result o f a v ital
encou nter and thereby learns to understand her true feelings, so Otomo's Scarlett grows up
as a result o f her i nteraction with Ray, gradually exh ibiting a potential for com passionate ness
l u rking beneath her whimsical surface .
 Nine-Steamboy 147

Otomo's endeavor to bring Steamboy to the big screen was noth i n g short of hero i c - to
the point that his yo u n g hero's efforts could be said to replicate i n tradiegetically the d irec­
tor's own . A herculean explo it n i n e years in the maki n g , Steamboy required Otomo and h i s
team t o devote a phenom enal amo u n t of time not only to the perfection of existing tech­
niques b u t also to the ideation of brand-new digital systems that wo u l d satisfactorily a l l ow
them to blend trad itional hand-drawn ani mation and CCI in the service of the director's epic
vision . On the who l e , the com puter-generated cuts have been so smoothly incorporated i nto
conventional cel a n i m ation that the digital element never stands out or obviously draws atten­
tion to itse l f. The director h imself has assessed i n detail current attitudes with i n the a n i m a­
tion i ndustry towards hand-drawn and cutting-edge styles, simultaneously elucidat ing relevant
cultural differences between his i ndigenous context and America : " I think the industry in Japan
movi n g toward CGI is not as severe and extreme as i n the u.s . . . . Since Japan is a cou ntry
that prefers plane v ision , I don't t h i n k we will l eave 2D and substitute hand-draw i n g with
CGI entirely. . . . Ap prox imately 4 0 0 cuts [ i n Steamboy]- th a t wo uld m a k e 2 5 percent of th e
total - u s e CG I . . . . D igital an imation is j ust supplementary . . . . Altho ugh al l s tu d io s are now
moving towards digitalization , a fou ndation i n which we draw pictures by hand h asn't changed,
so I foresee that we w ill cont i n u e to keep it i n the fu ture" (Otomo 2 0 0 5 ) .
The unobtrusiveness characterizing the compu ter-generated effects incorporated i nto Steam­
boy owes much to the animators' endeavor to soften and tame their CGI by recourse to a largely
somber palette that suitably mi rrors the mood of the period in wh ich the story is set . Such a pro­
cedu re was abetted by digi tal color-grading: a fine-tuning post-production p rocess that manip­
ulates the chromatic range used in any one scene. Digi tal color-grading also enables the animators
to edit multiple CG layers at once, which allows for the creation and appl ication of highly har­
monious color palettes . The exceptional ly refined controls b u ilt i nto today's color-grading pro­
gram, moreover, make it possible for their contribution to a scene to go virtually u nheeded.
In order to adequately contextualize Otomo's u n fl i nching devotion to the artisanal dimen­
sion of Japanese animatio n , it is im portant to recognize that the contemporary anime scene
features nu merous tech n iques i nt e n ded prec isely to enhance the hand-drawn feel o f its images
even as ground-breaking tools are increasi n gly brough t into play. For exam p l e , the artist and
a n i ma tor "toi8" - most renowned for his work on the a n i m e series Magical Shopping Arcade
Abenobashi (di r . Hiroyuki Yamaga , 2 002) and the video game Ace Combat 4- has persist­
ently proclaimed h i s determi nation to take ful l advantage of the hand-drawn feel of pencil at
the same time as h e h as enth usiasti cally embraced state-of-the-art CGI. Up until relatively
recently, toi8 used to draw exclus ively i n pe ncil, favori n g v i bra n t l y dyn a m i c lines a n d
chiaroscuro effects, s mudges a n d b l ends aided b y a tool known as the torti l lo n . I t was u p o n
his entry into t h e rea l m of comput er-ass isted animation t h a t the artist began t o i n corporate
color by reco urse to digital too l s capable o f closely emulating both the l ush th ickness of o i l
and t h e ethereal mood of watercolor. However, t o i 8 remains faithful t o the w isdom gleaned
from h is hands-on i nvolvement i n traditional ani mation and particularly fro m h is tra i n i n g at
the l ig h t table, where he " l earned to draw characters and backgrou n d o bj ects separately by
i ndividually traci n g the original art i n pencil only" (to i8; quoted in Ichita 200 6 a , p.15 6) . I n
his util ization o f digi tal tech nology, to i8 has by n o means reli nquished this backgro u n d . I n
fact, as Sukemaru I c h i ta expl a i n s, "He makes use o f digital waterco lori n g features . . . to bring
out the character of h i s pen c i l l ines. I t's obvious that to i 8 appreciates the feel of a hand-drawn
illustrat ion and knows how to make the most of one in a digital setting" (Jc h i ta 2006a, p.15 6) .
148 Al'\ I M E INTERSECTIONS

A further cogent examp l e is offered by the p ro l i fi c outp ut of the manga artis t , v ideo game
artist and character designer Ku m iko Suekan e . As Ichita emphasizes, Suekane "th i n k s of d i g­
ital art as a very different medi u m from hand-drawn i l l ustrations" i nsofa r as "CG i mages are
represented by n u merical data ," allowing an ani mator to " let the comp me r handle some of
the more repetitive tasks . " Nevertheless, she regards digi tal tech nology pri marily as a m eans
of bypass i n g u nnecessarily ti me-cons uming and even trivial chores, wh ich e n ables her "to
focus on the actual draw i ng p rocess . " The illustrations, acco rdi ngly, are i n variably "meant to
have a hand-drawn feel" (Ichita 200Gb, p. 15 G) . Concurrently, Su ekane assiduo usly i m p orts
i nto her compu ter-generated images stylistic and tech n ical traits that one wo u l d would cus­
tomarily tend to associate with hand-drawn and hand-painted pictures . These i nclude the
energetic application of paint by means of large brushes, the employment o f long b r ush strokes
of variable w idths to p roduce high lights, the manipulation of opacity filters to create a b l u rred
watercolor effect , and the magn i fi c a tion of the graphic i ntensity of l i n es defi n i n g key somatic
features (especially the eyes) to en hance the emotional i m pact of specific exp ress ion s .
Wh ile endeavoring t o remain loyal t o the specifi c ally hand-drawn qualities o f t h e med i u m ,
Steamboy also relies t o a possibly unequalled extent on recent advan ces i n digital composi t i n g
that allow for t h e editing of disti nct layers in groups, for t h e subsequent addition of l i gh t i n g
effects a n d hence for t h e creation of a depth of fi e ld previously unattainable i n t h e medi u m o f
animatio n . A cardinal role , moreover, was played b y digital "onionskinn i n g . " T h i s tech n ique
origi nates in a p rocedure employed by traditional animators, who would draw o n thin "on i o n ­
skin" paper i n o rder t o be a b l e t o disce rn , through t h e cu rrent image , one o r more o f the p re­
vious drawings i n the animatio n . Therefore, onionskinning is in essence a 20 graphic tech nique
deployed i n the creation and editing of animated movies that enables the inspection o f several
frames at once. Its principal advantage is that i t allows both animators and editors to make
vital decisions as to how an image should be executed o r amended o n the basis of the v isual
i n formation suppl ied by the p receding images i n the sequence . For i nstance, establish i n g the
appropriate position ing of a single character or of a whole cluster of characters within a scene
benefits enormously from the animator's (or editor's) ability to view the backgro und against
which the actions o f the i ndividual or of the group are supposed to take place . In the domain
of digital animatio n , on ionski nning consists fu ndamentally of creating semi-transparent frames,
stacking them and p roj ecting them on top of each other. Most i mportantly, different visual
effects can be located on distinct layers, manipulated and edited independently, and finally com­
posited i nto a final frame or series of frames .
For the sake o f documentary accuracy and i n o rder to absorb the mood o f a lost era,
Oromo and key members of h is tro u p e spent several weeks j o u rneyin g across B ritai n , visit­
i n g museums, sco uting locations (especially old Manchester neighborhoods) , and exam i n i ng
an endless p rocession of original factories, steam engi nes a n d in s tances o f n i neteenth-century
tech nology. Utterly naturalistic portrayals of late n i neteenth-centu ry M anchester a n d Lon­
don are indubitably among the fi l m's most memorable accomp l i s h ments, i n both the b i rd 's­
eye and from-the-grassroots formats . The environment is elevated to the role o f a lead character
in Steamboy. When the fi l m's rhy thm flags, as it occasionally does, Manchester's alternately
p rovi ncial appeal and iconic fu nction as a vision of the I ndustrial Revol u t ion's smoke-sa tu ­
rated darkness, alongside the sheer magnetism of London's Crystal Palace and o f t h e 0 ' 1 l a ra
Fo u ndation Pavilion - clearly inspired by the Royal Albert H all - sustain t h e act i o n as charis­
matic foci i n their ow n righ t .
 Nine �Stcamboy 1 49

I n the execution o f both townscapes and domestic settings, every t i ny detail was the
object of p u nctilious attenti o n, from the m i n utest components o f O tomo's i m aginary machines
to the facial exp ressions o f his convincingly i ndividualized characters . Most crucially, the cre­
ators o f Steamboy did not allow themselves to take a ny shortcuts in the design of the fi l m's
multidi mensional visuals : when a character coll ides with a tab l e , for exa m p l e , every single
object on its surface moves credibly and i n consonance with the scene's cumulative dynamic
thrust .
Wi th their p a instaking backgro und research and p rudently planned i mplementation o f
C G l , Otomo a n d his associates have s ucceeded i n creating an i ntensely atmospheric world
that stands o u t as concurrently fantastic - i n accordance with the generic requ i rements o f sci­
ence fiction - a n d real istic, thanks to the thorough execution o f each m i n uscule component
of both elegant Victo rian interiors and awesome industrial mach i nery. D azzl i n g marble stair­
cases , halls of m i rrors, polychromatic tiled Boors, prismatic glass structures capable o f refract­
ing believably the most l i l l i p utian facets of cou ntless objects, and even items as prosaic as
tableware (i temized fastidiously to the last p iece of cutlery and liq u eu r glass) s h i n e forth i n
a l l thei r graphic magni ficence alongs ide a motley parade of fictional apparatuses .
These include Ray's homemade steam-powered un icycle, a steam - driven "autolocomo­
tive tank," steam-propelled "jetpacks," "battlebots" and "aquacorps," as well as Bying soldiers
equipped with canvas-shrouded w i n gs worthy of any respectable latter-day Icarus . A steam­
activated dirigible endowed with colossal lobster claws, freighter-sized riveted submarines
(also energized by stea m , o f course) , and armored knights known as "steam troopers" also
m ake p rominent appearances. Should the word "steam" appear to h ave been excessively re it­
erated i n the forego i n g description , even a cursory glance at almost any o f the movie's myr­
iad cuts will explain the reason for i t : Steamboy veritably exudes vaporous effects o f deftly
varied density and fo rce right from the very first frame o f its opening sequence . As Davide
Taro persuasively argues, "With Otomo and Steamboy, steam becomes a n ethica l p ro tagon ist ,
and an imation i ts soul and body, its most accomplished and natu ral i ncarnation - an actual
character, an im manent p resence l i ke the kami [spirits] i n the S h i nto rel igion , o m n i p rese n t ,
with a l i fe o f i t s own" (Taro 2004a ; my translation) .
Steamboy's machi n es are o ften mass ive and u nyielding ensembles brist l i n g w i t h cogs,
bolts, gears, p ipes, valves and a perplexingly elaborate latticework o f crankshafts, r ivets a n d
i nterlocki ng gears . "As the grandfather and father reveal t h e i r i nventions," writes P h i l i p p a
H awker, "the screen i s wreathed i n stea m , fi lled w i t h i mages of p istons, c r a n k s , cables, wheels
and pulleys, always on the verge of b reaki n g , bursti n g o r exploding - like a vast and volatile
Meccano set run wild" (Hawker) . Nonetheless, their exuberantly hand-wrought look also ren­
ders them u n remittingly beautifu l . This is not to say, as intim ated earl ier , that Otomo is eager
to edulcorate his weapons so as to efface their actual p u rpose . In fac t , the audience is never
allowed to forget that what the film is dramatizing is the inception o f modern weapons of
mass destruction . The fi lm's top ical and historical rel evance is corroborated, in the climax,
by the s ur realistically drea m l i ke seq uence i n which random eruptions o f steam freeze i n to a
gigantic bloom o f j agged ice . I n visualizing l iterally the abstract notion o f " Cold War , " the
sequence functions as a p o i gnant rem inder of the terminal folly u nderlyin g all forms o f war­
fare , actual or imaginary.
Thus, the movie p roposes that tech nological advances are , at l east p o tentially, destruc­
tive an d beneficial i n eq ual meas ures . In so doi ng , Stea mboy concomitantly points to the vir-
150 ANIME INTERSECT IONS

tual i nextricab ility o f the h u man from the tech no logical . Whether we p romote tech nology as
the p rom ise o f a brighter future or oppose i t as i n i m ical to o u r well-bei n g , we i nexorably
frame our identities as h uman beings with reference to tech nology. By expo u n d i n g this mes­
sage , Otomo's film could be said to echo the central argu ment advanced by Bern ard Stiegler
i n Technics a n d Time, where the ph ilosopher provides a theory o f time based on the p re m ise
that the hu man and the technological are i nseparable - that the h o m i n iz i n g p rocess is i n ex­
tricable from the evo l u t ion o f techne, despite the sustained marginalization o f tech n o l o g y as
a side-effect o f h uman evolution ro utinely performed by Western metaphysics .
Technology is n o t a system that makes i ts appearance a s a consequence o f t h e appear­
ance of h u m a n i ty. In fact , tech no logy and h umanity co uld be said to emerge i n tandem inso­
far as h u mans have always needed technical supplements (fire, flint, wea pons) and cannot be
deemed ever to have been u n p roble matically "natural" i f by "natural " o n e means nontech n i ­
cal . H u m a n s are fu ndamentally "tech nol ogical" creatures t o t h e exte nt t h a t the cou rse o f
h u man existence on Earth cannot be divorced from t h e emergence and successive metamor­
phoses o f tec h n ical obj ects that make h u mans - that is to say, define their cultural rol es and
positions - even as they are made by them. Anthropogenesis and tech nogenesis therefo re coa­
lesce . The proposition that techn ology is a crucially completing ele m en t without w h i c h
humanity, by definition deficient, could not subsist is ass iduously articulated by Steamboy i n
i ts entirety o n the al legorical p l a n e , a n d fi nds a l i teral encapsulation i n Eddie's self- rei nve n ­
tion as a man-mach i n e hybrid : a com posite e n t i t y where i n p rosthetic adj u ncts cann o t be
regarded as merely enhancing accessories si nce they are actually instrum ental to the o rga n ­
ism's functionality and sheer su rvival .
I n i m p a r t i n g mechan ical obj ects w i t h l i fe-susta i n i n g facuities , O tomo's fi l m echoes
Stiegler's suggestion that the sharp distinction between "orga nic" and " i nert" ent ities p ro m ­
ulgated by Aristotle and by m a n y o f his disciples is i ncorrect . For the Greek p h ilosopher a n d
h i s followers, o rga n i c entities a r e creatures formed by n at u re and capable o f i n i ti at i n g by
themselves movement and change, and i nert entities, conversely, are artificial o bj ects with n o
self-constitutive o r self-transforming powers . For Stiegler, however , tech n ical constructs are
actllally endowed w i t h l i fe , tempora l i t y and dyn amism -- a distinct ive mach i n i c phyl u m .
Stiegler uses t h e p h rase "organ ized inorgan ic entities" t o designate these techn i cal o bj ects :
though non-biological , they are "al ive" and possess an underlying order.
What both i ndividual memo ry and recorded h istory offer, ultimately, is a socio- p o li ti­
c a l record o f transformations in the relationship between the h u man and the technological
which can be tran smi tted from one generation to the next and fo rm the basis fo r s u bsequent
recon figuration s . H u m a n beings u n derstand temporality by gras p i n g the transformati o n o f
o rgan i c m a tter over t i m e . I n t h e case of organized i n o rgan ic entities, t h e pass i n g o f t i m e is
s ignalled by transformations i n tech n i cal structures and fu nctions. Techn ical o bj ects fo l l ow a
phyl u m of transformations that are un iversal to the extent that they traverse disparate cul­
t u res over t i m e . These , i n turn , b u i ld up a tech nology of memory - a m nemotech nology ­
that encompasses all the technol ogies (econom i c , political , rel igious, aesthetic, etc . ) through
which hu man social fo rmations come i nto being and change over the ages . Hence , memory
cannot be reduced to a n archaeological reconstruction p romising a conclusive captu re of the
past for i t is actually a p rocess o f unstoppable becoming. Otomo offers a very original ver­
sion of such a phyl u m by i nterm i ngl ing actual mechan i cal accom p l i s h ments (bo t h u nder way
i n the Victorian age and real ized by subseq uent generations) with totally i magi nary configura-
 Nine -Steamboy 151

tions o f tech nology. What steamboy thereby del ivers is alternately a s u rvey o f h istorically
identifiable occu rrences and ach ievements, and a visionary j o u rney into as many u n explored
or u n fu l fi l led possi b i l i ties.
Also relevant to the scenario mapped out by Otomo's fi l m is Stiegler's motion that the
relations h i p between the h u man and the tech nological m a n i fests itself as a thanatology ­
namely, a d isco u rse on mo rtal i t y - because both the h u m a n and the technological mark a n
i n evitable entry i n t o temporality a s t h e prereq u i s i te fo r existence, and temporal ity inel uctably
entails finitude . We can only be by e nt eri ng a sphere of b u i l t- i n obsolescence , by h av i n g to
con front continually the p rospect of o ur cessation . In the mythical world o f the Garden o f
Ede n , t i m e a n d death m igh t have n o t obtained. B u t t h e so-called Fall - what occasions the
appearance o f " Man" as we know it - ushers i n both temporal i t y and mortal i ty. l iumanki nd's
postlapsarian status is tied to a paradox : the p recondition of our appearance is disappearance,
that of o u r realization , our derealization.
I t is wel l - n igh i m possible to i magine more vivid a dramatization o f th is topos within the
medi u m o f animation than Steam boy's tantalizing scenario of rampant devastation as the log­
ical ou tcome of an i n i q u i to u s coal ition between h u ma n i ty and tech nol ogy. The s i t uation p re­
sented i n the fi l m's c l i m actic moments does not allude to a peacefu l attenuation o f existence
but rather to a cataclysmically entrop i c collapse . The scale o f th is thanatological vision is
entirely com mensurate with the hyperbo lic levels o f l u n acy that underpin the schemes har­
bored by steamboy's villains i n thei r tech nology-abetted p u rsuit o f power and l ucre .
The Vice- Ve rsa review o f Steam boy p roposes an intrigu i n g parallel between the fi l m and
trad i tional art i n specifically equa t i n g the tenebrous intri cacy of Otomo's world to the work
o f the Italian etcher, archaeologist and archi tect G iovanni Pi ranesi 0720- I77R) . An u ndis­
puted master o f both the su bl i me and the grotesque , des tined ro i n fluence n u merous schools
developing i n later years, including Surreal ism , P i ranesi is most famous fo r h i s depiction of
sub terranean chasms, balefu l engines and hollows filled w i th wheels, chains and racks. I t
co uld hardly be den i ed t h a t s u c h vistas vividly anticipate m a n y o f steamboy's typical setti n gs .
Steam boy, Vice- Ve rsa p roposes,

exhibi ts a Piranes i - l i ke obsess ion w i t h giga l l l i c cOll l rapr ions, a m a gni ficent Victorian sense of gears, pul­
leys, and belts, and a Dantesque fascination with dark underworlds and murk .... Even the film's coloration
i s sepia toned. Not too many m inutes of film pass before the v iewer recognizes something no longer quite
common, indeed somewhat forb idden to modern sensitiv i t i es : deliberately constructed allegory.... We are
allowed to see the past as an allegory for t he future 1 "Stearn boy: Revi ew, " Vice- Versal .

A fu rther a ffi n i t y between Oromo's world and trad i tional art is i n voked by the e m phat­
ically textural and syn aesthetically tangible nature of Steam boy's visuals. Particu l arly cons p i c­
uous where vas t urban tableaux are concerned, these attribu tes imbue the fi l m as a whole with
i ntensely oleograph i c qua l i ties . I ndeed, j ust as a masterful oleograph is capable o f conveying
the feel o f o i l painting t h ro ugh the medi u m o f print, so steamboy closely a p p roximates the
densi t y of o i l -based p i gments on film. I t is no co i n cidence, therefore, that Otomo's movie
should find an aesthetic co rrelative in the opus o f one o f the most p ro ficient oil painters of
all ti mes : Josep h Mallord William Tu rner (I77 5 - I R 5 ! ) . Both Tu rner's distinctive p alettes and
his compositional methods are repeatedly echoed (though, i t is to be ass umed, not i ntention­
ally mimicked) by OtonlO 's magni ficent u rbanscapes . Fu rthermore , the n i n eteenth-century
artist's predilect ion fo r vapo rous effects capable of co m mun i cating the aliveness o f the most
elus ive substances and atmospheric age nts, i n c l u d i n g l i gh t particles, w i t h p a lpable i ntensity
152 ANI M E INTERSECTIONS

i n d i rectly anticipates Otomo's fascination with the nature and rep resentabi l i t y of steam a n d
related phenomen a .
I t is i n "Rain , Steam a n d Speed" (1844) that Tu rner foreshadows m o s t overtly t h e world
o f Steamboy, not only by virtue of its visual effects but also due to the painting's metaphori­
cal encapsulation o f the zeitgeist of the very epoch wh ich Otomo seeks to both docu m e n t and
reimagi n e . At the same time, Steamboy's rendition of the Thames captu red assiduously fro m
�

a variety o f b o l d angles viv idly recalls Turner's own lovi ng portrayals o f t h a t river's restless
�

waters , the ever-sh i fting play of l ight and shadow on i ts mercurial s u r face , and the n e b u l o u s
aura oozi n g fr o m vessels and docks alike . F o r Tu rner, t o w h o m the Thames w a s a fam i l i a r
s i g h t v i rtually from b i rth, a maj o r source of inspiration beside h i s homeland scen ery was
Venice, the city of reflections and refractions par excel lence . For Otomo, in keep ing with the
ethos of akogare n o PariJ all uded to earlier in this discussion , London itself would constitute
a comparably enticing object of latently outlandish all ure .
I t could also b e suggested that Otomo's fascination with cru m bling topogra p h i es, which
reaches i ts catastrophic cli max i n Steamboy's epic finale, harks back to Turner's yo uthful at trac­
tion to alternately p icturesque and sublime i mages of rui nation and decay. I n both Steam­
boy's climax and many of Turner's most famous paintings, the p re ference fo r the catastro p h i c
and the melodramatic openly announces itself. Most im portantly, j us t a s the B ritish artist
repeatedly tended to em ploy classic icons of turbule nce and destruction such as storms, ava­
lanches and w h i rlwinds as metaphors fo r the inexorable disi ntegrat ion of e n t i re c u l t u res a n d
civil izati o n s , so O tomo (as all uded t o earl ier) a l l egorically e m p l aces t h e collapse o f h i s
technology-satu rated enviro n m e nt a s emblematic o f t h e evaporation o f whole ideologi e s .
Concu rrently, neither Tu rner nor Otomo allows t h e darker s i d e of h i s oeuvre , which amou nts
to an uncompromising exposure of h uman p u n i ness i n the face of the i n fi nite, to triumph so
absol u tely as to p reclude any extant gl im mers of hope. In fac t , the al most magical l u m i nos­
ity of the atmosphere in which many of their scenes are bathed could be said to testify to an
enduring com mi t ment to natu re's l i fe-givi ng essen ce .
I n the works o f both Turner and Otomo, we witn ess the l i fe-affirm i n g power o f q u i n ­
tessentially painterly sensi b i l i ties kee n on approaching b o t h n a t u ral and m a n - m ade setti n gs
not as givens to be merely mi rrored by brushwork or by camera work but ra ther as i nexhaustible
quarries of p recious gems to be u n relenti ngly rev isi ted and re-exa m i n ed . In this scenario,
both painting and cinematography assert themselves as open-ended successions o f visual dis­
coveries . I t is i n consonance with this ethos that Otomo posits h i s ax ial p ictorial and sym ­
b o l i c element steam -- as o m i n ous and u p l i ft i n g at once . T h e p o s i t ive e n t h ron i n g o f
�

spi ritually nourishing values co uld be said t o p rovide an o p t i m istic corrective fo r the rather
bleaker scenario documented earl ier i n relation to Otomo's take on thanatol ogy. In the case
exami ned earl ier, the end can only be conceived o f as catastrop h i c because it is e n ge n dered
by selfishness, rapaciousness and brutality and cannot therefo re act as a viable p relude to a
p rom ising reb i rth . I n the latter case , conversely, the prospect of thi ngs com i n g to an end is
never undilutedly frightening, i nsofar as a fresh begi n n i n g is always believed to be i n h e rent
i n any moment o f ostensible term ination.
Accordi ngly, even tho ugh the fi l m repeatedly inti mates that steam can be profo u n dly
destructive i n both i ts industrial and its military appl ications, it also p ro poses that there is
someth i n g disarm i n gly elegant about this elusive su bstance . The structural and rhy th m i c
orchestration of Steamboy's entire n arrat ive repl icates this sense of visual grace b y means o f
 Nine -Steamboy 1 53

its pace, building up i ts overall momentum and timing its p rotracted, yet flawlessly sustained,
climax in a discip l ined fash i o n . The fil m's own steam valve is t h us gradually turned one n otch
at a time . The movie is quite capable o f providing the frisson o f a n electrifyi n g rollercoaster
ride packed with sensational action sequences and vibrant characters, yet i ts overarching tempo
is h ighly deliberate and scrupulously calculated throughout . Ultimately, Otamo's latest achi eve­
ment stands o u t as a paean ta the i ntrinsic madeness of the art of a n imation in demonstrat­
ing that even though traditional a n i mation may never aga i n exist as i t once did - after all ,
the terms " i n k" and "paint" themselves no longer denote either " i n k" or "paint" i n the domain
of digital technology b u t rather strings of zeros and ones - reports of the death o f 2 0 eel ani­
mation within the i n d us try and the media have been grossly i n flated .
 TEN

Ho wl 's Moving Castle

Howl's Moving Castle 's naturalistic. traditionalzy drawn animation is top-notch and is combined
seamlessry with a fow (mostry mechanical) elements that are computer generated (more so than Spir­
ited Away). What remains bajJling is how Miyazaki 's hand-drawn characters deliver so much emo­
tion without calling attention to their simple design. ellen though they are constantry contrasted by
incredibry rich and detailed scenery. The answer to that is the work of Studio Ghibli 's master ani­
mators. and the writing. which make this animatedjilm high�y engaging although it does not foa­
ture a lot of action and adventure (unlike 1997's Princess Mononoke). - A nnen BOlldjikanian
Miyazaki 's jilms require a conscious investment of attention; you have to immerse yourself in
them. and soon you will jind yourselffloating. buoyed up by his gentlene.rs. his lJiSllal eXl/ber,mce.
and his unshowy intelligence 'lIId emotional literacy. [Howl's Moving Castle} is a lovery/ilm for all
ages. - Peter Bradshaw

Two years i n the maki n g , Howl 's Moving Castle was released i n Japan i n November 2004 and
i n other parts o f East As i a , as well as i n France, over the follow i n g fou r months . The film's
European debu t occurred at the 61st Ven ice I nternational F i l m Festival (September 2 0 04) ,
where H ayao M iyazaki received the p restigious Golden Osella Award fo r Tech n ical Excel­
lence . The name o f Studio Ghibl i's most renowned director came aga i n i nto p ro m i n e nce at
the 2 0 0 5 Ven ice Film Festiva l , where the director was presented w i th a l i fe t i m e ach ievement
awa rd . As Clara Ferre i ra-Marques has noted i n her acco unt o f the eve n t , when offe red the
coveted p rize , M iyazaki "al most did not come at a l l , dismissing the achievement award as
'someth i n g for old ret i red people . ' B u t he was then told that Clint Eastwood was given the
same award shortly before go ing on to w i n an Oscar with Million Dollar Baby." M iyazaki is
rep u ted to have crisply riposted : '' 'Then , I had no argu ment'" (Ferre i ra-Marq ues) . Howl
received its U . S . p re m iere in June 2 0 0 5 and its U. K. debut in September o f the same yea r.
The Engl ish-langu age dub, di rected by Pete Docter o f Monsters Inc. fam e , flau nts an u n q ues­
tionably stellar cas t , enlisti ng not only the talents of contem po rary personali ties such as Ch ris­
tian Bale, Em ily Mort i mer and Blythe Danner, b u t also those o f Lau re n Baca l l , Jean S i m mons
and B i l l y Crys tal . !
Docter h a s amusingly described Baca l l's initial i nvolvement i n t h e proj ect , t o which she
contributed the vo ice o f the story's arch-v i l lainess, in an i nterview i n c l u ded in the Optimum
Releas i n g "Special Features" DVD : "We were a l ittle b i t scared before she came i n because
she had n't had a chance to see the film before she recorded and so we were t h i n ki n g , ' O h , I
don't know i f she's go i n g to a ppreciate being the vo i ce of this blobby, fat , kind o f disgusti n g

1 54
 Ten - Howl's Moving Castle 155

characte r.' So w e tried t o expl a i n to h e r a l ittle before w e went i n that h e r character is maybe
a little desp icab l e . And she sai d : 'D ahl i n g , I was born to p lay despicable' " (Docter 2006) .
Tho ugh not especially sign i ficant as an element of the fi l m's exegesis, th is an ecdote is
worthy o f cons ideration , i n the p resent context, insofar as i t operates as a succi nct remi nder
o f the refreshingly good- h u mo red dispos ition with wh ich gen u i ne a rtists are able to embark
upon even seemingly unpalatable tasks.
As mentioned i n Chapter 1 , Howl received a nom i n ation fo r Best Ani m ated Featu re ri l m
a t the time o f the 78th Ann ual Academy Awards (March 2006) and alth o ugh the fi l m did not
eventually receive the Osca r, its very nomination attests to global recogn ition o f i ts quality.
It is also worth rei te rati ng th at Howls nom i n ation alongside two other fi l ms (Nick Park and
Steve Box's Wallace and Gromit: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit and Tim B u rton and M i ke
Johnson's Tim Bu rton's The Corpse Bride) that firmly enth rone the animator's hand i n the face
of the apparent dom i n ance o f comp uter anim ation bears witness to an u n dying attraction to
the medium's artisanal dimension. Un fortu nately, D isney-led distribution of M iyazaki's fi l m
i n U.S. cinemas did p recio us l ittle t o b r i n g i t t o the attention o f real audiences due t o what
Marc Hai rston h as q u ite tersely described as " inept marketin g . " As the critic exp l a i n s , " D is­
ney showed every inte ntion o f doing it right when they h i red legendary actresses of the cal­
iber of Jean S im mons and Lau ren Bacal l to vo ice the main characters . The Japanese p ress
reponed that D isney was plann i n g on an 800+ screen release th is ti m e . . . and then . . . Howl
never got past 202 screens at i ts widest release it left most maj o r markets after only two o r
th ree weeks a n d i n the end it o n l y p u l led ill $4.7 million , a bit s h y o f what Spirited Away d i d
i n i ts original release, and a paltry sum compared to the $ 1 9 0 m i l l ion b o x oHice it did i n Japan"
(Hai rston 2006) .
Like Kats u h i ro Otomo's Steamboy, Howl discloses an imaginary version of late n i neteenth­
ce ntu ry Europe . This world's graphic v i b rancy is largely i ndebted to methodical fieldwork i n
numerous Eu ropean locations, a s well a s to close study of the handl i n g o f l i ght, co lor, p e r­
spective and atmosphere i n Western o i l painting from seventeenth-centu ry D utch art to the
i m p ression ists (especially Claude Monet) . The princi pal geograph ical a rea from which i nspi­
ration was drawn was Alsace , a pictu resque region i n northeastern France . Art d i rect o r Yoj i
Takeshige has elucidated i n depth these cr ucial aspects o f Howls visual identity : "At the i ni ­
tial stage , the d i recto r refe r red us t o th e work o f a n i l l ustrato r n a m e d Albert Ro b i d a
(l84 8�1926) . . . . I h a d exp e ri ence i n o i l painting, s o I incorporated Weste rn approaches t o col­
ors and space i nto my work . For example, I thought o f l i ghti n g and atmosphere in Vermeer's
paintings when I was worki n g on the scene where Sophie q u i etly wo rks away in her wo rk­
shop, although I am not sure I succeeded . . . . There a re Western pai ntin gs , p a rticularly those
by the I m p ressionists , where the obj ects aren't d rawn in detail . The l i ghtin g depicts the space
instead . By trial and erro r , I tried to emulate that sens ibility" (Takeshige, p. 4 9 ) .
The execution o f backgro u n d art for the natural scenery was no less exacti n g a tas k : ele­
m ents o f a setting that co u l d be regarded as rel atively margi nal or merely ornament a l yet con ­
tribute vitally to its disti nctive mood frequently p roved the most deman d i n g , regardless o f
the i r documentary sou rces . T h e experience reco unted b y backgro und artist Kazuo O ga offers
a classic exam p l e : "The Aowerbeds in the moors had to be p retty so I really sp read them all
over the draw i n g . I did a lot of draw i n gs fo r th is scene including the clouds and h i gh moor
slopes . . . . D raw i n g all those dots i n the dis tance was p retty t i r i n g" (Oga , p. 1 5 I ) . Readers who
are al ready fam i l iar w ith the film will be quick to app reciate the backgro u n d artist's p redica-
1 56 ANIME INTERSECTIONS

ment; those who are yet to view it will grasp it no less readily upon the i r very first e n c o unter
with Oga's floral feast.
Visual allusions to Wales are also noteworthy, even though these are not as p r o m i n e nt
i n Howl as they we re i n Laputa: Castle in the Sky (198 6) , where the disti nctive mood o f Welsh
mining villages and o f their natural surrou ndi ngs is i ntensely palpable fo r large portions o f
the action. Visiti ng Blaenau F festi niog after seeing Laputa, for example, evokes an al most over­
whelm i n g sense o f dej a-vu, as th ough one had al ready i nti mately experienced via the fi l m
itself the village's verti g i nous perspectives a n d h istoric rai lway, c l i m b i n g over 7 0 0 feet from
sea level i nto the mo u ntains ro und horseshoe bends, clinging to the rock o r tunnell i n g th rough
it. The Welsh landscape makes itself felt i n a far more tangential fash ion i n Howl: most mem­
o rably in the " Star Lake" sequence, where the dominant atmosphere is potently redolent of
springtime v i ews o f Lake Bala (" Llyn Tegid" in Welsh) , namely the largest n atural wate r
resource at the heart of Snowdo n i a .
A s t o h ow M iyazaki h i mself absorbs and then recon figu res v isual i m p ress ions glea ned
from foreign travel (not only i n Howl but across his enti re oe uvre) , it is wo rth citi n g p ro ­
ducer Toshio S uzuki's a necdotal remarks on the s ubj ect : " M iya-san and I used t o travel a t
t h e completion o f a fi l m; fo r fun , not research . . . . Miyazaki's favorite p l ace w a s I relan d . . . .
O n e eve n i n g . . . we saw the landscape under a wh ite n ight. I t was such a beautifu l scene that
I did someth i n g rare : I took a photo . M i yazaki did someth i n g more ra re; he got an gry at
me. ' I 'm tryi n g to remember th e scene; don't distu rb me!' . . . . M iyazaki does not o ften work
from photos; he sees, and recalls ... i n th is way, the work becomes original" (S uzuki). I t i s
t h e u n i q u e , a t ti mes even idiosyncrati c , fashion i n which the di recto r rei m agines h is visual
recollections, more tha n any amo u nt o f methodically documentary researc h , th a t ultimately
i m p a rts his movies w ith u n paralleled evocativeness for the most d iverse audiences a ro u n d
the globe .
Even the documentary data garnered by means of hands-on research were not, more­
over, automatical ly transposed onto paper. In fact, they were studio usly s i fted by M i yazaki
h i mself and by his colleagues th rough a double filte r : its creators' Easte rn sens i b i l ity (and
rel ated perceptions o f th e West) , and the b izarre proj ections o f tech n o p ro p hets from the e ra
u nder scrutiny. The resulr is a retro futu ristic fantasy pervaded by m any o f the aesthetic trade­
marks o f steam p u n k . In Steamboy, as we have seen , that generic m ix is harn essed to a critique
o f the evils o f pro fit-oriented and warmongeri n g scientific advancement. In Howl, it l i kewise
fuels a sustained indictment o f materialism and of m i litarist agendas thi rsty for full-spectr u m
dominance . Thus, a s Peter Bradshaw has noted , th e histo rically hybrid setti n gs po rtrayed b y
the fi l m never degenerate i nto nostalgic paeans t o a ntiquarianism b u t actually encapsu late dis­
tu rbing ideological messages : "The film . .. is set i n a fictional middle E u ropean town o n an
u nnamed coast - sort o f Bath crossed with B ru ges, with a h i n t o f Vulgaria, the city-state in
Chitty Chitty Bang Bang. There are trams and quaint automo b i les, and tow n squares l ined
w ith b uildi ngs spo rti ng p icturesq ue oak beams . B ut it is a town at war; the bew i lde red pop­
ulace witnesses incursions from retro-futurist s h i ps and planes, disgorg i n g m issiles and bombs"
(Bradshaw, P.).
At the same t i m e , Howfs treatment of the rheto r i c o f steam p u n k serves to s u stai n
Miyazaki's deconstructive approach to the fantastic, especially i n its fairy tale fo rm . Th u s , the
film encompasses both traditional motifs and n ovel reassessments o f the i r legacy. T h i s the­
matic ambivalence, as a rgued i n some detail later i n th is chapter, is paralleled by Howfs seam-
 Ten �Howl's Moving Castle 157

less i ntegration o f 2 D cha racter designs w ith symbolically stylized traits and i nnovative d i g­
ital tools capable n o t only o f accom plishing visual and special effects u nachievabl e by tradi­
tional means b u t also o f enhancing the hand-crafted look o f the man ually executed graph i cs .
Howl the movie is based on a popular novel b y the prolific British fan tasy author D i a n a
Wynne Jones, an i nveterate devo tee of Miyazaki's works . As N i c k B radshaw maintains,

The match between her books and Miyazaki's art could hardly b e closer. Both address themselves t o chil­
dren's struggles with self-belief in magical, mystif ying and highly mutable other-worlds. Jones says she's
been an admirer since catching a pirated version of his Laputa: Castle in the Sky at a science-fiction con­
vention. "I was absolutely hit in mid-ships," she remembers, "to the extent of watching it whenever it was
showing. It was the most amazing thing when nearly twenty years later I suddenly got these overtures say­
ing Miyazaki would like to make a film of Howl" [Bradshaw, N.J.

Like the novel it l o osely adapts , the movie p ivots on S o p h i e , a deeply conscientious
eighteen -year-old m i l l i ne r with artistic skills so exceptional as to verge o n magic , who is led
by her timid and self-effacing personality to believe that she is in fact destined to a decidedly
unexceptional futute . The hero i ne's o p i n ion of hersel f and of her fate is abruptly contrad icted
by the ap pearance onto the scene of the Witch of the Waste, a l u ridly glamorized hag who
spitefully morphs S o p h ie i nto a n i nety-year-old woman out of j ealo usy. Jones h as stated that
the idea was, to a sign i ficant extent, triggered by personal experience : "Though now in her
seventies, Jones explains that she was inspired to write the story two decades ago, when her
lactose- i n tolerant condition � a mystery to the medical profession , she says �first left her
hobbling on walking stick s . 'It's not been fu n ; i n fact i t's been a grotesque t i m e , ' she s i ghs .
'B ut i f there's nothi n g else to be done, yo u get on with it'" (Bradshaw, N . ) . Unable to perse­
vere i n her quotidian rou t i n e , HOWlS p rotagonist abandons her home town in search o f a shel­
ter and, ideally, o f a means o f dissipating the dreadful spel l . I t i s on th is u n p redictable j o u rney
that Sophie chances upon the titular castle and settles there i n i n the self-appointed rol e o f
clean ing-lady w i t h an i n sistence s h e would never have been capable o f a s a yo u n g girl , thus
becom ing an i ntegral part i n the l ives of the cap ricious wizard Howl and o f h is cha r m i n g child
apprentice Markl .
Sophie soon d iscovers that the fire-demon charged with the tas k o f powering the mon ­
strous edifice, Calcifer, i s h i mself i n the thrall o f a baneful spel l , a n d strikes a bargai n with
h i m stipulating that each w i l l endeavo r to put an end to the other's p l i g h t . What renders the
predicament o f both characters most i ntractable is their inabil ity � i ntentionally sealed i nto
their respective c u rses to vocalize the causes of their current state . As these person a l o rdeals
�

unfold, a much larger one s imultaneously comes to fill the scree n : the entire country is at the
mercy of unscrupulous warmongers, and ravaged by i ncreasi n gly horrific con flagrations abet­
ted by proliferating technologies and by their ugly b reed o f p ro tean mutants .
Howl's position i n the fray is h ighly problematic : when the monarch a n d the Royal
Witch Madame S uli man i nsistently request his assistance as a skilled magici a n , he cunni ngly
dodges their demands under the p retense that he wants no part in m artial affa i rs . Yet , Howl
secretly p u rs ues his own agenda by actively i n terfering with the m i li tary campaign and, in the
guise o f a portentous b i rd of p rey, stal l i n g the most vicious a i r raids thereby fac i n g the loss
�

of his own l i fe o r else, more omin o usly sti l l , the risk o f not bei n g able to regai n his h u m a n
fo rm. T h i s is not to s a y that t h e wizard is an unequivocal c h a m p i o n o f v irtuous conduct. I n
fact , h e is consistently portrayed as a fashion-obsessed megaloman iac , c a p a b l e o f d issolving
i nto a malodorous deluge o f slimy tears when his hai r-dye appl ication yields unexpected Ollt-
158 ANIME INTERSECTI ONS

comes. Thus, Howl is h imself p resented as a v ictim of a cultu ral sco u rge that may be less eso­
teric than the D a rk A rts and less explicitly nefarious than bellicosity but is ultimately no less
perniciously u b i q u ito us - namely, commodity fetishism and the cognate idealization of the
" beauty myth . " Moreover, Howl too labors under a malevolent charm as disab l i n g as the spells
afflicting Soph ie and Calcifer. This plot point will shortly be returned to .
What must first be reflected upon is the hero i ne's role i n Howl's crypto - m i l i tary explo its .
Seekin g to elude his duty to the monarch once and fo r all, and hence p u rsue u n h i n de red h is
personal missio n , Howl sends Sophie ro the palace d isguised as his aging mother so that she
w i l l persuade Suliman to give up on the wizard as a hopeless coward . O n her way to the palace ,
Sophie comes face to face once more with the Witch of the Waste , summoned by the ki n g as
another des i rable aide-de-camp. However , it rapidly becomes obvious that S u l i man's aim is
not to deploy the skills o f other magicians but rather to sap her guests o f all magical powers
by means of her own formidable incantations . The once mighty sorceress is accordingly reduced
to a senile and shrunke n old lady, whom Sophie will thereafter rehouse in Howl's castl e and
forgivingly cater for (alongside Suliman's spy dog Heen ) . The sequence i n which the Witch
of the Waste is su bdued by the Royal Witch's superior sorcery constitutes one of the enti re
film's most zestfully magical ep isodes . The sequence relies s ubstantially on dazzl i n g c h o reog­
raphy and on a mesmerising setti n g , replete with eerie l ights iss u i n g from spooky vessels aki n
to the blazin g alembics o f an an cient al chem ist. The lights gradually gel i nto origam i - l i ke
shadow figures, revo l v i n g in a manda l a formation a round the charm's help less v i cti m u ntil
her powers have been entirely van qu ished .
The attenuation o f the Witch of the Waste's powers is fi rst alluded to i n a sequence that
Armen Bo udj ikanian has graphically analyzed as follows :

There is a noteworthy scene in this film that takes place on a stairway leading to the royal palace . In it,
old Sophic and the Witch of the Waste (also elderly) climb the stairs . . . . The action is minimal, since the
ladies walk very slowly, bur the looks and the lines the two women exchange in this scene are most expres­
sive. The way Miyazaki shows these two elderly ladies making their way up the stairs, unassisted by the
royal guards, is incredibly moving and enrertaining- a memorable scene in the history of animated film
and of fiction films in general [BoudjikanianJ.

Docter, too , has c ited the stai rway sequence as one of his favorite segments in the movi e .
" Really n o t a l o t happens," the Engl ish-dub di rector has noted, " b ut it's s o well observed,
there's such great h u mo r there . I particularly liked the bit of a n i mation where she [Soph ie]
finally makes it to the top and p uts the dog [Been] down and he's u pside down and scram­
bles to get back up. It is all th e l i ttle details l ike that that make the film so great" ( Docte r
2006) .
To Sophie's dismay, it transpires that Suliman has planned an analogous fate to the one
met by the Witch o f the Waste fo r Howl h i msel f. The hero i n e fails to sell her fib to the Royal
Witch but bravely u n m asks her w i l e , at wh ich point Howl comes to S o p h i e's rescue in dis­
guise as the monarch . The bewitchment conj u red up by S u l i man i n response , which al most
results in Howl's u n maki n g , unleashes one of the fi l m's most u n fo rgettable sequences at the
levels o f both action and visuals . No sooner has the Royal Witch's charmed cane pierced the
floor than a doo r to a n alternate u n iverse material izes in the form o f a star-stu dded h o l e a k i n
t o an i nverted s ky. G i gantic waves instantly engulf S o p h i e , Howl and the Witch o f t h e Waste ,
releasi n g an aquatic concert o f prismatic multifariousness .
It now seems apposite to return to Howl's own hex . Sophie gradually real i zes - not by
 Ten - Howl's Moving Castle 1 59

sheer magic o r C i n derella-ish forbearance but through courage , devotion and an idiosyncratic
sense of humor - that the cu rses hanging over Calc i fe r's and Howl's des t i n ies h ave a common
root . In a symbol ically arres t i n g sce n e , Sophie d iscovers that the fire-demon is actually a
fal l i n g star, rescued by Howl when the latter was j ust a ch ild and enabled to survive by means
of a s i n ister pact: Howl gives h i s heart to Calcifer i n o rder to keep him ablaze (wh ich gai n s
t h e w izard a reputation a s a com pass ionless phi landere r) , while Calcifer becomes t i e d to the
wizard's dwell i n g and to the obl igation to energize i ts mach i n e ry by his sole efforts . Soph i e's
discovery is p u nctuated by spectacular sequences portraying drastically alternate d i mensions
that i nc reas i ngly atta i n to hallucinogenic potency as the action gai n s moment u m . These
i nclude the deeply movi n g sequence dramatizing Sop h i e's Carroll ian d ive i nto a n alternate
real m dubbed by the tech n i c ians responsible fo r i ts execution the "Worm Hole . " The sequence
will be returned to later i n this discuss i o n .
Sophie b ravely b reaks the spel l , rega i n i n g Calcifer h i s freedom and Howl h is h e a r t - as
wel l as the human form which, in the mov ie's most critical sequences, he appears to have almost
entirely rel i nqu ished to the predatory o n e . The hero i n e herself returns to her yo u t h fu l appear­
ance, even though h e r locks rem a i n as pos i tively candid as, to quote Howl , "starligh t . " I n
Sophie's case , the issue o f phys ical appearances i s a much mo re complex con undrum than any
plot summary may adequately explai n . I n deed, one of M iyazaki's most i n s p i red syntheses of
tradi tional and novel techn iq ues eme rges precisely i n the osci l l ation th rough o u t th e film
between configu rations o f Sophie as a patently grizzled woman and gl i m pses o f the you n g girl
with myriad s u b tly n u an ced variations on both modali ties sprinkled i n their m idst . Constant ,
yet tastefully understated, transfo rmations i n the heroine's appea rance (co rrespon d i n g to as
many psychological and affective shifts) are not, however , the only i nstance of mutability dram­
atized by the mov i e . In fac t , the entire production commu n i cates with Heracli tean gusto a
pervasive atmosphere o f u n relenti ng flux , as its fluid personae and mercurial landscapes repeat­
edly morph befo re our eyes . Physical alterations i n the characters and settin gs a re conveyed,
tech n ical ly, by detai led adj ustments of the hues employed i n thei r dep iction that aptly reflect
the emotional import of each transformation. Color design d i rector M i hiyo Yasuda has empha­
sized this aspect of the fil m's un ique approach : "The characters . . . change so much p hysically
from scene to scene the emotional develo pment can be equally drastic . I changed the colors
in deta i l with every change" (Yasuda 2 0 0 5 a , p. 67) .
Whe re Sophie's phys iognomy is specifically concerned, M iyazaki u t i l izes subtle somatic
adj ustments, modulations and fluctuations in order to convey the i m p ressi o n that the hero­
ine is not incontrove r t ibly either eigh teen or n inety but disparate ages at once . Accord i ngly,
gl i mpses of Sophie's you n ge r i ncarnation discretely i n s i n uate themselves i nto im ages o f her
hoary self. As Andrew Osmond h as no ted, Sophie " becomes older o r yo u nger to reflect the
s tate of her spirit . . . . At one p o i nt a walk i n a glorious flower garden rej uvenates h e r to girl­
hood, only for Howl to say she's beaut i ful , at wh ich p o i n t she i nstantly returns to a c ro n e .
Miyazaki changes h e r i n a mom ent o r imperceptibly over t i m e , add i n g o r subtracting l i nes i n
a visual i zation o f the cliche of being a s yo ung or a s o l d a s o n e feels" (Osmond, p. 30) .
I n some o f the most begu i l i ng scenes, the character p reserves the d o m i nant age markers
typical of a senescent woma n but is conco m i tantly i nvested w i t h a fresh complexion and sup­
ple l i mbs, whe reas i n others, her dormant youthfu l ness is delicately all uded to by the i nclu­
sion in her appearance o f a more luxurious mane than the one acco rded to the aged S o p h i e .
Th is graph i c p l oy i nt i m ates that t h e p a s t is u l t i mately i n exp u n g i b l e and that even th o ugh
160 ANIME INTERSECTI O N S

malefic charms may be dispelled, the vestiges of antecedent occu rrences l ive tenaciously on.
The finale thus embraces a decidedly non-linear and non-teleological ethos that appropri­
ately sums up the fil m's cumulative thrust .
I n reconstructi n g H owl's past thro ugh Soph ie's eyes and direct p hysical i nvolvement i n
a chain of submerged events, the fi l m steers clear of the obviously developmental curves typ­
ically associated w ith conventional Bildungsroma n . Thus, even as i t articulates a grow i ng-up
traj ectory, Howl eschews the notion of l i near maturation and hence o f any reparative tele­
�

ology by intimating that the p resent-day w izard is the o utcome o f choices a n d actions that
�

cannot be conclusively relegated to the past but actually go o n haunting the here-and-now as
tangible, albeit spectra l , forces . At the same time, the flashbacks thro ugh which Sophie is able
to visit Howl's past and rescue h i m fro m h is curse do not del i n eate a standard quest patte r n .
O n t h e contrary, they a b i d e i n t h e viewer's memory a s wistfully quiet glim pses of that c r u ­
c i a l period where childhood gives way t o adolescence, and the only consta n t , p a radoxically,
is flux . Therefore, a l th o ugh S o p h i e does redeem the m ag i c i a n fre e i n g C a l c i fe r i n t h e
�

p rocess and concurrently shapes h e r own destiny w i th co urageous determ i nation , the quest
�

remains open to o n go i n g i nc u rsions o f the p rese nt by a fluid past that u l t i mately el udes
defini t ive redemption. The past's stubborn resu rgence is also uncannily dramatized in the
sequence where Sophie gathers a bloodstained feather shed by Howl upon his retu rn from the
battlefield and enters the w izard's room to find it transformed i nto a cavernous tu nnel at the
end o f which a n enormous b i rd cringes i n tormen t . Art d i recto r Noboru Yosh ida has intrigu­
i n gly commented on this disturbing cinema tic moment as follows :
In my concept art I experimented with turning Howl's room into a cave. Sophie is holding a candle so I
tried incorporating the light, but Miyazaki said, "No, I want you to treat it as a mental image." He informed
me how the cave wasn't filled with real objects illuminated by Sophie's candlelight, so much as it was a
passage to Howl's memory. So it's not a concrete illustration, it's a scene where one's memory of the past
resurfaces. Becallse Howl's toys sllch as the dolls symbolize Howl's memory, I made the colors bright and
immune to the candlelight [Yoshida 2005a, p. 140].

Davide Taro elaborates a cognate thesis to the one here advocated in proposing that the
story pivots on a notion o f time based on the pri nciple of "eternal circular return . " This con­
cept is graph ically encapsulated, the critic goes on to explai n , by the climac t i c sequence dram­
atizing the w izard's visionary premonitions: "In his sad and lonely chi ldhood, Howl sees, in
a fatally brief moment where past and future magically coalesce , the fu tu re companion h e w i l l
await , fa ithfully a n d desperately, until the 'beginn i n g o f t h e fi l m , ' which takes p lace abo u t
t e n years l ater" (Taro 2004b ; m y translation) . Sophie herself, having p l u n ged Alice-like i nto
an alternate universe where she is able to wit ness Howl 's fateful rescue o f the dyin g star at the
cost of a crucial part o f his own humanity, urges him to look o u t fo r her i n times to com e .
Th i s i s u nquestionably o n e o f t h e fi l m's most ra pturously surreal sequences, and i ndeed o n e
that m a y baffle t h e first-time spectator b y v i rtue of i t s sheer semiotic density. I t explains, s o
to speak, t h e magician's troubled backgro und, yet accompl ishes t h i s o bj ective w i th a degree
o f allusiveness so marked and passionately hermetic on the d i rector's part as to discourage any
automatic conclusions . The relevant portion o f the screenplay is u ndoubtedly o f considerable
assistance when u nravell i n g the sequence's enigmatic tapestry, and therefo re seems deserv i n g
o f extens ive citation at this j u ncture .
Sophie's ring emits a beam of light. . . . The beam shoots toward a door i n the cliff foce . . . . Sophie runs t o the
door. . . . Sophie opens the door. A strange wind blows. She points the beam of light at the darkness. The door-
 Ten -Howl's Moving Castle 16 1

way seems to be filled with liqu id.... Sophie exits. Falling stars streak through the night sky ... A star explodes
.

in the distance near a young boy.

Sophie - That's How!.
Stars shoot past young How!.... Shadow figures dance in a circle.... Sophie runs toward young How!.
Sophie - I know where I am. I 'm in Huwl's childhood.
A star whizzes by Suphie.... A few stars explode behind Sophie. One runs right past her.... The star skips
across the water, then dissolves into it.... A star shoots overhead. Young Howl catches ir.... Young Howl
says something to the star in his hand.... Young Howl swallows the star.... Young Howl's heart emerges
from his chest. Sophie's ring bursts and a void opcns beneath her.
Sophie -- [many gasps] Howl! Calcifer!
Young Howl turns toward her....
Sophie - It's me - Sophic! [pause) I know how to help you now.
Young Howl and Calcifer dissolve away.
Sophie - Find me in the future!
[The Art of Howl's Moving Castle, pp. 249-50) .

The setti n g's atmosp heric and ligh t i n g qualities contribute substantially to the evocation o f a
pervasively cryptic mood . The enchanting effects conj ured up by the nocturnal scenery, sh ow­
ered by rap idly proli fe rating banks o f sparks e ndowed with alarm i n g p hysical density, p ro ­
vides both a n uplifting counterpart t o the images of destruction presented i n t h e p recedi n g
sequences and a fearfu l i ntensification o f t h e weight o f t h e u n kn ow n . The v iewer is hence
asked to experience the episode as both a moment of disclosure and as a deep e n i n g o f the
grievous darkn ess that besets both Soph ie's and Howl's tasks from all s ides .
The temporal perspective outli ned above , argues Taro, is "abso l u tely congenial to the
director's poetics and film maki ng styl e . " At the same time, the suspension of conventional
temporal boundaries is matched by n o less drastic an erosion of spatial demarcatio n s :
The ploy of the castle door, channel o f communication throughout the entire scope o f terrestrial geogra­
phy - from desolate moors hit by a constant and melancholy rain to edenic stretches of flower-strewn fields
quivering harmoniously in a delicate breeze - is ... a clever ploy ... that enables a mllch deeper concept to
emerge: a fundamental a-geographicality and a-spatiality specific to the scenic space of animation.... Ani­
mation, while respecting and employing in its "narrative" form the rules of basic cinematographical gram­
mar, uses them in an iconoclastically different way ... since in animation scenic space is truly a mental
space [Taro 2004b; my translation].

Moreover, the plot's deliberate i nconcl usiveness at the level of person al o rdeals is m i r­
rored by the finale's macrocosmic impl ications . Even though Howl yields what could be loosely
termed a "happy ending , " Miyazaki was determined not to let any amo u n t o f loving s m iles
and blue skies delivered i n the clos i n g moments gloss over the horrors tackled by the m a i n
body of t h e narrative . The fil m's ending i s not u n equivocally auspicious i nsofar a s i t d o e s n o t
yield a n y dependable p rom ises of e i t h e r stability or peace . H e n c e , i t ironically augments,
desp ite its bucolic connotations, the tenebrous undercurrent that cou rses th rough the bulk of
the story. Additionally, although Suliman brings the war to an e n d for a very appropriate rea­
son - that is to say, the recogn ition that i t is " idiotic" - she does so i n a n embarrassi n gly p re­
c i p i to us and arbitrary fashion. As a res u l t , we are elliptically invited to s uspect that the very
opposite decision - namely to commence a conflict - could j us t as w h i msically and i m p u l ­
sively be op ted for at any moment . T h e spectre of mass destructi o n , accord i ngly, l o o m s over
the whole adventure, i m b u i n g its drama with a desperate , gripp i n g i ntensi ty. One should n o t
b e m isled, i n t h i s regard, b y t h e retrovisionary l o o k of M iyazaki's zeppel i n -style a i rcrafts .
Each and every war-related frame eloquently attests to the di rector's ardent hatred of war i n
general and, mo re speci fically, to h i s i n dignation about t h e I raq war , t h e earlier p hases o f
16 2 ANIME INTERSECTIONS

which coincided with the fi lm's p roductio n . Miyazaki's position on that matter is exp l icitly
conveyed by an i nterview w i th Newsweek i n which he describes his first response to the n ews
that Spirited Away was about to be awarded an Oscar: "Ac tually, yo ur coun t ry had j ust s tarted
the war against I raq, and I had a great deal of rage abo u t that . So I fel t some hes i tation abo u t
t h e award . I n fact , I had j ust started making Howl's Moving Cast/e, so the fi l m i s p ro fou ndly
affected by the war i n I raq" (M iyazaki 200 5a) .
The ubiquity o f a decidedl y non-D isn eyesque dimension is b rought home n o t only by
the movie's dramatization o f b roadly societal and political evils, prom i n e nt as these themes
undoubtedly are, but also by its expos u re of mendacity and treachery at the m i c rocos m i c level
of the fam ily: Sophie is the casualty not only of black magic b u t also, in a more disturb i ngly
real istic ve i n , o f cold-blooded betrayal at the hands o f her hypocritical stepmother Honey. At
the same time, the movie's ironic disposition enables it to maximize both the beauty of its
tranqu i l moments and the catastrophic i rrational ity of i ts scenes of massacre by hav i n g the
one play against the o ther i n much the same way as a Greek chorus would create d ramatic
tension by o rchestrati n g the d ialogical confrontation of confl icti ng voices . The visual pleas­
ure yielded by rolling meadows dappled with dainty flowers, drifting cumulus clouds and snow­
capped peaks does not stem wholly from their i nherent qualities. In fac t , it is i nextricably
i ntertwined with the opposite affects elicited by images of towns reduced to smoldering embers,
o f wrecked battleships , o f whole populations abandoning the sad rem n ants o f their fo rmer
homes, and o f increas ingly lethal machines hel l-bent on exacting i nnocent blood.
One of Howts most crucial themes i ndubitably consists of the awake n i n g o f the creative
drive . Sophie's own creativity, in particul ar, is twofold i nsofar as it exp resses itself both t h ro ugh
the m i l l i ner's art and, more dau ntin gly, th ro ugh her m ission as a you n g woman compelled to
i nvent from scratch a fresh identity in the wake of the spell that has ab ru ptly aged her b eyond
recognition . A maj o r p recedent for this aspect of the sto ry, w i t h i n Studio G h i b li's o u t p u t , can
be fo und in Whisper of the Heart (dir. Yoshifu m i Kondo u , 19 9 5 ) , for which M iyazaki created
the storyboards and scrip t . Kondou's film also constitutes an important p recu rsor fo r Howl
at the techn ical leve l , i nsofar at it marked Studio G h ibli's first major foray i n to the real m of
digital technology, p reviously i n corporated into only a handful o f com p u ter-generated shots
i n Isao Takahata's Porn Poko ( 1 9 9 4) . Disparate elements, including the hero i n e's i m agi nary
personae , their n atu ral and arch itectu ral environ ments and related atmospheric effects , were
a n i mated separately by traditional means and then digi tally composited i nto seamless wholes .
The fi l m's l i terally b reathtaki n g flyi ng sequences , in particular, were executed by reco u rse to
over twenty l ayers , which i mparted them with a palpably 3 D feel while allow i n g the two­
dimensional ity o f the d rawn elements to retai n p rominence.
Visually speaki n g , W'hisper of the Heart anticipates Howl i n a n u mber o f sequences . The
earl ier film's magical arcade (and especially the toyshop) vividly fo reshadows the rep resenta­
tion o f the wizard's bedchamber and i ts mesmerizi ng profusion o f s u m p t u o u s fabrics, jewels,
baubles, feathers, beads, dried plants, stuffed toys , trinkets , eso teric symbols and i ntricate
mechanisms . Also n o table is the sequence in Whisper of the Heart dramatizing the n ightmare
i n which the p ro tagonist , S h izuku , enters a mine i n search o f the rough gem i ntended to sym ­
bolize her as yet unpol ished creative abili ties and, having picked up what she bel ieves to be a
p recious stone , fi n ds herself holding the remains of a d i m i n u tive b i rd . This sequence consti­
tutes a clear forerunner of the emphatically go thic sequence described earl ier i n whi ch S o p h ie
follows Howl i nto the dark tunnel of his troubled memory.
 Ten-Howl's Moving Castle 163

As mentioned, Howts innovative th rust resides largely with its frank critique of con ­
sumerism a n d militarism but also gains significantly from its deconstructive take on t h e ethics
of the fairy tale . Whereas the classic fairy tale hinges on the p rinciple of "virtue rewarded,"
promulgating the u nequivocal equation of virtue to patience and to a passive acceptance of
one's fate, Howl enthrones a heroine who -- though based on several of the convention s o f
fairy tale down t o h e r vesti mentary attrib u tes - does not ultimately t riu m p h thanks t o a n
external agency such a s a fairy godmother choosing t o reward h e r tolerance , b u t rather due
to her own resourcefu lness, pluck and generosity. Moreover, in her aged mien Sophie is more
o ften akin to the m agical hag of fairy tale than to the heroine-in-distress: if fairy godmothers
obtain at all in Howl, then Sop hie hersel f incarnates the typ e . At the same time , Miyazaki
employs the older ve rsion of this incomparably charismatic character as a means o f debu n k­
in g a number of s tereotypical assumptions abo ut age . B radshaw has eloquently developed this
idea in his review o f the fi l m: "The bittersweet irony Miyazaki places at the centre o f his fairy­
tale is that Sophie is at first horri fied to fi nd that she is an o l d woman , and then sadly and
obscurely relieved . . . . One of the great truths of Howl's Moving Castle is that yo uth is n o t
always an exquisite blessing wasted on t h e yo ung. It i s a torture which t h e yo u n g do n o t
deserve" (Bradshaw, P.).
Miyazaki himself has commented as fo llows on his decision to address the subj ect o f age
and, relatedly, to employ a ninety-year-old woman as the story's pro tagonist: "I made this
film so that I could show it to a yo ung girl of 60 [supposed l y his spouse). What's wonderful
about the story is that the happy ending isn't that the spell is b roken and the girl is yo u n g
again . It's that she fo rgets her age" (Miyazaki 2 0 0 5 a) . Yasuda played a maj o r p a r t in t h e p rocess
of translating into viable screen images Miyazaki's aesthetic objectives regarding the ren di­
tion of Sophie's older look:

I was determined to make the aged Sophie look cute, but J had to dismiss that approach almost immedi­
ately. She simply wouldn't look old without her skin being wrinkled and blemished. She might appear
plain, but I made sure she would have the appeal of a refined old lady. I would alter the colors according
to each scene. For example, when she cheerfully cleans the rooms, [ added some brightness to her skin and
clothes. [ did the same with the Witch of the Waste when she's stunned after losing her magical power,
but then ends up becoming kind. I wanted to make her buoyant here [Yasuda 2005b, p. 67J.

I t must also be e m p hasized that the metamorphosis o f a yo u n g girl into a n a ncient

woman within the context o f a contem porary Japanese movie holds topical relevance . Tho ugh
obviously absent from the parent text , this dime nsion o f Howl ought not to go u n heeded .
Suzuki has comme nted thus on the idea: "Japan is in a long recessio n . S o we have two things:
older people who fear for their j o bs, and yo u n ger peo p l e who cann o t imagine a wo rthwhile
fu ture . These yo u n g ones feel and act o l d . This fi lm is a message to Japan - altho ugh I don't
know abo ut the rest of the world" (Suzuki) . We should by no means assume , h owever, that
Miyazaki's interest in the psychology and politics o f age signals a shift away fro m his p rove r­
bial commitment to the you n g . In an interview with The Gua rdian conducted by Xan B rooks
at the 2005 Venice Fil m Festival , the director has indeed stated: " I believe that chil d ren's
souls are the inheritors o f histo rical memory from p revio us generatio n s . I t's j ust that as they
grow older and experience the everyday world that memory sin ks l owe r and lowe r. I feel I
need to make a fi l m that reaches down to that level . I f I could do that I wo u l d die happy"
(Miyazaki 2 0 0 5 b) .
In assessin g Miyazaki's deconstructive take on the fairy tale gen re , it must be noted that
16 4 ANIME I:-JTERsEcnoNs

Howls uno rthodox treatment of age-related conventions goes hand i n hand with no less icon­
oclastic an app roach to romance . Even tho ugh love plays a p ivotal role i n S o p h ie's redeem­
i n g m ission , this n ever complies with some vapid notion of romantic adora t i o n . In fac t , i t is
fo unded on principles of respect and loyalty, and on the exp ression o f such values t h r o u gh
conscious choices and actions that supply the heroine w i th no readym ade epiphan ies . I n the
p rocess, the romance is unobtrusively woven i nto the cinematic fabric rather than expl i c i tly
enunciated .
Relatedly, altho ugh the fi l m's handling of elements of the classic love-story yarn a n d o f
s tandard fairy tale i magery wo uld no doubt strike Western audiences a s fam i l iar fare, Howls
overall sensibility exhi b i ts distinctively Eastern traits . Most worthy of notice, i n this respec t ,
is t h e haiku-like terseness, compou nded with a Zen-like sensitivity to t h e gentle elegance of
stillness, w i th wh ich Miyazaki intimates - i nstead of expl icitly dramatizi n g - ideas abou t l ove ,
loss and endurance . The characters themselves , mo reover, are so accurately p roportioned and
vividly co lored as to resemble figures from a tradi tional Japanese i n k scro l l .
Furthermore , in the depiction of the natural env i ro n ment Howl ass iduo usly com m u n i ­
cates a qui ntessentially Eastern sense of t h e spiritual i m port o f even t h e ostensi b ly m o s t pro­
saic entities and most i ncidental minutiae. Gl istening dewdrops, blades o f grass kissed by the
dyi n g s u n and s ilently scuttling i nsects resonate no less powerfully with a h u m b l i n g a sense
o f the num inous than grandiose vistas and lu ridly colored horizo n s . The visuals thus trans­
pose the viewer i nto s trange , exquisitely dep icted realms that hypnotically absorb a n d yet
sharpen both the m i n d and the senses th ro ugh their u ncluttered di rectness.
In an interv iew with Xin Jin Bao, Miyazaki has l ucidly conveyed his personal feel i n gs
abo ut the i n comparable val ue of simplicity:

I did not deliberately try t o deliver any educational ideologies o r messages t o the audience. If they really
exist in my works, they arc only revealing themselves naturally. Many people think that I am telling a very
deep truth. Actually what I like is simplicity. The reason that we made Howl's Moving Castle is that there
are too many unhappy matters in the world, sllch as wars and economic crises. We hope that, through the
movie, people can keep lip their courage and see the hope. The future world is still nice and beallliful. It
is worrhy fur us to survive and explore it [Miyazaki 2004J.

On the tech n i cal plane, Howl synthesizes cel animation and digital technology i n n u mer­
ous ways and fo r a variety of p u rposes across i ts entire mise en scene, especially i n the gener­
ation of moving backgro unds for the panoramic sequences, o f i nteriors superbly en riched by
specular replicas o f their m i n utest details, of formidable weapon ry, flyi ng machi nes and related
dyn a m i c effects , and even o f ancillary arch itectural and ornamental features (e.g . emblems
and flags) . Asked whether he believed traditional ani mation to have become obsolete i n the
U . S . i n an i nterv iew w i th Entertain ment Weekly, Miyazaki has stated : "I th i n k 20 a n i mation
disappeared from Disney because they made so many uninteres t i n g films. They becam e very
conservative in the way they created them . It's too bad. I thought 20 and 3D could coexist
happily. " I n response to the question " Is eGI go ing to des troy 20 in the e n d ? " the d i rector
then remarked : " I 'm actually not all that worried . I wo uldn't give up on i t completely. O nce
i n a while there are strange, rich people who l i ke to i nvest in odd things. Yo u're go i n g to have
people i n corners of garages [making cartoons] to p lease themselves . And I 'm more i n terested
i n the people who hang out i n corners of garages than I am i n big business" (Miyazaki 2 0 0 5 c) .
Acco rd i n g to S uzuki , traditional and cuttin g-edge styles are en gaged i n a p rocess o f
mutual cross-fertil ization , a n d while it i s important t o acknowledge that cha m p i ons o f the
 Ten �Howl's Moving Castle 16 5

hand-drawn approach such as Miyazaki are increasingly o p e n in g u p to computer a n i mation ,

the p romu lgators o f digital tech n o l ogy, conversely, are w i l l i n g to try their h a n d at older
methodologies . "In real ity," the Studio Gh ibli p roducer has stated, "co m p u te rs can a llow chal­
lengi ng new modes of expression . I f yo u only show Miyazaki the res u l ts, he m i gh t get very
exci ted and say, let's use more . . . . My o p i nion is that as most people move i n to CG, Studio
Gh ibli will become u n ique and therefo re we want to conti n u e . We we nt to the USA and met
Pete Docter who said ' I want to try 20 ' " (Suzuki ) . Docter has expl icitly voiced h i s o p i n ions
on the matter i n an i nterview with Yellow Menace:

YELLOW MENACE: Several recent animated films ... combine hand-drawn animation with CGI.... Would
you enjoy tackling a hybrid project like that?
DOCTER: It would be fun! The computer is such a useful tool, it can be used in all sorts of ways.
I really admire the computer group at Ghibli, and their ability to meld their work almost
seamlessly into the rest of the film. You can't tell where the hand-drawn work stops and
the computer starts. And I'd love to do a hand-drawn film someday. There are things
you can do with hand-drawn animation that we'll never be able to capture with thc
computer [Docter 2005bJ.

As director of digital a n i mation Mitsunori Kataama has exp l a i ned, one o f the sequences
that ben efited most s i gn i ficantly fro m the i ntegrat i o n of advanced d ig i t a l c o m p o n e n t s
was t h e aforementioned "Worm Ho le" episode . Although M iyazaki is sometimes said t o
h o l d someth i n g o f an atav i s tic avers i o n to computers (a rep u tation jocu larly disse m i n a ted
by p roducer Suzuki h i msel f ) , the idea t i o n o f th is sequence i n fact demon strates the d i rec­
tor's co m modious attitude towards innovative tools and tech n iques where these a re u ne q u i v­
ocally capable o f accom p l i s h i n g effects beyo n d the scope o f trad i t i o n a l m e t h o d o l o g i e s .
Kataama's accou n t o f the Wo rm Hole's gradual conception deserves close attent i o n , i n this
regard :
Miyazaki said, "We can't convey the gradations of curves with cel drawings. Do you think it can be with
digital animation?" That was how we ended up creating it with CG. Miyazaki made specific requests for
a shot like, "I want it to look like a hole suddcnly torn through the background art," and "it should look
mysterious, like a black hole." ... We first created a morphing hole with polygon and thcn added the back-
ground image onto its surface.... The first version was very graceful.... Miyazaki said, "Make it more vio-
lellt, as if this is the point of no return." So we endcd up with the current version. We had the hole morph
in extreme to convey its overwhelming power [Kataama, p. 187J.

It is i n the conception and articulation of the eponymous edifice that M iyazaki's i nte­
grative approach yields i ts most memorable outcomes . This aspect o f the movie therefo re
deserves close attention i n the present context. It is above all i m portant to ackn owledge the
team's determination to avo id total reliance on 3 D eGI. To this effect , the castle was con­
structed from over eighty segments i n i t i ally pasted onto 20 surfaces that could be a n i m ated
interactively i n order to secure overall coherence in the structure's motion . At a later stage ,
once the movements had been clearly blocked and mapped o u t , those same parts were super­
imposed over a 3 D CG model i n o rder to i nvest the castle w ith p l as t i c qual i t i es and sculp­
tural solidi ty. The castle's taloned legs were created i n 3D in the first p lace so as to m ake the
building's walki n g pattern photograph ically convincing - though i t must b e emphas ized that
the motion itself was based on legion hand-drawn frames p a i nstakingly exec u ted by i n ­
betweeners . Furthermore , del iberately exaggerated effects typical o f cel-centered a n i m e were
included : for i nstance, i n close-ups o f the talons that th row i nto rel ief their e m i nently car­
taon ish nature . The artist's pencil also played a key role when it came ta the c reation of v i b ra-
1 66 ANIME INTERSECTI ONS

tion effects for the castle's frame, in that the manually drawn black contou rs of the various
arch i tectural components provided the starti ng-p o i n t to which wavering effects co u l d then
be i mparted . Many disti nctive features of traditional manual execution were l i kew ise retained
even as the i mages were bei ng edi ted digital ly. Moreover, 3D objects were econom ically i nter­
spersed with 20 draw i n gs, so that in some of the castle's most spectacu lar appearances, the
3D element is l i m i ted to deta ils such as fli pping wooden boards, p u m p i n g appendages and
rickety balcon ies, with the bulk of the ensemble rema i n ing resolutely 20.
D igital layering p l ayed a prom i nent part i n the rep resentation of the b u i l d i n g's rock i n g
movements . T h i s p rocedure entailed organ izing t h e afo rementioned segments i n a stratified
structure and connecting them to a root node acco rding to hierarch ical criteria . On this basis,
th ree m a i n blocks corresponding to the castle's frontal , m i ddle and rear portions co uld b e
a n i m ated first , w i t h additional layers bei n g i n crementally brought into p lay (to a total o f
a p p roxi m ately t h i rty) , i n order t o coordi nate t h e disparate parts with grea ter a n d greater flexi­
b i l i ty. D igital morp h i n g - the transformation of one i mage into another through the grad­
ual distortion o f co rresponding points - was conco m i tantly util ized, especially to visualize the
buildi ng's momentous transformations and eventual co llapse. Vector-based graph ics enabled
the a n imators to situate "handles" on various points of a contou r by means of which an o bj ect's
defin i n g l ines could be s tretched, cu rved or otherw ise al tered in terms o f angle and d i rectio n .
One of t h e to ughest challenges posed b y the execu tion of Howl's errant erratic fo rtress
was val iantly met by harmony process supervisor Noriko Takaya . ( H armony p rocess i n g entails
com b i n i n g backgro und art with the material pai nted o n a cel shee t , a . k . a . harmony) . Takaya
was i n s istently rem i nded by the director that the castle was fu ndamentally "a character" and
should accordingly be i mbued with a recognizable identity. The princi pal problem faced by
Takaya i n addressi n g his momentous task lay with the building's temperamental mutab i l ity
and restless : "For example, the castle is revived after falling apart later on i n the film. [Miyazaki]
wanted me to depict i ts vital i t y and strength to revive i tsel f i n spite o f i ts wrecked state .
Unl ike my p revious harmony p rocess i n g , which consisted of m atch i n g the movements to the
backgro und art , this harmony had to provide the castle's perso nality. . . . Yos h ida's concept art
was very romantic, but the castle I drew for harmony ended up lookin g really rough and crass"
(Takaya , p. 15 5 ) .
N o less intriguing than the castle's tech n ical construction i s the backgro u n d t o i ts con­
ceptual design . Asked to comment on the origi ns of the sublimely monstrous edifice in an
i nterview condu cted by P h i l i p B rophy at the Sydney Film Fest ival i n June 2 0 0 5 , Suzuki
revealed that the first draw i n g of what wo uld eventually become Howl's rov i n g abode "was
originally not meant for the fi l m . . . it was inten ded to fill an empty space at the S t udio Gh i­
bli Museum . . . . When Miyazaki asked me what des ign should I use for the castle? I said how
about that one? Miyazaki was happy. . . . The p roblem became : what abo u t i ts legs? The orig­
inal book didn't give much detail . M iyazaki said that i f i t moves , i t n eeds legs . F irstly he
thought about samu rai armor of the 1 2 th-14th centuries . . . . Eventually, they became the legs
of a . . . chicken" (Suzuki) . This report , delivered by the p roducer with characteristically dis­
arming charm , is a n eloquent witness to the bearing of a n element o f sheer chance (as well
as candid p ragmatism) upon the ideation of memorable ani mated icons by an authenti cally
fecund imagination .
A vitally i m portant digital tool used througho ut the ent i re p roduction of Howl w as " H ar­
mony," an extraordinarily sophist icated program designed by Toon Boon A n i m ation I n c . I1ar-
 Ten �Howl's Moving Castle 167

mony facilitates the i n tegration of cel a n i mation and CGI of the h i ghest quality by means o f
various tech n iques . Beside t h e afo rementioned morp h i n g , these incl ude " inverse kinematics"
(the p roced u re that e n ables a n i m ators to create digital characters on the basis of a hierarchy
of "ch i ld" and "parent" components) and "glue" (a tool that will automatically connect two
body parts w i th a curve , l i n e or angle-shaped effect) . Above all , Harmony is capable of o rches­
trating all the p roduct ion sta ges from hand-draw i ng to computer-assis ted com posi t i n g w i t h i n
o n e interconnected workflow. T h e u s e o f a t o o l capable o f s i m ulating the soft focus of a tra­
di tional camera lens, so as to mellow the cel-CGI blend and enable the backgtou nds to look
convi ncingly natural , complemented ideally the Harmony device . It is the joint deployment
o f the two p rocedu res that has i m parted Ho wl w ith i ts u niquely elega n t , pai nterly mood .
Let us now p u rsue the p roposition that the artist's pencil was persistently acco rded a car­
d i nal part in Howls execution even as d i gital tech nology played a role o f u n p recedented mag­
n i tude in the histo ry o f Studio G hibl i . It is first of all vital to acknowledge that i t is not j ust
the deployment of the artist's pencil as an abs tract , genera l i zed n o t i o n that i nvests the film
with exceptional visual verve. In fact , as supervis i ng animator Takesh i Inamura has empha­
sized, respecti n g the i n dividuality o f each team member's personal p e n c i l was p ivotal to his
endeavor and, relatedly, an i ntegral factor in the establ ishment o f the fi l m's overall appeal . "I
did my bes t , " Inamura m a i ntains, "not to alter the key a n imation excessively. Each a n imator
has his or her to uch , whether it's i n terms of draw i n g styles or movements." Individual sig­
natu res, merits and even idiosyncrasies we re never, accordi n gly, s u ffocated by the overarch­
ing imperative o f grap h i c coherence:

The supervising animator can stifle the animation by insisting on his own approach for thc sake of con­
sistency and uniformity. The quality of the animation in the recem Ghibli films has been extremely high,
so we work a 1m even on minute details, but as supervising animator, I wamed to preserve the style of the
key animation while maintaining consistency. Of course, I would alter whatever I had to, but a key ani­
mator's style isn't easy to remove. Each animator's thoughts and feelings, in other words the gencral mood
�

they werc in while drawing�always remains intact in the film [Inamura, p. 45J.

These inspiring ohservations, i t is worth stressin g , do n o t merely shed l ight on Inamu ra's
personal modus operandi; i n fact , they succi nctly encapsulate Studio G h i b l i 's collective m is­
sion as a company dedicated to the fostering of both i ndividual i n i t i at ive and collaborative
effort, as wel l as a p rofo u n d respect fo r the affect i ve com pon ents of the art of a n i mation in
the face of potentially dehumanizing tech no logies . Unre m i tti ngly encouraged by M iyazaki
and his colleagues fro m the most seasoned to the greenes t , th is ethos finds a forceful di egetic
correlative in Howl i tself. Indeed, the film i ntently shu ns exp l anatory scenes, deus-ex-mach i n a
i nterventions a n d , most i m p o rtantly, a n y expl icitly omn iscient p o i n t o f v iew. I t does so, p r i ­
marily, b y allowing t h e s to ry to assu m e t h e perspectives o f t h e various characters , at ti mes
focusing on a singular angle i n o rder to draw attention to i n div i dual qual ities, and at o thers
contemplating simul taneously a pl u rality of viewpoi nts so as to foregro u n d their col l usion or
their coll ision . Thus, Miyazaki's n arratological approach could be said to m irror the team's
devo t i o n to the ass iduous p romotion of both i ndividual ity and co-operatio n .
T h e degree t o w h i c h manual p roduction l i terally u nderpinned t h e fi l m's creation is help ­
fully documented by supervising animator Aki h i ko Yamash ita, particularly i n h i s acco u n t o f
h i s role i n the p re-prod uction phase: "All I did at first every day was d raw sketches of a l l the
characters . I must have d rawn 50 to GO sheets of the main characters H owl a n d Soph ie . I
would try out various face types and p roportions, then show the sketches to Miyazaki fo r
16 8 ANIME INTERSECTI ONS

feedback . . . . I had the hardest time working on the aged Sophie . It came by trial and error. . . .
I have a h uge p i le o f rough sketches I did during the entire p rocess" (Yamashita, A . , p . 5 9) .
The artist's hand was also axial to the conception and application o f Howfs distinct ive chro­
matic palettes . This is most eloquently borne out by the methods favored by Takaya as the
artist responsible for supervising harmony processi n g . As Yoshida exp lains, "When Takaya
works on an i m age , she not only uses a brush but also tOllches up the i mages w i th her fingers
and cloth, making sure it won't look too simple and bland" (Yoshida 2 0 0 5 b , p. 63) .
F inally, i t wo uld be u n fair to ignore that Howl also constitutes, among many other t h i n gs,
the most recent chapter i n what A. O. Scott has fel icitously called the "Miyazakian Menageri e . "
" M r . M iyazaki's world, " t h e critic goes on t o explai n ,

is full of fantastical creatllres - cure and fuzzy, icky and creepy, handsome and noble. There are lovable
forcst sprites, skittering dust balls and ravenous blobs of black viscous goo, as well as talking cats, pigs and
frogs . ... Some of Mr. Miyazaki's creations secm to have precedents and analogues in folklore, fantasy lit­
erature and othcr cartoons.. Bllt most mcmbers of Mr. Miyazaki's ever-expanding menagerie - includ­
. .

ing Totoro, the slow-moving, pot-bel lied, vaguely feline character who has become the logo and mascot
of Studio G hibli - come entirely from the filmmaker's own prodigious imagination [Scott, p. 15].

Howl i n deed p roposes a colorfu l bestiary replete with extravagant mutants, a toylike wheez­
ing dog , a loquacious fire demon and, above all, an avian i ncarnation o f the male lead . Any
loyal Miyazaki fan will be quick to recall, as memorable antecedents, the b i rd-horse hybrid
i n Nausicaa of the Vallq of the Wind ( 1 9 8-1) , the fox squirrels in both Nausicaa and Lap u ta,
the Catbus and the Totoros them selves (both the giant one and the kiddies) in My Neighbor
Totoro (19 8 8 ) , the talki ng cat i n Kiki 's Delivery Service (1989) , the hu man ized pig (or porcinized
man , as the case may be) i n Porco Rosso (1992) , the w i nged creature i n On Your Mark ( 1 9 9 5 ) ,
t h e red e l k a n d Forest Gods i n Princess Mononoke a n d the metamo rphic Rive r S p i rit-cum­
dragon i n Spirited Away (200 1 ) . All of those characters , i n sp ite o f obviolls styl istic diver­
gences i n the i r execution and o f the varyi ng narrative roles ascribed to them by the p l o t , assert
themselves as bold attempts to disrupt conventional boundaries between p u tatively d iscrete
species . The result is that seemingly i ncompatible l i fe forms meet and merge i n rec i p rocal
suffusion , i n much the same way as traditional and state-of-the-art tools have i n c reas i n gly
been do ing i n M iyazaki's creations.2
 ELEVEN

Anime Synergy

Children in the West, raised on a diet of ['okimoll, Dragon Ball and Astro Boy, have grown up.
Now they are in their early twenties, and they want more Japanese animation. A nd while Japan
is going through an economic recession, anime . . . is proving to be a healthy export, rivalling elec­
tronic products in import figures and popularity in English speaking countries. . . . Starting in the
seventies, and going through a worldwide boom in the early nineties, the rising popularity ofJapa­
nese animation has seen what was once viewed as a minor market become maimtream . . . . Recently,
Western audiences of all ages hal'e become more comfortable with a medium that was once seen as
"justfor kids, "seeing a groUith I/Ot only in the sales ofanime itself, but the influence ofanime being
filt in design, foshioll and Hollywoodfiature films. - 'fapanimation "
Hybrids, co-operation, crossovers ofall kinds are possible where these worlds [i. e. Japan and the
West} meet, and they re happening right now. But these worlds still have a different core, a different
essence. A nime is a different person. We re not falling in love with a mirror. - Carl Gustav Horn

The concept o f synergy could be defined as the dialectical i n teraction o f p re-exis t i n g

fo rces, leading to a resu l t t h a t is greater t h a n t h e mere s u m of t h e parts . A n i m e's entire fab­
ric is traversed by synergetic drives that operate simultaneously at the spatial , temporal , medi­
atic and generic levels, insofar as it persistently engineers fruitfu l exchanges between disparate
geograph ical areas, their cultures and h istories, as wel l as between discrete media and gen res .
As shown i n the forego i n g chapters, one of the most v i tal aspects o f a n i m e's synergetic con­
stitu tion l ies with its knack of i ntegrati n g , both methodically and extem p o raneo usly, the ven­
erable heri tage o f hand-drawn cel animation w i th i n c reasingly adventu rous digital tool s .
No less central to the argument p u rsued i n t h i s study t h a n t h e confluence o f t raditional
and trailblazing styles i n a n i m e is the parallel encou nter between East and West across that
same creative terra i n , and the attendant col l usion of i n digenous and transnational perspec­
tives . This phenomenon is by no means recent and can i n fact be traced back to 1 9 1 7, when ,
as Michael Arnold observes , "Seitaro Kitayama's Momotaro was sh ipped to France th ree months
before i ts release i n Asakusa , Tokyo . " Ani me's cross-cultural import grew s i g n i ficantly i n the
decades to follow:
Hiroshi Okawa, president of Japan's major postwar cartoon studio Toei Doga, emphasized the possibili­
ties of animation to traverse cultural and linguistic barriers in a way that live action film couldn't. He sent
Japan's first color cartoon feature Legend of the White Serpent (Hakujaden, 1958 I U . S. version: The Pan da
and the White Serpent, 1961 ) to the Venice Children's Film Festival where it won the Grand Prix and was
picked up for local distribution by a handful of countries including the U . S ... Most of loei's early fea­
.

tures were sold internationally, and when Osamu Tezuka developed his rival Mushi Productions and cre-

1 69
170 Ar-:IME INTERSECTIONS

ated the first animated Japanese lV series Tetsuwan A tomu [Astro Boy] ... , that was picked lip overseas as
well. The golden years of Japanese animation were sparkling with international sales and co-productions,
and American companies left their fingerp rinrs everywhere, tra IlSlating, editing and packaging anime for
the world.

It could therefo re be safely s u rm ised, as Arnold goes on to o p i n e , that "not only has Japanese
a n imation been part o f the world all al ong, but the world has always been part o f Japanese
a n i m ation" (Arnold) . By p layfully traversing geopoli tical barriers - and hence, by i m p l ica­
tion , questioning the i ntegrity of national identities - anime's dream factory carries u ndeni­
ably global substance, drawing us into its domains by means of devices, methods, formulae
and rituals that are both rooted i n a local heritage and capable of absorb i n g , eclectically and
commodiously, a w i de range o f i ncontrovertibly non-Japanese in fluences .
A paradigmatic ill ustration of cultural synergy is supplied by the mutual bo rrow i n gs i n
which Japanese a n i mation a n d Hollywood have been in creasingly i nvolved i n t h e fields o f
character a n d mechan ical design, a s wel l as i n the generation o f particular dynam i c effects.
O n the one hand, anime h as repeatedly drawn inspiration from Hol lywood's action adven­
ture p roductions for the p u rpose of ideating its own varyi ngly fut u ristic , retrofuturistic o r
steampunk designs. On t h e other, Hollywood has incrementally been looking at a n i m e a s a
viable sou rce of s t i mulating visual clues a l l the basis of which its own kinetic apparatus and
elaborate mach inery may be conceived .
One o f the most remarkable instances of appropriation by the Hol lywood ind ustry o f
ani m e - a n d manga-based styles consists of the character a n d mechanical designs, concept art
and sto ryboards executed by the Wachowski brothers' megata lented t roupe i n the creation o f
The Niatrix a n d i t s sequels . T h e trilogy's , a n d particularly t h e first movie's , debt t o Mamoru
Oshii's Ghost in the Shell has often been commented upon. The directors themselves have
fran kly professed their gratitude to that film , stressing that its screening for the benefit of poten­
tial but as yet skeptical sponsors was a vital means of explaining the concept they sought to
elaborate . Tim Stevens con fi rms this oft-reco unted a necdote, vividly describ i n g Ghost in the
Shell as "the a n i me that the Wachowski brothers used to woo Joel S ilver into p roducing their
blockbuster h it" (Stevens) . However , the synergetic bond connecting the Wachowskis' trilogy
to the aesthetics of Japanese anim ation goes deeper than that acknowledged deb t .
Indeed, a n i m e features promi nently in the Wachowskis' multi media u n iverse at several
levels . As noted in Chapter 2 with reference to Yoshiaki Kawaj iri's oeuvre , the a n i mated col­
lection complement i n g the live-action trilogy ti tled The Anirnatrix is intimately l i n ked up
with that med i u m , and indeed all of the 9-part OVA's ep isodes are obviously i ndebted to
Japanese a n i m ation in both thematic and stylistic terms . Howeve r , the movies themselves are
redo lent of the techn iques deployed in an ime, as ill ustrator Tan i Kun i t a ke e m phasizes i n h is
account of the visual ization p rocess for the first fi l m's cli mactic sequence i n wh i ch Neo i n vades
Agent S m i th and eventually vanquishes h i m . It is worth stressing that in explicitly referring
to anime i n his description o f one of the movie's least savory sequences, Kun i take draws atten­
tion to one o f the gen re's most salient features which must have been particularly congenial
to the Wachowskis' visio n : that is to say, its capacity for couch i n g i n cartoon ish fo rm dark
themes with deeply perturbing connotations. I n Kun itake's own wo rds : "For this sequence ,
with the Agent Smith explosio n , we did qu ite a few passes . We were looki n g at a l o t o f a n i m e ,
wanting t o capture the feeling of t h i s i n the explodi ng body. The hrst pass on this scene was
really fleshy, but d idn't feel righ t , it fel t more comical. The Agent didn't exp l ode l i ke a shell
 Eleven - A nime �)'nergy 171

. . . i t was more l i ke h e was a l l flesh . . . . They [the d i recto rs] wanted more o f a slow b u i l d - u p ,
where he wo uld kind of boil up and percolate , reach i n g the th reshold, cracki n g some, and
finally shatteri n g , reveal i n g Neo u nderneath" ( Ku n i take 2000a, p. 231) .
The cinematograph ical effects sought by the Wachowskis for this sequence are nowhere
more explicitly at home that i n the a n i m e un iverse . This i s clearly demonstrated by countless
scenes i ntent on dramatizing sensational change in p roductions as diverse as Satosh i Kon's
Perfect Blue, H i ronobu Sakaguchi's Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within and H ayao M i yazaki's
Howl's Moving Castle, to mention j ust a few handbook cases .
I f a n i me's disti nct ive aesthetics could be said to underp i n the Wachowskis' l ive-action
ci nematography no less than thei r forays i nto an i m ation , the art of manga played a n equally
cardinal role i n the execution of the storyboards for The lvfatrix. Thes e , as film ed i to r Zach
Staenberg has stated, contributed crucially to the concretization o f the d i rectors' vision , to
the point that the fi l m's entire complexion is i n formed through and through by their p icto­
rial energy. "At i ts heigh t , " Staenberg explains, "the movie emp loyed aro u n d 450 peo p l e , and
to many of those peo ple the sto ryboards became their bible . . . . [The Wachowskis' style] is not
natural istic but stylized and often extre mely graph i c . . . . There are many places in the movie
where you can j ust look at the frames, and you're looking at pages fro m a grap h i c nove! . . . .
Certain shots and sequences feel l ike the sto ryboards come t o l i fe" (Staenberg ) .
Spencer Lam m , creator o f the official websi te fo r the trilogy and fo rmer editor for Mar­
vel Com ics, con fi rms the sto ryboards' i m p o rtance, mai ntai n i n g that Darrow's and S kroce's
" i n itial art" enabled the d i rectors to "walk people, especially the studio , t h ro ugh the script"
and ulti mately amounted to "a 400- page comic book" viv idly rem i n i scent o f a ful l -fledged
manga (Lam m) . Accord i n g to S kroce h i mself, the Wachowskis requ ired the i l l ustrations to
work as somewhat autonomous "dynamic narratives" capable of convey i n g "a real comic-book
storytel l i n g style" - which led to the eli m i nation of the "arrows" customarily used by story­
board artists (S kroce , p. 41) . Even by merely leafing through the storyboards, it is not hard
to see that their images de rive their characte ristic power not from the fo rmulae o f comic books
or graphic novels in general but speci fically from the art o f m a n ga . Page after page , one pal­
pably senses the reverberations of that art's u nsu rpassed graph ic all usiveness, ab ili t y to con­
vey a p o tent il lusion o f movement thro ugh pithy l i ne draw i n g , preference fo r crisply styl ized
shapes and exp ressionistic boldness.
Ani me-based techn iques also p roved p ivo tal to the v isual ization o f the pec u l iar effects
which the directors a imed to ach ieve and to their subsequent translation into graph i cs, which
constituted a veritably mam moth task i n the p rep roduct ion ph ases . Of particularly salutary
ass istance , on a n u mber o f occas ions, were the lessons learnt from a n ime's penchant fo r meta­
morphic and ambiguous i mages . As shown throughout this study, a hearty appetite for trans­
mutations capable o f spaw n i n g legion composite bei ngs, and concu rrently convey i n g an
i m p ress ion of ongo i n g cosmic flux, is seldom absent from a n i m e's p ictorial poetry. Ninja
Scroffs self-transfo r m i n g demons, Perfect Blue's fluctuati n g identities, Neon Genesis Evange­
lion 's spectacular morphs, Metropolis's cli mactic upheaval , In nocence's concoctions of the nat­
ural a n d the synthe t i c , the apocalyp t i c s h i ft from u t o p i a to dys t o p i a in Appleseed, the
deformation o f urbane society i n to hell ish mayhem i n Steamboy, and the ongo i ng metamor­
phoses of youth i nto decrepi tude and pastoral peace i nto martial horror i n Howl's MOlJing Cas­
tle are some of the most p ro m i nent manifestati ons of that i n grai ned tendency that spring most
readily to m i n d .
1 72 ANI ME I NTERSECTIONS

Echoing the lessons o f anime, the Wachowskis consistently p u rsued the elaboration o f a
visual experience capable of communicating mul ti-accentual messages by means o f images that
el uded neat categorization as either organic or mechan ical , and could accord i n gly evoke at
once the attributes o f d iverse n atural species and pieces of technology. A n i me's dau ntless j o u r­
neys i nto an i m aginary realm of p rotean permutation p roved an i nval uable artistic p receden t .
This p roposition is supported b y Kun i take's comments concerning t h e conceptualization and
rep resentation of the Neb (the rebels' ship) , with its "electromagnetic displacement engi nes
repell i n g the vehicle from surfaces all around . . . . The i n i t i al problem was see i n g the o u t l i n e ,
t h e perimeter of t h e Nebuchadnezzar i n t h e dark, w i th i t always shuttling aro u n d and h i d ­
i n g , o r b o l t i n g down very dark tu nnels . So w e gave i t a l l these s p i ny proj ections, giv i n g i t a
kind of deep-sea angler-fish feel" (Ku n i take 2000b, p. 2 5 0 ) . The conception o f the monstrous
Sentinels besetting the anti-Matricians from all s ides, meant to evoke a tro u b l i n g sense of
ambiguity, also ga ined from the appl ication of ani me's metamorp h i c p roclivi ties . As concep­
tual artist Warren Manser has poi nted out, Darrow's i n i tial sketches for those creatu res "raised
some wonderful quest ions - is i t an octopus, a spider, or a completely mechan ical device? . . .
Trying to j u ggle these things, we've got i t looki ng l i ke a n octo p us i n one draw i n g w ith loose
arms goi n g everywhere , seemingly inescapable; then we've got the creature with its tentacles
p inned back, transforming it i nto someth ing that looks capable o f mov i n g at 200 m i les p e r
hour. T h e i nsect l o o k and its glowing eyes were o t h e r maj o r po ints to stress" ( M a n s e r , p. 2 5 5) .
Accord i n g to Darrow, the directors also requi red the "Fetus Stalk" a n d the " Fetus l l ar­
vester," used as p ivotal p rops i n the choreograp hing of Neo's "reb irth" into the world o f the
Real , to convey a feeling of menace through a consistent emphasis on ambiguity o f form . For
the Stal k , they wanted the creatures to be "constantly changing and shimmeri n g . " As for the
Ha rvester , they came up with a hybrid entity com b i n i n g tentacles and arac h n o i d featu res that
ultimately resulted i n the octopus-like construct with " l ittle sp iders on its feet" (Darrow, pp.
261; 2 6 8 ) . The innum erous hybrids that populate a n ime's galaxy - fro m Evangelion's b i o ­
mecha noids, t h rough Metropolis's robo t-do l l , t o In nocence's gynoids, fo r i n s tance - u n d e n i ­
a b l y offer relevant poi nts of reference.
The des ign work of the fu tu rist artist Syd Mead provides a fu rther m a n i festation o f the
transcultural dialogue i n wh ich Japanese ani mation and Western l ive-action cinema have been
engaged . The mechanical creations executed fo r l ive-action films l i ke Blade Ru nner (dir. Rid­
ley Scott, 1 9 82) and Aliens (dir. James Cameron , 1986), for which Mead is most readily remem­
bered, inspired n u merous anime artists. This is clearly borne out by the Bubblegu m Crisis OVA
series (dirs. Kats uhito Akiyama, H i roaki Go uda , H i roki Hayas h i , Masam i Obari a n d F u m i ­
h i ko Takayama, 1 9 8 7) , a n d b y the featu re fi l m Akira (dir. Kats u h i ro Otomo, 1 9 8 8 ) . At the
same time, Mead has been directly i nvolved i n the p roduction o f two h i ghly regarded sci­
ence-fiction anime series : Ya mato 2520 ( 1 9 9 4 ) a sequel to Le i j i Mats u m o to's o r i g i n al Space
-

Cruiser Yamato ( 1 9 7 8 ) conceived by Yoshinobu Nish izaki - for which he wo rked on s h i p exte­
riors and interiors, props, cost umes and settings i n 1 9 8 7, and the 4 9 - e p isode Turn-A Gun­
dam TV series (1998) where he played a key ro le i n the mechanical revam p o f the original
Gu ndam anime, workin g closely with director Yoshiyuki Tom i n o .
Notw ithstandi n g t h e p rotractedness of anime's presence i n t h e Wes t , t h e fo rm n ever
made a p i n p o i n table spectacular en try i nto U.S. culture . Rather, i t i n filtrated i t slowly and
somewhat unobtrusively at firs t , with several anime shows televised i n the 1960s a n d 1 9 7 0 s
not receivi n g conscious acknowledgement a s a foreign export but b e i n g sim ply consu m ed a s
 Eleven - Anime !-Jy nergy 1 73

"animation . " This is n o t entirely surprising when one considers that most o f the anime p ro ­
duced at t h e t i m e bore Western - and specifically Disneyesque - att r i b u tes as a result of the
pervasive i n fluence yielded upon it by Osamu Tezuka , a n artist whose work had been
significantly i nspired by Western a n imators . (Tezuka's style is discussed i n Chapter 5 i n rela­
tion to Rintaro's adaptation of the artist's manga Metropolis [ 1 949] . ) The success enj oyed by
Astro Boy, the TV series created by Tezuka and aired i n the U . S . from 19 6 3 (with a New Yea r's
Day debut) , co uld be regarded as the first truly notable ach ievement in the laborious evo l u ­
t i o n o f ani me's cul tural cross-fertil izatio n .
T h e 1 9 8 0 s and 1 9 9 0s w i tnessed a gradual reorientation i n audience responses, del i n eated
as follows by Frank Sanchez : "A few people began to real ize anime for what i t was, and h ow
it differed from regular cartoons that were native to society. With more sh ows that had sub­
tle connections to the Japa nese culture, and a bigger audience, i nevitably a few people would
research more closely the backgro und and origin of them" (Sanchez 1 9 9 7-2003a) . In the
1980s, certain sectors of the cartoon-viewing population began to recognize a n i m e's stylistic
and thematic distinctiveness, and first develo ped a discernible sense o f a n imation's openness
to possibili ties other than those p u rs ued for over sixty years by Western p ractitioners . It is
also at this time that the term "Japa n i mation ," now generally avo ided, was co i ned, a n d that
the seeds of anime fandom were sowed. Yet , i t was not until the clos i n g portion o f that decade
that anime started asserting i tself as an autonomous art form and - at least potentially - as a
cultural movemen t . Cri tics agree almost unanimously o n the m o n umental role p l ayed by
Otomo's cyberp u n k featu re Akira i n bringing anime i nto popular focus a n d consolidating its
fan base.
At this stage , however , the medium's public p resence was still l i m i ted to cult status, w i t h
t h e mainstream remain i n g by and l arge u n aware of a n i me's existence - let a l o n e appeal . I t is
most l i kely that this relatively early generation of anime enth usiasts was drawn to the form
by a desi re for p roducts capable of i njecting fresh l i fe into a stagnant cultura l landscape . As
Antonia Levi suggests i n her i n fluential critical volume Samurai from Outer Space, these fans
would have fel t especially disill usioned with the formulaic tri teness o f the typ i cal H o l lywood
diet, and fo und rel ief i n the "aesthetic distance" that anime afForded by engagi n g with l i fe's
o ften unsavory realities without , however, pandering to the ideological tenets of representa­
tional realism (Levi , p. 30) .
Ani me's fan base would eventually blossom i n the co u rse o f the follow i n g decade . This
develop ment was sign i ficantly abetted, once again , by the sensational success o f another fea­
ture film : the aforementioned Ghost in the Shell. Yet , as S a nchez maintains, " i t wasn't until
1 9 9 9 that an u n forgettable event i n a n i me's cultural h istory occu rred - the adven t o f the
' Pokemon' movement i n the U . S . . . . . Pokemon's rocket-like p ropulsion to the top o f the m a i n ­
stream culture h a s helped lay t h e groundwork for t h e promotion of t h e a n i m e med i u m , a n d
h a s shown t h e possibility o f its future integration i n t o t h e culture" (San chez 1 9 9 7 - 2 0 0 3 b) .
In s p i te of these crucial develop ments, as Sanchez also argues, the American media have by
no means arrived at a consensual understanding of anime, and their evaluations o f the medium
accordi n gly range from v i t riolic attacks to spi rited accol ades : '/lBe News wrote a n article a
few years ago entitled 'The Dark S ide o f Anim e , ' which h i g h l igh ted a n i m e as a dangerous
and violent medi u m . . . . However, . . . there have been a few news articles that do cover the
anime medium in a h ighly resea rched and fai r way, recognizi ng it for what i t is. The San Fran­
cisco Chronicle featured an article about the appeal o f a n i m e ... which explains a n i m e as a
174 ANIME INTERSECTI ONS

h u manistic med i u m wh ich appeals to fans because of i ts versat i l i t y a n d i ts m u l t i p l ic i t y "

(Sanchez 1 9 9 7-2003c) .
Whether derogatory or adm iring, it is highly l i kely that upon encountering a n i m e w i th­
o u t any prior fam i liarity with any aspect of Japanese art , a large n u mber o f viewers w i l l h ave
reacted to it with some p uzzlement . This hypo thesis is defin i tely u pheld by E m ru Tow nsend,
whose article on "the j oy and mystery of discovering an ime," evocatively ti tled "An i m e Mon
Amo u r , " states : " I wo uld wager that fo r many people who were fi rst exposed to anime dur­
i n g the last century, ' What is this?' was accompan ied by ' It's not Disney' o r ' It's n o t Ameri­
can . ' For p roof, you only have to read newspaper or magazine articles written by someone
who only recently d iscovered anime - it's almost a certai nty that the first paragraph will set
anime up i n opposition to American anim ati on" (Townsend 2 00 5 , p. 3 ) .
Townsend develops this idea i n a later article, "An i me's B i g Picture , " where h e argues
that in the Wes t , "we experien ce anime as an alternative to other fo rms o f a n i mation and p o p
culture ; w e aren't immersed i n it from a cultural o r enterta inment standpoint . O ften , t h i s
leads to a fi l tering effect : w e s e e only a certain sl ice of anime i n a certai n contex t , and we
extrapo late from that to determ ine what all anime must be l i ke" (Townsend 2006b, p. 3) .
The phenomenon described by Townsend is in d i re need o f some sort o f rectifica t i o n i f
Western spectators with o n ly l i m i ted exposure t o anime are t o avoid stultifying general iza­
tions . F i rst and fo remost , it is vital to acknowledge that the medium's tech n ical and thematic
spectrum is both wide-ranging and supple, and that drawing any conclusions about its essence
on the basis o f merely a few - possibly accidental - encou nters with i ts i mages is a va i n exer­
cise . For example, a viewer who associa tes anime with, say, Heidi, Girl o/the Alps (dirs . Ats uj i
Hayakawa , Masao Kuroda and Isao Takahata , 1974) will i nevi tably harbor a perception of
anime that bears l i ttle resemblance, i f any, to that of a viewer that equates the med i u m to
Giant Robo (dir. Yasu h i ro Yamagawa , 1992) : i t is hard to imagine what these two hypotheti­
cal cha racters co uld possibly share , were they to engage i n a dialogue about a n i m e .
I ndeed, a s Townsend also maintains, much a s "the increased attention p a i d to a n i m e i s
welco m e , i t's important to bear i n mind that i t s range of subject matter is w ider s t i l l than
what we see here . " However , o u r i na b i l i t y to "experience an ime" as we might i f we were actu­
ally living in the culture that spawned it in the first place does not u nequivocally entail that
we should not at least attempt to grasp and savor i ts diversity with reference to an appropri­
ately researched socio-historical milieu : " Presenti n g a more honest and complete context fo r
what we do see over here closes the gap considerably" (Townsend 2006b, p. 3) .
Learning to appreciate a n ime's polymorphousness is also bound to benefit fro m an u nder­
standing of manga - the art fo rm , as we have seen , that p rovides the basis fo r the vast maj o r­
ity of a n i me p roductions - as a pervas ive cultu ral p resence i n Japanese society whose reach
s u rpasses by far that of comic books and graphic novels in the Wes t . A n i m e's variety m i rrors
closely that o f the manga from which i ts narratives so frequently spri n g . S o m e openness to
both manga's and anime's distinctive tropes and lexicon will also hel p the Western viewer com­
prehend the broader p arameters of thei r kindred cultural disco u rses . The terms associated with
different types of man ga of the shoujo (girl-oriented) and shounen (boy-oriented) modal i ties,
from which much anime emanates, as well as the rhetoric peculiar to works aimed at you n ge r
children (kodomo) i n contrast with those intended for adults (olona) , m ay at fi rst befu ddle
non-Japanese consu mers . I t is only by adopting a capac ious dispos ition towards this i n i t ially
u n familiar l a n gu age - where i n original Japanese words coexist with n u merous a n d m u l t i -
 ElelJen - A nime Synergy 17 5

acce ntual gairago ("loa n -words" ) - that the cultural barrier may be, at least partial ly, pene­
trated and cherished instead o f being perceived as an i mpedi m ent .
I n addition , it is i m portant to acknowledge that j u st as anime styles vary conside rably
according to the expectations of the age group at which a particul a r series o r feature is aimed,
so do manga styles. As Marc H a i rston has no ted, it is not u ncom mon fo r a shoujo manga mag­
azi n e targeted at "el e m e ntary and j u n ior h i gh school aged girls," l i ke Ribon, to use "pastels,
co lors that appeal to g i rls more than to boys . . . . The pages themselves a re colored i nstead of
white . So instead o f black line art on white pages they have p u rple l i n e art on pink pages . "
A shounen manga magazine such as Weekly Shou nen Sunday exhi b i rs qu ire d i fferent artistic
featu res that fitt i n gly match the publication's thematic em phases : "Most o f the Ribon stories
are romances and domestic d ramas wh i l e Weekly Shounm's stories a re mo re adventure o r action
oriented . There a re sports stories, h istorical adventu re stories, some supernatural , all stories
that appeal to teen -aged male readers" ( H a i rston 1 9 9 9 ) .
In order to savvy a n i m e's p r ismatic rich n ess, it i s also necessary to grapp l e with the
specificity of its iconography and related gestural symbo l ism . Legion vi ewers will readily asso­
ciate ani me's visual reperto i re with i nstantly recogn izable somatic attributes : primarily, h uge
glossy eyes and frequently o u tlandish hair size and coloratio n , extended l i mbs allowing exag­
gerated patterns of motion , fe male bodies redolent of fashion-design sketches . What some­
times goes u n heeded by the casual spectator is that in o rder to convey subtly varied emotional
and psychological states , a n i m e artists typically resort to high ly stream l i ned facial designs,
where even the most i n fi n i tesimal c u rve can alter rad ical ly a cha racte r's entire exp ressi o n .
Moreover, the p o r t rayal o f t h e same character c a n s h i ft d ramat ically fro m semi -rea l i s t i c ,
thro u gh cartoony, to downrigh t grotesque typologies, depen d i n g on w h a t the cont i n gent c o n ­
text cal ls for . M o s t i ntrigu i n gly, a s J e ff B o m a n and Jenn ifer Wa n d have e m phasized, " I t's
i m portant to recogn ize that icons are not merely t i ed to the gravity of the emotion. Emotions
that are truly s i g n i ficant i n a story . . . are shown i n a m uch less cartoon- l ike way. . . . Someti mes
eve n the sill iest a n i m e w i l l give way to deeper e m otions ; it is com pletely cons istent fo r a
romantic comedy to have a dozen amusing facial featu res in one sce n e , b u t then use more
real istic drawings and movement in a more serious scene" (Boman and Wan d, p. 1 1 ) .
A n o ther classi c a n i m e t rope consists o f the use o f i n fantil i zed caricatures o f certa i n char­
acters, intended to h ighlight a scene's comi cal i m p o r t , known as chibi. The word translates
l i terally as " l i ttle" but also stands as a contraction of "child body. " Closely l i n ked u p w i t h th i s
strategy i s the employm e nt o f S O ( " Super Deformed" o r "Squashed D own") vers ions o f the
normal personae that analogously aim at exposing their foi b l es by reco u rse to parodic h u mor.
The most blatantly stylized visual tropes intended to extern alize vario us affective states incl ude
the use of a large drop of sweat on a cha racter's brow to sym bol ize either anxiety o r rel ief, o f
throbb ing blood vessels o r steaming ea rs t o com m u n icate i ntense i re , o f nosebleeds t o s i g n i fy
l us t , and of a dying candle by the head of a character who is l i terally about to "snuff i t . "
It i s n o t u ncom mon , moreove r , fo r anime t o provide elements o f "fan service ," namely
scenes that are not s trictly relevant or else are p u rely peripheral to the advancement o f the
plot but a re supposed to regale the v iewe r with sco p i c grati fication . The ph rase is often asso­
ciated with erotically t i t i llati n g i mages of go rgeo us fe males in scanty a t t i re -- the sorts of
i mages, in other words, that te n d to elicit at best charitable ridicule and ar worst u ndil u ted
opprobri u m among n o n - fa ns . As Jonathan Clements and Helen McCarthy p o i n t out in rhe
entry devoted to "A rgot and Ja rgon" in the i r A nime Encyclopaedia, i t i s i mp o rtant to recog-
176 ANI M E INTERSECTI ONS

n ize that "fan service need not always be sexually suggestive ; there i s , fo r examp l e , such a
thing as mecha fan service, foregro unding machinery at the expense of other aspects" (Clements
and McCarthy, p. 30) .
I n additio n , some cri tics have mai ntained that a comprehensive grasp o f a n i me's iconic
i nventory will benefit from some appreciation of the ways i n wh i ch the med i u m o ften defines
its characters' personali ties with reference ro distinctive vesti mentary attributes. Lawrence
Eng, for i nstance, has stated : "Anime fash ion is an i mportant part of the whole a n i m e expe­
rience . . . . What a character wears greatly determ i nes how we t h i n k o f them" (Eng 1 9 9 6) . This
idea is s ubstantiated by several o f the p roductions here examined . In Perfect Blue, for exam­
ple, Mima's fluctuating identity is inextricable from the pop-idol costume worn by the pro­
tagonist herself fo r her last concert and reappearing with subtle va riations t h roughout the film.
I n Neon Genesis Evangelion, Asuka is portrayed as a character endowed with an acute sense of
fashion, at ti mes favori n g styles deemed inapposite to her age gro u p by older characters l i ke
Misato and Kaj i . This aspect of Asuka's characterization succinctly e p i to m izes her longi n g to
sever herself from the legacy of a traumatic childhood. Rei , conversely, appears to have n o
i nterest i n clothes whatsoever a n d indeed never features garbed i n anyth i n g other than h e r
piloting s u i t o r h e r school u n i form. I n Appleseed, sartorial contrasts are consistently i nvoked
as a visually concise means o f evoking the tension between the utopian world o f Olympus
and the bleak actuality o f the world that surro unds i t . Deunan's martial gear , on the one hand,
and dash i n gly fashionable urban - l i fe outfits, on the other, neatly encapsulate the opposition .
I n Howl 's Moving Castle, to cite a final example, the young Soph ie's i ntroverted and timorous
disposition is i n itially establ ished by recourse to her deliberately muted and restrained cloth­
ing, whereas the image o f the hero i n e presented i n the clos i n g scene appropriately flaunts a
radiantly yel low costume .
I n developing a critical awareness of ani me's un ique iconography, i t is no less vital to
learn to appreciate the sheer beauty of its background scenery paintings . I n i ntentionally sharp
contrast with the medium's styl ized personae, the backgro u n ds tend to be prodigally detailed
and depicted in rich chrom atic gradi e nts o f lifelike l uscio usness . What is more , backgro u n ds
do not s i mply se rve to establish a sense of the scene's p hysical setting b u t actually contr i b u te
crucially to the evocat ion of complex moods, deriv i n g insp iration fro m the fi n e arts and espe­
cially watercolor painting. For the authent ically committed artist , n o detail is ever too triv­
ial o r d i m i n u tive : even a discarded can , a lowly desktop comp uter, a n unoccupied classroom
chair or a garment l i m p ly resting on its hanger can be lovi ngly designed a n d hence capable
o f exud i n g a palpable charm of its own . With its mechanical designs, a n i m e's pass i o n fo r
details reaches i ts iconographic apotheosis in the guise o f myriad n o n - o rgan ic components
that range from everyday domestic appliances to sensational giant robots, biomecha n o i ds and
spaceships - all o f which are painstakingly rendered wit h a plethora o f elabora te n u a nces.
As an ensemble o f visual registers that contribute vitally to a n im e's i n d ividuality, the
iconographic elements d iscussed i n the precedi ng paragraphs rem i n d us that p i ctorial s igns
are n o less textual (and i n deed intricately textu ral) than words, and accord i ngly ask to be
read - namely, decoded and i n terpreted - no less thoroughly than verbal s i g n s . H a i rston
lucidly expounds this proposition , fam i l iar to l i nguists since at least Ferd i nand de Saussu re's
grou nd-breakin g conceptualization of the disci pline o f semiotics, by stress i n g that "gra p h ical
text is fa r from 'obv ious ... .' Images are how we see and perceive the world aro u n d us. Most
o f o u r brai n's sensory nerves are devoted to i nterp reti n g the visual world aro u n d us, much
 Eleven - A nime Synergy 177

more than is devoted to the auditory i n terpretation of the worl d . Understa n d i n g how to read
graph ical images is i m portant because i mages have a great power over us, more so than we
generally real ize . " The exercise becomes pointedly necessary when exa m i n i n g "a culture where
the graphical image is unquestionably the dominant form of text : Japan . . . . O n e o f the first
things that a foreigner notices when visiting i n Japan is that everyone there is read i n g comic
books or manga . Here i n the U.S. yo u would see busi ness people riding the shuttle b uses i nto
downtown all read i n g the Willl Street Jou rnal (which is itself j ust another form o f fantasy lit­
erature disconnected fro m reality ... ). I n Japan all the business people o n the s u bways and
b uses are all reading m a n ga on the way i nto work" (Hairston 1 9 9 9 ) .
Altho ugh it can hardly be refuted that anime was, until relatively recently, either a total
mystery or an obj ect o f scorn among the m ajority of Western mov iegoers, its p o p u l arity and
appeal have been escala t i n g , earn ing this art form a welco m i n g home w i t h i n i ncreasi ngly
ample contemporary audiences and, concomitantly, usherin g in further opportun i t ies for syn ­
ergetic interaction .
Any anime enthusiast the world over will readily adm i t that the medium's recen t explo­
sion i n the West is a welcome phenomenon that o n ly a decade ago could barely have been
dreamed of. Nevertheless, many fans are still i n the dark when i t comes to figuring o u t the
selection and acquisition criteria u nderlying the appearance o f a n i m e titles on the Anglo­
phone marke t . Gerry Po u l os's el ucidations are particularly helpful , i n this regard . F i rst o f all ,
i t i s impo rtant t o realize that how a title i s chosen "depends o n the studi o . " Manga Enter­
tai n ment , for i nstance, p rioritizes "producti o n , " as explicitly stressed by the company's D i rec­
tor of Acquisitions Kaoru M fa u m e : "The selection p rocess occurs by j udging the quality and
contents of the animatio n ; the subject of the story has to be one that people i n the U.S. can
adhere to" (quoted i n Poulos, p. 170) . ADV Films, on the other hand, is said to emphasize
"entertainment valu e , " whereas The Right Stuf I nternational is reputedly keen o n p romo t i n g
titles t h a t have b e e n marginalized, y e t a r e sought after by fan s . F urthermore , selection and
acquisition processes are frequently a result of creative synergies . As Poulos exp lains, " it is n o t
u ncommon for Western studios t o have a h a n d i n t h e original Japanese p roduction o f a titl e ,
thus securi ng rights before the show i s even p roduced . . . . When a Japanese studio wants more
for a title than a Western company can make i n sales, things can q u ickly gri nd to a hal t . . . .
To further stir the p o t , there may someti mes b e several companies holding rights t o a t i tle"
(Poulos, p. 176) . These factors should always be borne carefully in mind whenever o n e m ay
feel tem pted to accuse the Western market of arbitrary conduct i n the choice a n d release o f
anime productions .
Ani me's growing p ro m i nence within Western cultures is attested to n o t only by the grow­
ing availability of h igh-qual ity DVD releases , however , but also by the scree n i n g of a n i m e
productions at n u merous i nternational conventions and fi l m festival s . Some films have actu­
a lly risen to the level o f "classics" i n the cinema wo rld at l arge rather than merely in the
domain o f animatio n . To cite j ust one ill ustrative example, H ayao Miyazaki's Nausicaa of the
Valley of the Wind (1984) was screened as part of a selection of classic movies i n the summer
of 2006 n o t o nly at the Annecy I nternational Animated F i l m Festival , which could quite eas­
ily have been expected, but also at the p restigious Cannes hIm Festival . Concurrently, while
anime-specific events such as Anime Expo attract larger and larger audiences,! the medium is
also being accorded a s ignificant role by conventions that cover the entire field o f ani mation
and the germane rea l m o f com i c books . A case in point i s Comic-Con (San Diego , Califor-
178 ANIME ! r-:TERSECTIONS

n i a) , where a n i m e , hav i n g already featu red quite promi nently i n 200 5 , was allocated th ree
entire rooms, allowing for the exh ibition of over 1 3 0 titles in t h e course of fo u r days, i n July
2006.2
A decidedly remarkable , yet not often noted, example of a n ime's s teady ascent to the
ranks of a legiti mate cultural form i n the West consists of the iti nerant exhi b i tion "My Real­
ity: Contemporary Art a n d the Cultu re of Japan ese Animat i on . " This travelled t h rough the
u.s. i n the early 2000s, begi nning at the Brooklyn Museum of Art, where it was held from
2 8 July to 7 October 2001, and making eight stops on i ts national tour. The exh ibit ion show­
cased over thirty works by artists from Japan , South Korea , the U . S . , Bri tai n , the Nether­
lands and G reece , including (in alphabetical order) Matthew Benedict , Lee B u ! , Taro Ch iezo ,
James Esber, M i ka Kato , M icha Klein , Paul McCarthy, M i l tos Manetas, M r. (Masakatu
Iwamoto) , Mariko Mori , Takash i Mu rakam i , Yoshitomo Nara , Richard Patterson , Tom Sachs,
Momoyo Torimitsu, Charl ie Wh i te and Kenj i Yanobe .
The show, suitably comp lemented by a com panion volume of the same title edited by
Jeff Flem ing for the Des Mo ines Art Center, Iowa , and published i n 2 0 0 1 , focused o n the
i mpact of a n i m e on contem porary art i n Japan , other As ian cultures and the West . The syn­
ergetic assim ilation o f ani me styles and techn iques in both the East and the West was per­
s uasively th rown i nt o rel ief by the show itself, to be fu rther co nso l i dated by the b o o k's
refiections o n the i nterplay of art and technology through the lenses o f a n i me's recurring p re­
occupations, iconography and mot i fs . As noted in the web page dedicated to the event by the
Norton Museum of Art (West Palm Beach , Florida) , where the exhibition was hosted from
12 Ap ril to 15 June 2 0 0 3 , "These include concepts such as futu ristic technology, cybo rgs, fan ­
tast ical creatures, and post-apocalyptic landscapes, as wel l as more u n iversal themes , s u c h a s
gen der roles, consumerism , a n d pop culture" ("My Real i t y : Contemporary A r t and the C u l ­
ture of Japanese Ani mation" ) .
Commenting on the exh ibition a t the t i m e of i ts showing at the Akron A r t Museum
(Ohio) from 21 September 2002 to 5 Jan uary 2 0 0 3 , Noell Wol fgram Evan s observed :

The show ... is a complete sensory tour de force with paintings, sculptures, films, lectures, workshops,
books, images, photographs and hands on crafts all coming together to offer the visitor a kind of "crash
course" on becoming an otaku (anime fan) . This show is not just for the die-hard anime fan though as it
deals with ideas, themes and influences that a watcher of any type of animation (and in fact any pop cul­
ture junkie) can relate to .... Opening night crowds were overwhelming with long l ines being perhaps the
true theme of the night. People stood on and wound down the stairs, waiting to get in up until the 1 1 : 3 0
closing [Evans].

Presenting anime not only as an art fo rm in its own right b u t also as a "catalyst fo r other a n , "
a s Evans p u ts i t , " My Real ity" challenged many of t h e p rej udices bligh t i n g a n i m ation i n p rac­
tically its entirety and its ghettoization as a second- rate infantile med i u m , by enco u rag i n g
recogni tion o f i ts rich ness b y both artists a n d curators . Wh ile t h e works o f several Asian p a r­
ticipants melded together Western sources of i nspiration - s uch as D isney, Warner B ro thers,
Jeff Koons and Andy Warhol - and indigenous art forms l i ke the ukiyo-e, those o f their West­
ern counterparts frequently evi nced pointedly Eastern i n fiuences . East-West synergies were
thus celeb rated with u nequalled gusto .
Anime's i m b rication w ith the do main of fine art is also attested to by its (and m a nga's)
i m pact on a th riving postmodern movement known as "Superfiat . " Th is was in augurated by
the aforement i oned artist Takash i Mu rakami as a cri tical response to the vac u o u s h omoge-
 Eleven - A n ime Synergy 179

n ization , consumerism and sexual fetishism dominant within post-war and post-bubble Japan .
(B eside Muraka m i , a r t i s ts whose work is regarded a s Su perHat i n cl u d e C h i h o Aosh i m a ,
Mahomi Ku n i kata, Yoshitomo Nara , and Aya Taka n o . ) Like a n i m e , S uperHat p rioritizes two­
di mensional ity as the i n herently defining staple of Japanese art, while concurrently reve l l i n g
i n a gamesome cul tivat ion o f hybridi ty. Commenting o n t h e " SuperHat" exh ibition h e l d a t
t h e MOCA gallery at t h e Pacific Design Center in West Hollywood i n 2 0 0 1 , t h e o n l i n e art
j o u rnal designboom observes :

all of the artists in "superAat" work between the established boundaries of their respective genres, for
instance where fine art photography meets cOlllmercial photography, where painting meets illustration, or
where fashion meets theatrical costllming. the "sltpe" in "superflat" not only emphasizes the planar qual­
ities of much of the work, bm also denotes a special, charged characteristic or attitllde. with "superAat"
murakami suggests a broader definition of contemporary art in j apan and the wide range of activity within
the exhibition can be seen as a direct chall enge to the tradition al borders and hierarchies hetween cultural
genres [ "sltperAat" & N.B. : designboom radically eschews capital lcttcrsl .

I n other words, M u raka m i and h i s acoly tes could be said to be p romu lgating a charac­
teristically postmodern l evel l i n g o f pyra m idal structures that are i ntent on perpetuating con­
ventional dichotom ies between the " h igh" and the "low, " the "s u b l ime" and the "prosai c , " the
"popular" and the "elite," by eroding both formal and semantic compartmental ization s . Within
the specific scope of Murakam i's own work, the p reference fo r heterogeneo us com posites and
adm ixtures is borne o u t by the coexistence o f motifs d rawn not only fro m manga and anime
but also from traditional Japanese painti ng and printmaki n g , as well as myriad Wes tern forms
popularized by globalizatio n , including H o l lywood featu res . Therefo re , while SuperHat has
developed pri marily w i th i n the context of Japa nese culture , its resonance carries cross-cu l ­
tu ral i m p lications .
At the same time , S uperHat m i rrors the concerns o f the o taku3 subcul ture as a fandom
phenomenon associated with anime, manga and video game lovers (among other related cat­
egories of obsess ional consumers whose passion verges on fetishistic addiction) that a re his­
torically defined by a n a m b i g u o us and occasional l y s t ra i n e d p o s i t io n i n g at the point of
intersection of localized traditionalism and multi nationally driven modern izatio n . The emo­
tional ordeals dramatized by p roductions such as the Neon Genesis Evangelion TV show and
movies - works frequently ci ted as axial to the fosteri ng of o taku mentali ties by virtue o f their
i nward-looki n g and e m i n ently self- referential natu re - is i n deed closely echoed by the atmos­
phere of psychological u nease that pe rvades SuperHat even as i t see m i n gly indulges in unbri­
dled "fu n . "
Anime-based styles have also been in Huencing w i th i ncreasi n g frequency a n d momen­
tum the fashion -des ign scen e . Murakam i 's col laborative work with Louis Vu itton is a case in
poi n t . Another apposite example, cited in Factio Magazine, is the creation by j ewel ry designer
Tarina Ta ra ntino of p ieces i nsp i red by " H e l lo Kitty," a character invented and copyrigh ted
by the Japanese company San rio i n 1976. S i nce that date , the icon o f the w h i te cat w i th a
p i n k bow on her head has spawned "mo re Hello Kitty rega l i a than seems possible" (G ibson
2004, p . 144) , featuring on all manner of merchandise and establishing its disti nctive logo as
a globally known trademark .
An ancillary factor contri b u t i n g to Western audiences' i ncreas i n g fa m i liarization w i th
the visual rhetoric o f Japanese a n i m a tion through mediatic syn ergy cons ists o f the in fi l tra­
tion of the video ga me i n d u s t ry by d i s t i nctive a n i me styles . The i n fluence o f an i den t i fi ably
180 A N IME INTERSECTI ONS

Japanese grap h i c style on this sector is eloquently demonstrated by C h ris Kohler in Power­
Up: How Japanese Video Games Galle the World an Extra Life, the first among the ris i n g n u m ­
b e r o f critical volu mes devoted t o the study of digital gam i n g t o have d rawn attention t o the
East as the cradle o f the for m . Ko hler's central argu ment is that Japanese v ideo game des ign­
ers have steadily been devel o p i n g a visual discou rse endowed with global appeal p recisely on
the basis o f a cultu rally specific design philosophy that strikes i ts roots both i n traditional art
and i n the media o f m anga and a n i m e . As the critic explains, many o f Japan's gam e develo p ­
ers benefit from a trai n i n g undertaken i n t h e context o f art and design colleges - and n o t
pri ncipally i n t h e fields o f coding a n d p rogramming a s tended t o be t h e case with t h e i r early
Western counterparts . Moreove r , many would have started our as m a n ga i l l ustrators and
anime artists, and hence been in a position to imbue their games with evocative sto ryl i nes
and feeli ngs by reco urse to tech niques acqu ired in those original capacities.
H istorical ly, the a n i m e-video gam e synergy has been deeply affected by com m ercial
i m perat ives . Altho ugh the earliest games in Japan had o ften regarded anime as a s u p e r i o r
parental source o f graphic i n s p i ratio n , there came a point when their status changed fro m
that o f fi l ial by- p roducts t o that o f autonomous ma rket fo rces . A s Clements a n d McCarthy
note,

The large unit costs o f games means that a successful gaming company has much higher budgets [dun
anime] to play with. By the late 1990s, with anime budgets squeezed ever tighter, many of the talems who
might have previously worked in "IV animation instead migrated to the higher returns of computing. .. .
Those anime that flourished on television often did so with the heavy backing of gaming concerns . . . . Their
emphasis is often based O I l the collecting of cards, toys, or other cheaply mass-produced items thar call be
marketed to young consumers during the commercial breaks [Clcmems and McCarthy, p. 21 8].

Jodi Heard effectively h i gh l i ghted a n i me's i mpact on the ga m i n g i ndustry in a report

assessi n g the distinctive aesthetics o f E3 Expo (i.e. Electro n i c Entertai n m e n t Expo) i n 2 0 0 3 .
( E 3 is an event regularly hosted b y t h e L . A . Convention Cente r . ) " Fo r someone who has
n ever been to the mother of all ga m i n g conventions," Heard exp l a i n s , " Wanderi n g a ro u n d
the t h u nder a n d l igh t show o f E 3 , i mages from m i llions o f games, released o r y e t to b e
released, a r e everywhere . . . after a moment . . . yo u s t a r t to n o tice s o m e th i n g ; a fa m i l i a r
b a t o f eyelash h e re , a wave o f a h a n d there , a character design t h a t rese m b l es s o me o n e
yo u k now. . . . Eve rywhere yo u go there are the haunting w isps o f a n i m e . " Wha t i s ulti mately
most intrigu i n g abo u t this fusion o f anime and v i deo games is i ts ab i l i t y to extend wel l
beyond the sco pe of Japan and its particular graphic conventions to affect the gam i n g i n d us­
try i n i ts entirety : "It seems the a n i m e in fluence is visibly everywhe re , b u r i t is n o surp rise
that this happe n s . Most o f the best and most popular companies that put our t i tles a re fro m
Japan where such design trends are al most i n here n t . B u r what is s ur p ri s i n g i s [that] the
i m pact o f the a n i m e ge nre is now i ntruding on the designs i n non-Ja panese c o m p a n ies"
(Heard) .
The market fo r games d i rectly inspired by popular anime rel eases (and by the manga on
which these are in turn o ften based) is rapidly expanding. As Kev in G i ffo rd has n o ted, " I t's
a simple formula over in Japan - i f a manga publ ished in Sho unen Jump hits i t big and gets
i ts own long- r u nn i n g TV show, then Bandai or Sony or someon e w i l l - repea t , will- m a ke
it into a 3D one-on-one fighter ga me" (G i fford, p. 1 37) . (Shou nen }u mp is one o f the l o n gest­
running m a n ga compilations p u b l ished on a weekly basis i n Japa n , wit h monthly editions
released i n North America and Eu ro pe . ) At times, the game i n question merely p rovides an
 Eleven � Anime Synergy 181

ensemble o f characters from the parent series and a set o f contexts fo r them t o fight w i t h i n .
I ncreasingly, h owever, t h e standard formula is b e i n g reinvented, allow i n g games to commu­
nicate narrative and aesthetic val ues of their own rather than blandly repetitive emulations of
their animated o r comic-book antecedents. A case i n point is the game p roduced by Bandai
for PlayStation 2 , released i n the summer of 2006, that takes as i ts s o u rce o f i n s p i ration one
o f the most widely acclaimed a n i m e p rogram o f all times, namely Na ruto (dir. H ayato Date ,
2002-2006) , a n d the manga b y Masah i Kish i moto on which the show is b ased . T h e gam e ,
titled Naruto: Ultimate Ninja, bears witness to its creato rs' imaginative approach to the med i u m
b y transcending the aesthetics o f the arcade-style fighter modality a n d i n fusing each sett i n g
with a distinctive atmosphere t h rough t h e simulation by digital m e a n s o f comic-book grap h i c
conventions - including t h e rendition , b y reco urse to special shad i n g tools, o f visuals that
appear to have been executed i n penci l .
Wh ile anime series spawn countless games , a grow i n g n u mber o f s uccessfu l games are
being translated into a n imated progra m . A striking example is o ffered by Kishin Hoko Demon­
bane, another PlayStation 2 package so staggeringly multilayered and open -ended as to appear
to defy adaptation to the screen . Neverthel ess , as noted i n the " Newtype Express" p ress release
on the subject published in June 2006, di rector Sho ichi Masuo has met the challenge w i t h
com mendable a p l o m b , b ringing forth " a world where magic and tech nology have developed
side by side" ("Newtype Exp ress Press Release : Kishin Hoko Demonbane," p. 1 1) . ( I t could be
suggested, i ncidentally, that few ph rases could describe more fel i c i to usly the rea l m o f a n i m e
i n i ts enti rety.) F urthermore , Kishin Hoko Demonbane (which started a i r i n g i n Japan i n t h e
sum mer o( 2006) h a s p rovided t h e raw material for wide-ranging synergetic experiments c u r ­
rently expected to birth a large multimedia franchise t i t l e d Demonbane 7.
One of the most sensational instances o f ani me-video game synergy is undoubtedly to
be fou nd i n the . hack game series . Launched by Bandai i n 2 0 0 2 , the original game itself p iv­
ots on a role-playi n g si mulation of a vast online multiplayer environ ment called " The World"
and has become t remendo usly popular i n both Japan and Am erica , sel l i n g no less than l . 7
million cop ies . More i m p ortantly, the . hack games have generated o n e o f t h e most a m b i t i o us
multi media p rojects ever conceived, giv ing rise to anime, manga and n ovel tie- i n s . I t should
be stressed, i n th is respect , that the popularity enj oyed by the . hack games hardly comes as a
s u rp rise when one takes i nto consideration the richness o f their storyli n es and methods o f
characterization . T h e latest i nstallments i n t h e franchise a r e t h e t h ree-vo l u m e PlayStation 2
game series . hackIIG. U. (2006) a n d its a n i me spin-off . hackllRoots (dir. Ko i c h i M as h i mo ,
2006) . A s w i t h t h e parent game s o w i t h Mashi mo's show, t h e p roduct's p r i n c i pal strength l ies
with i ts creato rs' honest com m itment to artistic val ues that o u tweigh p u rely commercial asp i ­
rations . T h i s i s attested t o b y t h e story's emphasis on t h e characters' feelings and perceptions
o f thei r surroundi ngs, the i r evolving personalities and psychological co n fl icts . As a res ul t , the
action never degenerates i nto a cycle o f m i ndlessly enacted battles - tho ugh the violence i s
unquestionably there - but s ucceeds i n fathoming quieter and aesthetically more tantalizing
aspects o f the visual experience (real or vi rtual as this m ight be) .
I t could therefo re be argued that the col l usion o f a n i m ated fi l m s and video games is a
two-way process : at o n e level , Western spectators are becom i n g more responsive to v i deo
games produced by Japanese compan ies thanks to their prior expo s u re to a n i m e and their
related recogn ition o f certain grap h i c conventio n s ; at another level , game p layers al ready
accustomed to Japan's rep resentational p references by the ludic experience are beco m i n g more
182 ANIME INTERSECTI ONS

open to a n i m e itself. Jack Niida, marketing coordinator for the Japanese video game p rod uc­
tion company Nippon I ch i , has usefully com mented on this Janus- headed p h e n o me n o n .
Explaining, specifically, t h e reasons underlying Nippon Ich i's decision to move t o t h e U . S . i n
200 5 , he stated : "We tho ugh t i t was the right timin g, because the American market see med
to be getting more accustomed to Japanese ani me-style artwork . . . and our ti tles are all p retty
much anime-influenced . . . . The anime crowd is p retty hardco re , so we thought i t was a good
match , and it tu rned o u t to be . " Asked to el ucidate to what he wo uld attribute the expand­
i n g receptiveness to Japanese styles among Western spectators, Niida adde d : "I t h i n k i t's
because o f the grow ing anime i n fluence, Americans are beco m i n g more accustomed to it . . .
back i n the o l d days you had Japanese titles with a n ime-related characters b u t they changed
the art style to s u i t the Western taste , but . . . nowadays they can j ust b r i n g the original art­
work ove r , wh ich is great for people l ike us" (Niida) .
I t is also wo rth pointing o u t , in this context, that developments i n the v i deo game i ndus­
try across the global spectrum provide persuasive evidence for the gradual ascent o f video gam es
to the stature of fine a r t , whereby one more fo rm of cultural synergy is p romo ted . Video game
designers and animators are i ncreasingly com ing to be recognized as artists capable o f creat­
ing stunn i n g visual artifacts o f h ighly refined technical and aesthetic cal i b e r and autonomous
val u e . (This evol ution intrigu i n gly ech oes ani me's own i n c remental e m p lacement w i t h i n
n u m e rous cultures a s a valid a r t form.) Janet Hetheri ngton has commented t h u s o n t h e growth
o f video game art : "Art can be defined as the production , exp ress ion o r rea l m of what is beau­
tifu l . I t can also be described as obj ects subject to aesthetic criteri a . Today, some o f the most
recent additions to the world of art are coming from an unexpected source - videogames . Artist
Andy Warhol [ 1 9 3 0 � 1 9 8 71 first took everyday thi ngs and raised them to a new level o f artis­
tic awareness i n the 1960s . . . . Today's artists are again looking to pop culture for inspirat i o n ,
and videogames a r e providing t h a t inspi ration . "
The trend described b y Hetherington could also b e t raced back t o the work o f Marcel
Duchamp ( I 8 87�1968) , and specifically to the t ransposition o f a "readymade , " or "fo u n d
object" (objet trouvej from t h e realm o f t h e mundane t o that o f so-called high a r t . The video
game is indeed an o bj ect that is generally valued in p urely util itarian terms for its enterta i n ­
ment val ue, y e t c a n acq u i re novel status a n d meani n g by b e i n g recontextual ized and redesig­
nated within the art world. Relatedly, video games are beginning to penetrate the erstwhile
h ighbrow (and o ften rather biased) bastions of the museological emp i re by means o f exh ibi­
tions that "offer the public to see the work an d talent that goes into creat i n g the v ideogames
they enjoy" (Hetherington) .
To corroborate her p roposi tion , Hetheri ngton cites Lorne Lann i n g , p resident a n d cre­
ative director at Oddwo rld I n habitants: " Each year the game industry conti n u es to attract
i ncredible artistic talent fro m around the globe . Yet much o f the work created by these artists
goes into the preproduction p rocess and is rarely seen i n its original fo rm by the art-loving
public . " The annual exh ibition " I nto the P ixel ," inaugurated i n 2 0 0 3 , deserves special atten ­
tion in this regard . Lanning describes the event as "an exciting opportun i ty. I t allows the artis­
tic works to be seen and j udged by the artistic merits o f the creators and not by the com m e rcial
success that is all too o ften m istaken fo r quality i n o u r mass-m arket medi u m" (quoted i n H e t ­
heri ngton) . Multiple and interlocking levels o f synergy c a n be detected w i t h i n the p rocesses
del i neated above : anime feeds video games and is i n turn fed by them , as both fo rms gain
popularity by m u tually sustaining each other and mapping their stylistic traits onto each
 Eiellen -- A nime Synergy 1 83

other ; at the same t i m e , a n i me's i n creas ing access to the domai n of art m i rrors, and is m i r­
rored by, the eleva tion o f video games to artistic status.
Vlad i m i r Cole's rem a rks o n the subject are particularly worthy of consideration :
The Associated Press writes, " The popularity of anime, that u niquely Japanese form of a nimation, can be
traced directly to the growth of video games, especially the Final fantasy series a n d other role-playing epics
like Dragon P;'0rrior. " The relationship between the two med i a is more complicated than that . First of all,
anime has been around for nearly 1 0 0 years, so it's far more likely that anime has had greater influence on
games than the other way around. Second, the relationship is more symbiotic than the article implies. Fans
of the two entertainment forms tend to appreciate many of the same techniques, plor devices, and tropes.
It's difficlllt to imagine either form of entertain ment evolving to the state that each is in today without the
other. Anime is consta ntly referencing video games and games anime [Cole].

As suggested earl ier with reference to the show "My Reality" and to the Superflat move­
ment , an ime i tself has grad ually been ga ining access to the exh ibition e m p i re over the p ast
few years . Writing i n 2002, David Allen Wade noted that even though a n i m e had managed
to penetrate "the rea l m of Fine Art" via the Superflat movement , there was "yet to be any
significant worldwide movement i n the gallery system to exh i b i t actual Japanese a n i mation
as a fo rmal work o f art , " attributing this failure to "the rel uctance of the F i n e Art world to
accept time-based media as formal work, as wel l as its rel uctance to accept work that refer­
ences popular c u lture . " However, the critic optimistically concluded that i t seemed "only a
matter of time until the acceptance of anime, and ani mation in ge neral , " would become "evi­
dent within the gal le ries" (Wade) . Just two years later, Wade's p rognostication would come
true i n a positively spectacular fash ion with the " Miyazaki/Moebius Exh ibition" held at the
p restigious and time-honored La Monnaie de Paris from 1 December 2 0 0 4 to 1 3 March 2 00 5 .
This meticulously cu rated exh ibition - a n immensely reward ing experience for seasoned fans
and casual visito rs al ike - p rov ided a comparative reflection on the p r o l i fic careers of H ayao
Miyazaki and of the French artist and film designer Moebius ( Jean G i raud) , by means o f
approxi mately 300 works including watercolors, storyboards, cels and concept designs bor­
rowed from the two masters' personal collections .
The exh ibition , comprising a total of five sections, sought to d raw attention to shared
themes and concerns u n iting Moebius's and Miyazaki's careers . The two artists' envi ron men­
tal p reoccupations were the focus o f the section devoted to "The Nouris h i ng Eart h , " a cele­
bration o f the planet's p rodigious biodiversity. The room ti tled "In the A i r" concentrated on
their common fascination w i th the sky i n its multifarious man i festations, while " I nvisible
Wo rlds" addressed their t rea tment of mytho logy, mysticis m , a n i m istic beliefs and the real m
of the u n fathomed . The section devoted to "Creatu res" fo regro unded M iyazaki's and Moe­
bius's proverbial fascination with hyb rids, resulting i n a bold inte r m i n gl i n g of h u m a n and
bestial characte ristics and engagi ngly biza rre menageries . "Stu dy," the final portion o f the
show, was devo ted to a meticulous documentation of the entire creative p rocess, exh ib i t i n g a
fi l m i c work's incremental evol ution fro m the sketching stage to the p roduction o f eels and
fra mes, and hence allow i n g the visitor to savo r the two artists' staunch c o m m itment to ongo­
i n g self-developmen t .
The exh i b i tion did n o t o n l y rep resent a momentous event i n the h istory o f a n i m e ­
though it can hardly be den ied that it made a significa n t contribution to the d isse m i n ation
of Miyazaki's and Studio G h ibl i's fame o u tside Japan - b u t also a h istoric moment i n the h is­
tory of an imation at la rge . I t i ndeed encour aged an appreci a tion of the artistic stature o f the
form , and hence o f the legiti macy of its p resence within the ivory tower o f fine a r t . The host-
184 ANIME I NTERSECTIONS

ing of the event i n one o f the most superbly palatial Parisian edifices overlooki n g the S e i n e
c o u l d be regarded as tell i n g con fi rmation of t h e curators' des i re to p r o m p t recognition o f t h e
exhi b i ts' artistic val u e . At t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e exhibition constituted a n i n s p i r i n g i nvitation to
recogn ize the existence of potentially fruitful connections between anime a n d other sectors of
both the fi l m and the fine-art worlds .
Two fu rther cases of a n i me-fine art synergy deserve notice : those o f the Japanese artist
Nobuyuki Ohnishi and of the LA-based artist Lore Eckelberry. As Kenneth C h o exp l a i n s in
a "press session" with Ohnishi held i n the course of Anime Expo '99, although "to anime fan s ,
b o t h i n Japan and America, his works have becom e a s m u c h a cult favorite as the m o v i e that
showcased the m , Wings of Honneamise (19 87) ," he " is not yo u r typ ical anime artist" (Cho) .
O h n ishi h i mself fully corroborates Cho's point, stating that "everyone i n Japan doesn't t h i n k
of ' O h nishi' as an anime artist but o n l y a s a fi n e artist . My work is shown i n art galleries a n d
museum s . Even anime fans s t i l l think of me a s a fine artist . " Th is does not e n t a i l t h a t O h n is h i
looks down on a n i m e a s " low culture . " I n fact , i n t h e same p ress release, he clearly states that
he i ntends to work aga i n with H i royu ki Yamaga, Honneamise's epoch - m a k i n g wri ter and
director. Equipped with an encyclopedic background that enco m p asses both traditional Japa­
nese forms and Western styles, and trai ned i n a considerable variety of media (including hand­
drawing, oil painting, watercolor painting, l ithography, illustration and photography) , Ohnishi
inti mates that art canno t be defined purely on the basis of gen re - and that anime, accord­
i ngly, cannot be u n i formly categorized as either popular entertai n m ent o r fine a r t . Wha t truly
matters is whether "a good script and good director and a good story is i n vo lved" (quo ted i n
Cho) .
As to what O h n ish i's rep utation tells us abo ut a n i m e's cultural stan d i n g , at least two
i nterpretations are viable . On the one hand, it could be surm ised that O h n i s h i is p r i m arily
recognized (and i n deed perceives h imself) as a fine artis t , w i t h a n i m e as someth i n g of a sec­
ondary aspect o f his fo rmative backgro u nd, due to a n i n c l i n ation to p rio ritize a person's
accom plishments i n a h igh -culture medi u m over and above his o r her explo i ts i n the context
of com mercial enterta i n ment . O n the o ther hand, and more felicito usly fo r a n i m e , i t c o u l d
be argued t h a t Ohnish i's case shows that artists w h o deal , o r have deal t , w i th a n i me a re n o t
automatically compartmental ized a s creators of purely marketable m a terial , fo r they m ay real­
istically asp i re to fu l l access to the echelons of fine art.
Eckelberry, a n esteemed artist whose wo rks are exh ibited i n n u merous galleries on both
sides of the Atlantic , characteristically articulates a style that is deeply i n fl uenced by the aes­
thetics of Fauvis m . In keeping with the typical priorities o f that movem ent , most eloquently
declared by the works o f Henri Matisse (1869- 1 9 5 4 ) , Andre Dera i n ( 1 8 8 0 - 1 9 5 4 ) a n d M a u ­
r i c e de Vla m i nck ( 1 876- 1 9 5 8) , Eckelberry's own oeuvre evinces an i ntense i n terest i n the
emotive and textural qual i t ies of strong p ure hues, flat patterns and rep resentational a nt i re­
alism. I t is hardly surpris i n g , i n the l i ght of these stylistic p roclivities, that the artist s h o uld
have fel t i nstinctively drawn to the graphic and chromatic attri b u tes o f a n i m e and manga,
and increasi n gly integrated i nto her work the quali ties of those med i a . As a p ress release posted
on Tokyo Pop nutes, the artist's " i nspiration for her an i me style paintings comes fro m her
n umerous trips to Japan and the Orient . She takes the strength o f the characters and reinter­
prets it i n a bold series of colors that exp ress her very un ique fo rm of sensitivity to the car­
toon characterization that she loves . " The artist herself has explicitly identified a n i me's affective
thrust as the principal cause o f her attraction to the form : "I have always loved carto o n s . They
 Eleven � A nime Synergy 185

have been a very strong part of m y l i fe . . . . Anime characters h ave helped me to combi n e the
strong emotion o f l i fe and the fantasy of color" (" Lore Eckelberry: a n ew take o n a n i m e" ) .
Most disti nctive , among the various aspects of Eckelberry's composite cachet , a re s h i m mer­
ing palettes appl ied to b road canvases, energetic brush strokes and bold l i n e work execu ted
entirely by hand; all o f these elements help her bring out a n i me's intri n s i c energy and eve n ,
at times, ampl i fy i t .
I nt rigui ngly, Eckelbe rry's work exh i b i ts a fu rther level o f synergy, cons i s t i n g o f h e r
i n s p i red amalgamation o f diverse trad i t ional arts . Com menting on the exh ibition h e l d a t t h e
I n fusion Gallery i n Downtown L o s Angeles ( 1 - 2 5 September 2 0 0 6) , eMedia Wire com ments :
In the exhibition, Lore Eckelberry's strong anime series of paintings are hanging right next ro her African
Masks portraits of ceremonial warriors. These African paintings show Lore Eckelberry's brilliant technique
applied to a reinterpretation of traditional face paintings used in African ceremonies. The link between
these two worlds of African and Japanese cultures is Lore Eckelberry's masterful use of color and line. This
exhibition is a wonderful way to see how an artist can bring two completely different worlds into one unique
inrerpretation of art ["Amazing Exhibition of Anime and African Masks Painrings by Lore Eckelberry" ] .

Th us, at the same time as i t articulates a vast array of alternate real i t i es, crucially energizing
a n i mation's knack o f m a n u facturing speculative world pictures, ani me's d ream factory si mul­
taneously ushers i n fresh horizons for cultural cross-pollination and media convergence. I n ves­
tigating the causes fo r which ani me's popularity has soared in the West - a worthy obj ect of
study for many scholars to come - is i mportant, therefore, as a means o f exploring not only
a regional occurrence but also b road epistemic shifts and adj ustments. As Yosh i h i ko Ariizumi
m a i ntains, "The most i nteresti n g portion o f this research i s attem p t i n g to find o u t . . . how
a n i me has become an i n c reasi n gly larger part o f American pop culture . . . . I th i n k i t's not only
i m portant fo r those i nterested i n anime, but also for those interested i n p o p culture i n both
Japan and America and h ow they have shared and taken from each other" (quoted i n Lafayette
Academic News) .
Ani me's i ncreas i n gly solid p resence i n the academic domain is attested to by the rising
number of un iversities and colleges offering classes that focus expl i c i tly on Japanese a n i m a ­
tion and manga . M a n y of these , impo rtantly, are located outside Jap a n . Some notable exam ­
p l es o f i n s ti tu tions and p rograms o f t h i s k i n d include :
• Massachusetts I nstitute o f Technology ( Japanese A n i mation : Still Pictures , Mov i n g
M i nds)
• U n iversity of Texas, Aus t i n (The Wor l d o f Japanese A n i matio n : Aesthetics, Com-
merce , Cultu re)
• Po rtland State University ( Japanese Animation and Manga)
• University of Arizona (Critical Issues in Japanese Ani mation)
• UCLA Extension - U n iversity o f Cal iforn i a , Los An geles (Enterta i n m e n t Goes " Pop" :
The Future of Manga and An i m e from the Japanese Po int-of-View)
• U n iversity of Melbourne (Zen and Manga : The Art o f Japan)
• University o f Michigan (An i me)
• Un ivers i t y o f Rochester ( Japanese Ani mation [An ime] )
• Van derbilt University (Explorations of Japanese A n i mation)
• Washi ngton Un iversity - St. Louis (I ntroduction to Japanese Pop Cultu re : A n i mated
Movies)
• Cal i forn i a State Un iversity, Monterey Bay (Currents in Japanese Pop u l a r C u l t u re)
1 86 AN IME \ ]\;TERSECTIONS

• Un iversity o f O regon (Tokyo Cyberpunk)

• State Univers i t y o f New Yo rk - B u ffalo (Sexual D i fference : M aj o r Deba tes I n
" D i fference Fem i n ism")
• Un iversity of Texas, Dal las (Reading and Writing Texts : Natu ral Won ders)4

A sustained academ ic exploration of anime - i n the guise of monographs devoted to par­

ticular di recto rs o r studios o r in that of panoramic surveys of stylis t i c , thematic and techn i ­
c a l t rends - co uld hence u l t imately assert itself a s a l e n s thro ugh which m u l t i - b ranchi n g
discurs ive phenomena may be addressed and, hopefully, understood. I t would, however , be
q u i te absurd for any writer in the field to lay claims to the study of anime as a scholarly p u r­
suit in the conventional sense of the phrase . I n fac t , as Madeline Ashby stresses, "Anime scho l­
a rs h i p , l i ke an i me fa ndom i tself, is bei ng built up by fans within a n exis t i n g subgroup : i n this
case , academics . " Hence, anime scholars should not be monolith ically regarded as theorists
for they are also - no less consequentially - fan s . A good example of the i ntersection o f schol­
a rship and fandom over ani me's fertile land, quoted by Ashby i n the same article , is the I nter­
national Conference on As ian Comics, Animation and Gaming held at the York Center fo r
Asian Research at York Un iversity (Toronto , Ontario) in May 2006: "ACAG was a p l ace fo r
fan s and theorists fro m all over the world to share ideas on their favorite art forms" (As h by,
p. 12) .
Loo k i n g at a n i m e's evo l u t i o n , o n e soon realizes that the m o t i va t i n g fo rce co u rs i n g
t h ro ugho ut t h e en deavor of several generations of p ractitioners i s a passionate desire t o s tretch
the houndaries o f what animation can express , and o f the tools and tech n iques enabl i n g such
expression . Fo r almost an enti re centu ry, pioneers i n the mediu m have studiously i nspected
conventional , experimental and developing facets of animatio n , seeki ng to identify what was
still missing from their p u rview and, accordin gly, to fil l in the gap. From Ki tayama to Tezuka,
from Kawaj i ri to Anno (to n ame but a handful of acclai med personalit ies) , anime creators
have been p us h i n g persistently forward i n an u n fl inch i n g com m i tment to the elaboration of
fresh sto ryl i nes, new styles and altern ative media . Anime's leading t h read, in this respect , is
a celebration o f cont i n u i n g exploration - a p rocess that is never meant to lead to conclus ive
plateaus upon which either the pencil or the mouse may complacently rest b u t rather to deliver
u n p redictable synergies and tantalizing opportu n ities fo r fu rther exp loration.
 Filmograp hy

Animated Works Examined

(Case Studies and A n cillary Titles)

Appleseed (2004 ) . O rigi nal Ti tl e : App llrushiido. Status: Anim ated Feat u re F i l m . D i recto r :
S h i nj i Aramaki . O ri g i nal S t o r y : M a s a m u n e S h i row. S cree n p l a y : H ar u ka H an d a ,
Tsutomu Kam i s h i ro . Producers : H idenori Ueki , Naoko Watanab e , F u m i h i ko Sori . Executive Pro­
ducer : Sumij i Miyake . Production Companies: Digi tal Frontier, G eneon Ent e rtainment (USA) I nc .
Mus i c : Tetsuya Takahas h i . O rigi nal Music Composi tion : Paul Oakenfold, Ryu i ch i S akamo t o ,
T. Raumschm i ere . Lengt h : 1 0 7 m i nu tes . Visual Effects Designe r : Yuusaku Toyosh i m a . A n i m a tion
D i recto r : Yasush i Kawa mura . Art D i recto r : Takesh i Ando . Ch aracter D es i gner : Masaki Yam ada .
CG I D i rector : Yasu h i ro O tsuka . Motion Capture Technical D i recto r : Ko uki Koshi t a . Mech a n i ­
c a l Designers : Takes h i Takakura , Atsushi Takeuch i . Sound D i recto r : Yota Tsu ru oka .
" C a n n o n Fodder" ( 1 9 9 4 ) . S tatu s : Anim ated Segment i n Memories (omnibus d i rected by Kat­
suh i ro Otomo, Konj i Morimoto and Tensai Okamura) . Origi n al Ti de : Ml'moriizu. Segment Di rec­
tor : O tomo . Screenplay : O tomo . Produce r : S h i geru Watanabe . Production Company : Studio 4 ° C .
Mus i c : H i royuki Nagas h i m a . Length : 22 m i nutes. Origi nal Character Desi gne r : Otomo . Char­
acter Designe r : H idekazu Ohara . Art Designers : J u n ko I n a , O r o m o , Kazu ko Fuj i i ,
Masa n o r i Kikuch i , M i noru N i sh i d a , Tsutomu Watanabe , Yam ako Ish i kawa . C h i e f A n i m a to r :
Ohara . Color Designe r : Teru m i Nakauch i .
Final Fan tasy: The Spirits Within (200 1 ) . Origi nal Titl e : Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within.
Status : Animated Featu re F i l m . D i recto r : H i ronobu Sakaguchi . Co-d i recto r : Motonori S akakibara .
Original Story : S akaguch i . Screenplay: Al Rei n e r t , Jeff Vi n t a r , Jack F l e tche r. Producers : Jun Aida,
Chris Lee , Akio S aka i . Executive Prod ucer : S akaguch i . Prod uction Com pan y : S quare Studios.
Music : Elliot Goldent hal , Ken Ki tamura , H i deto Takarai . Length : lO G m i nutes. D i rector o f Pho­
tography : Sakakibara . Animation D i recto r : Andy Jones. Senior Layou t Artist : Kev i n Bjo rke . C h ar­
acter Designe r : Shuko M u rase . Creature Design e r : Yasushi N i rasawa . Mechan i cal Designe r : S h i nj i
Aramaki . Motion Capture D i rectors : Re m i ngton S cott , B radley G . Bate , Jack F l e tcher. Motion
Capt u re Set Designe r : Ron Perry. Visual E ffects Art D i recto r : Takah i ko Akiyama . Sound D i rec­
t o r : Randy Tho m .
Ghost i n the Shell 2: Innocence (2004 ) . O rigi nal Ti de : Koukaku Kidoutai 2 : [nosensu. Status :
Animated Feature F i l m . D i recto r : Mamoru Oshi i . Origi nal Story: M asamune Shirow. Screenplay :

1 87
1 88 FILMOG RAPI IY

Oshi i . Produce r : M i tsuhisa Ishikawa. Executive Produce r : Toshio Suzuki . Production C o m p a n i e s :

Production I . G . , Studio G h i bl i . Music : Kenj i Kawa i . Lengt h : 9 9 m i n ut e s . Animation D i rectors:
Toshihiko Nishikubo, Naoko Kusumi . Art D i recto r : Shuichi H irata . Character Designe r : H i royuki
Okiura . D igital Animation D i rector : Fl i royu ki H ayashi . C G I Art D i recto r : Toru S h i n ozaki . Visual
Effects Superv isor : H isashi Ezu ra . Special Effects Superviso r : H i royu ki H ayashi . Mach i n e and
Vehicle Designer : Atsushi Takeuch i . Sound D i recto r : Randy Thom. Color Design e r : Ku m i ko Yusa .
Howl's Moving Castle ( 2 0 0 4 ) . O rigi nal Title : HaurIl no Ugoku Shiro. Status : A n i m ated Fea­
ture F i l m . D i rector : H ayao M iyazaki . Original Story : Diana Wynne Jones. S creen p l ay : M i yazaki .
Producer: Toshio Suzuki . Execu tive Produce r : Yasuyoshi Tokum a . Product ion Company : Studio
G h i bl i . Mus i c : Joe H isaish i . Lengt h : 119 m i nutes . Animation D i recto r : Katsuya Kondo u . A r t
D i rectors: Yozi Takeshige , Noboru Yoshida . Character Designers: Aki h i ko Yamashi t a , Takeshi I na­
mura . D igi tal A n i m a t ion D i recto r : M i tsunori Kataama . H armony Treatment : N o r i ko Takaya .
Sound D i recto r : Kazu h i ro H ayashi . Color Designe r : M ichiyo Yasu d a .
" M agnetic Rose" ( 1 994) . Status : Ani mated Segment i n Memories ( o m n i b u s di rected by Kat­
suhiro Otomo, Ko uj i Morimoto and Tensai Okamu ra) . O riginal Title : Memoriizu. Segment D i rec­
tor : Morimoto . Screenplay : Satoshi Kon . Produce r : S h i geru Watanabe . Prod uction Co m pany :
Studio 4°C. Music : Yoko Kann o . Length : 44 m i n u tes. Character Designers : H i royuki Okiura ,
Toshiyuki I n o u e . Art D i rector : Kon . Art Designe r : Takashi Watabe . Chief Animato r : O k i u r a . Lay­
our Designe r : Kon .
Metropolis (20 0 1 ) . Origi nal Ti tl e : Metoroporisu. Status : An i mated Feature F i l m . D i rect o r :
Ri ntaro . O r i ginal Story : Osamu Tezuka . Screenplay : Kats u h i ro O tomo . Producers : H aruyo Kane­
saku , Yuraka M aseba . Execu tive Producers : Akihiko Teraj i m a , Fumio Nagase, I -l isanori H i ra n u m a ,
K e n Munekata , Ryohei Tsunoda, Tadamichi Abe , Takayuki Matsut a n i , To ru S h i o bara . Produc­
tion Companies: M adhouse Studios, Sateligh t . Musi c : Tosh iyuki Honda . Lengt h : 1 0 7 m i n u tes.
Ani mation D i recto r : Yasuhiro Nakura. Art D i rector : Shuichi H i rata . Character Designe r : Yasu h i ro
Nakura . C G I Superviso r : Tsuneo Maeda . Cha racter Mechanics: S e ij i Tanda . S o u n d D i recto r :
Masafu m i M i m a . Color Design e r : S h u ich i H i rata .
Millen n iu m Actress ( 2 0 0 1 ) . Or igi nal Ti tle : Sen nen JOJlI. Status: An i m ated Featu re F i l m .
D i recto r : S a t o s h i Kon . O ri g i n a l S t o r y : Kon . Screenplay : S adayuki Mur a i , Ko n . P r o d u ce r :
Taro Maki . Production Company : Madhouse Studios. Mus i c : Susumu H i rasawa . Length : 8 7 m i n ­
utes . An i m at i o n D i rect o r : Takeshi Hond a . A r t Directo r : Nobu taka I ke . Character Designers : Kon ,
Takeshi Hond a . Sound D i recto r : Masafu m i M i m a . Color Designer : Kazu nori H a s h i m o t o .
Neon Genesis Evangeliol1 ( 1 9 9 5 - 1 9 96) . O rigi nal Ti tle : Shinseiki Evangelion. S tatus: Animated
Television Series (26 episodes) . Chief D i rector : H ideaki Ann o . Episode D i rectors : Kazuya Tsu r u ­
maki ( e p i s . 1 , 2 ) ; H i royuki I s h i d o (ep i s . 3 , 1 0 , 1 2 ) ; Ke i i ch i S u g i ya m a (e p i . 5 ) ;
S e i j i M izush i m a (ep i . 9 ) ; Ts uyoshi Kaga ( e p i s . 4 , 1 0 ) ; Te tsuya Watanabe ( e p i . 1 1 ) ;
Tensai O kamu ra ( e p i . 1 3 ) ; Mas a h i ko O tsuka (ep i s . 1 3 , 1 4 ) ; Ken A n d o ( e p i . 1 4 ) ;
Naoyasu H abu (epi . 1 5 ) ; Akira Taka mura (ep i . 22) ; Shoichi Masuo (ep i . 2 3 ) . O ri g i n a l Story: Ann o .
Screenplay : Anno , Akio Satsukawa, M i tsuo Iso, S h i nj i H iguch i , Yoj i Enokido, Yoj i E n o t o . Pro­
d u c e r s : Nori ko Kobayash i , Yu t a ka S ugiyam a . Prod u c t i o n C o m p a n i e s : S t u d i o G a i n ax ,
Production I . G , Studio G h i b l i (ep i . 1 1 ) . Mus i c : H idetoshi Sato et al. O riginal Music Composi­
tion : Ludwig Von B eethoven ("Symphony No. 9 - Ode to Joy") . Episode Length : 2 5 m i n u tes.
An i m a t i o n D i rectors : Kazuya Kise , Nobuh i ro Hoso i , Satosh i Sh i g e t a , S h i nya H asegawa ,
Tos h i o Kawagu ch i , Yuh H o n d a . Art D i recto r : H i ro s h i Kato . Character D e s i g ne r :
Yoshiyuki Sadamoto . Special E ffects Superviso r : Noriyuki O h t a . Mechanical Designers : Ann o ,
I kuto Yamashi t a . S o u n d Effects : To ru Noguch i . Color Check : H aru m i Takahoshi .
Neon Genesis Evangelion : Death & Rebirth (1997). Original Titl e : Shinseiki Evangelion Gekijo­
ban: Shito shinsei. Status: Animated Feat ure F i l m . D i recto rs: H i deaki Ann o , M asayuk i (Death) ,
Kazuya Tsurumaki (Rebirth) . Origi nal Story: Akio Satsukawa , Anno. S creenplay : Anno . Prod uce r :
 Filmography 1 89

M i tsuhisa I s h ikawa . P ro d u c t i o n Compan ies: S t u d i o G a i nax , M OVI C , Production I . G , Sega ,

Starchi l d Records, Toe i A n imation . Musi c : S h i ro Sagisu . Lengt h : 1 3 9 m i n utes . Design D i rectors:
Ann o , Masayuki , Yosh iyuki Sadamoto. Art D i rector : H i roshi Kato . Characte r Design e r : S adamo to .
20 Digital Work : Yasuh i ro Kami m u ra . 3 D Animation: Kaoru Matsumoto. Special E ffects S u p e r­
v iso r : N o r iyuki O h t a . Mecha n i cal Designers : Ann o , I ku t o Yam as h i t a . S o u n d D i re c to r :
Hideyuki Tanaka .
Neon Genesis Evangelion : End of Evangelion ("Ai r" / " My P u rest Heart for Yo u") ( 1 9 9 7) .
Original Ti rl e : Shinseiki Evangelion, Gekijo- ban: "Ai r"/ "Magokoro wo , k i m i n i . " Status : Animated
Feature F i l m . D i recto r : H i deaki Ann o . Origi nal Srory : Anno . Screenplay : A nn o . Produce r : M i t­
suhisa Ish i kawa . Production Companies: Production I . G , A l e , A nime S po t , Asi a- D o , B i g Bang ,
Studio G a i n ax , O h Production , O m n i bus Japan , Studio Cosmos et al. Music : Anno et al. O rigi­
nal Music Compos i t i o n : Johann Sebastian Bach ( "Air on G " a n d "Jesus b l i eb t M e i n e Freude" ) .
Length : 9 7 m i n utes . Art D i rector : H i rosh i Kato . Character Designe r : Yosh iyuki Sadamoto . D ig­
ital Animation D i recto r : Isao Sara. Special EfFects Superviso r : Noriyuki O h ta . Mechani cal Design­
ers: Ann o , lkuro Yamas h i t a . Sound D i recto r : H ideyuki Tanaka .
Ninja Scroll (19 9 3 ) . O rigi nal Ti tle : jubei Ninpuuchou. Status: A n i m ated Feature F i l m . D i rec­
tor : Yoshiak i Kawaj i r i . Original Story : Kawaj i ri . S creenplay: Kawaj i ri . Pro d u cers : I- hruo S a i ,
Masaki Sawanobori , S h i geaki Komatsu . Executive Producers : Makoto H asegawa, Masa m i c h i Fuj i ­
wara, Yutaka Takahas h i . Production Compan i e s : J V C , Madhouse S t u d i o s , M OV I C , TO H O .
Mus i c : Kao ru Wad a . Length : 9 4 m i nutes. Animation D i recto r : Yutaka M in owa . A r t D i rect o r :
H i romasa Ogur a . Character Design e r : M i nowa . S o u n d D i rector : Yasunori Honda .
Paranoia Agen t ( 2 0 04 ) . Original Ti tle : MOllsoll Dairinin. Status : Ani mated Television Series
( 1 3 episodes) . D i recro r : Saroshi Kon . O riginal Srory : Satosh i Kon . S creen play: Seishi M i nakam i ,
Tomom i Yos h i n o . Production Company : Madhouse Studios. Musi c : Susumu H i rasawa . Episode
Lengt h : 25 m inutes. A n i mation D i recrors : Akiko Asaki , H ideki H a m asu , H i ro s h i H amazaki ,
H isashi Eguchi , J u n i c h i H ayam a , Ju n ko Abe , Katsuya Yamada, Kum i ko Kawana, Mamoru Sasak i ,
Masas h i Ando , M i c h i o M i hara , M i ch iyo Suzuki , S a r o r u Uts u n o m i y a , S h igeo Akaho r i ,
Toshiyuki I n o u e , Yos h i m i I tatsu . Art D i rectors : Kaoru I noda, Naruyo Ki riya m a , Nobutaka I ke ,
Rei Kawan o , S h i n i c h i U e hara . Character Designe r : Masash i Ando . S o u n d D i re c to r :
Masafu m i M i m a .
Perfect Blue (1997) . Origi nal Titl e : Perfect Blue. Status: An i m ated Feature F i l m . D i recro r :
Saroshi Kon . O ri g i n al S r o ry : Yosh i kazu Take u ch i . S c re e n p l ay : S adayuki M u ra i . P ro d u ce r s :
H i roaki I no u e , M asao Maruya m a , Takesh i Wash i ta n i . Exe c u tive Producers: Kos h i ro Kan d a ,
Yuichi Tsu rum i . Production Company : Madhouse Studios. Mus i c : M asahiro I ku m i . Lengt h : 8 0
m i n utes . Ani mation D i recror : Hi deki H am azu . Art D i recto r : Nohutaka I ke . C haracter Design­
ers : H i deki H amazu , H isashi Eguchi , Kon . Sound Di rector : Masafu m i M i rn a .
Program ( 2 0 0 3 ) . O rigi nal Ti tle : Program. Status: Animated S h o r t i n The A llimatrix (OVA
d i rected by Andy and Larry Wachowski et al. ) . D i recro r : Yoshiaki Kawaj i ri . Original Srory: Andy
and Larry Wachowski . Screenplay : Kawaj i ri . Producers: M asao Maruyama , Yosh i m ichi Murata .
Production Compan ies: Madhouse Studios, S i lver P ictures, Village Roadshow P ictures, Warner
B ros. P ictures . Length : 1 0 m i nutes. Animation D i rec t o r : Yutaka M inowa . Art D i recro r : Katsushi
Aoki . Character Design e r : M i nowa .
Serial Exp eriments Lain ( 1 9 9 8 ) . Origi nal Ti tl e : Serial Experiments Lain. Status : A n i m ated
Tel evision Series ( 1 3 episodes) . Chief D i recto r : Ryutaro Nakamu r a . Screenplay : C h i aki J. Kon­
aka . Origi nal Story : Yasuyuki Ueda . Prod ucers : Shoj i ro Abe , Yasuyuki Ued a . Executive Produc­
ers: Aki h i ro Kawa mura, Taro Maki . Production Company: Triangle Staff. Musi c : Reiichi Nakaid o .
Episode Length : 3 0 m i n u tes. An i m at i o n D i rectors : M asa h i ro Sekiguch i , Takah i ro Kis h i d a ,
Yasuhide Maruyama , Yos h i h i ro Sugai , Yui c h i Tanaka , Yuj i Takahashi . A r t D i recro r : Masaru Saro.
O r i g i n a l Character D es i g n e r : Takah i ro Kish i d a . Character Design e r : Takah i ro Kish ida . CG : ] u n -
1 90 F I LMOGRAPHY

s h i Nakahara , Koj i Yam agiwa , Masahiko Takai , Sararu Takahash i . S p e c i al Effe c t s :

Takash i Maekawa . Sound D i recto r : Yo ta Tsuruoka .
Steamboy (2004 ) . O rigi nal Ti t l e : Suchiimuboui. Statu s : A n i m ated Feature F i l m . D i recto r :
Kats u h i ro O tomo . O rigi nal S t o r y : O tomo . S creen p l ay : S adayuki M u rai , O t o m o . Producers :
Kaz u m i Kawash i ro , S h i nj i Komo r i , H ideyuki Tom i oka , S h unj i Kom o r i . Execut ive Prod u ce r :
S h i geru Watanabe . Production Compan ies: Srudio 4 ° C , Sunrise . Mus i c : S teve Jablonsky. Lengt h :
1 0 6 m i nutes; 1 2 6 m i nutes ( D i recto r's Cu t) . Animation D i recto r : S h i n j i Takagi . A r t D i recto r :
S h i nj i Ki mura . C G I D i recto r : H i roaki Ando . Sound D i rector : Ke i i c h i Momose .
Tokyo Godfathers (2003) . O r iginal Ti tle : Tokyo Godfathers. Statu s : An i m ated Feature F i l m .
D i rector : S a t o s h i Ko n . O r i gi n al Story : Kon . S c reen p l ay : Ke iko N o b u mo t o , Kon . Produce r :
Masao Maruyama . Execu tive Producers : Masao Takiyama, S h inichi Kobayash i , Taro Maki . Pro­
duction Company : M adhouse Studios. Mus i c : Kei ichi Suzu ki . Lengt h : 9 2 m i nutes. Animation
D i recto r : Kenichi Konish i . Art D i recto r : Nobutaka I ke . Character Designers : Kenichi Kon i s h i ,
Kon . Sound D i recto r : Masafu m i M i m a . Color Designe r : Kazunori H ash i m o t o .
Vampire Hun ter D Bloodlust (2000) . O riginal Title : Vampaia hantaa D. Status: Ani mated
-

Feature Film. Directo r : Yoshiaki Kawaj i r i . Original Story : H ideyuki Kikuch i . Screenplay : Kawaj i ri .
Producers : M asao Maruyama, Mataich i ro Yamamoto . Production Company : Madhouse Studios.
Mus i c : Marco D'Ambrosio. Length : 102 m inutes . Art Directo r : Yuj i lkehata. O riginal Character
Designer: Yoshi taka Amano . Character Designer: Yutaka Mi nowa . Technical D i recto r : M i nowa .
Whisper of the Heart ( 1 9 9 5 ) . O riginal Title : Mimi wo Sumaseba. Statu s : A n i m ated Featu re
F i l m . D i recto r : Yos h i fu m i Kondo u . O riginal Story : Aoi H i i rage . Screenplay and Sto ryb o ards :
H ayao M iyazak i . Producers : H ayao M i yazaki , Tos h i o Suzu ki . Execut ive Produce r : Yasuyo s h i
To ku m a . Mus i c : Yuj i Nom i . Length : I I I m i nutes . A r t D i recto r : Satoshi Ku roda . S o u n d D i recto r :
S h uj i I noue . Color Designer : Mich iyo Yasuda .
Wicked City ( 1 9 87) . Original Titl e : Yoju Toshi. Status : Animated Feat u re F i l m . D i recto r :
Yos h i ak i Kawaj i ri . S c ree n p l ay : K i s e i Choo . Producers : Kenj i Ku rat a , Makoto S eya . M u s ic :
Osamu Shooj i . Production Company : Madhouse Studios . Music : Osamu Shooj i . Length : 8 0 m i n ­
utes . Ani m ation D i rect o r : Kawaj i r i . A r t D i recto r : Kamo Oga . Character Design e r : Kawaj i r i .

Full List of Cinematic Works Cited

(fu l l details p rovided upon fi rs t occu rrence only)

Bu\(hcase studies
Underli ne=condensed assessments
Italics cursory references
=

Chapter 1

Appleseed (ani mated feature fi l m ; d i r . S h i nj i Aramak i , 2004) . Cars (an i m ated featu re fi l m ;
d i r. John Lasseter, 2006) . Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within (animated feature fi l m ; d i rs . H i ronobu
S akaguchi a n d Motonori S akakibara, 20 0 1 ) . Ghost in the Shell 2: Innocence ( a n i m ated fea t u re
fi l m ; d i r . M a m o r u O sh i i , 2 0 04 ) . Ho wl's Moving Castle ( an i m at e d fea t u re fi l m ; d i r . H ayao
M iyazaki , 2004) . The Matrix trilogy (l ive-action feature fi l m s ; d i r s . Larry and Andy Wachowski ,
1 9 9 9 - 2 0 03 ) . Metropolis (an i m ated feature fi l m ; d i r . Ri ntaro , 2 0 0 1 ) . Neon Genesis Evangelion ( a n i ­
m a t e d TV series and feature fi l m s ; d i r s . H i deaki Anno , Masayu ki , Kamya TSU fu m aki e t aI . ,
1 9 9 5 - 1 9 9 7) . Ninja Scroll (anim ated feature fi l m ; d i r . Yoshiak i Kawaj i r i , 1 9 9 3 ) . Perfect Blue ( an i ­
m ated feature fi l m ; d i r . S atos h i Kon , 1 9 9 7) . Program (OVA short ; d i r . Yoshiaki Kawaj i r i , 2 0 0 3 ) .
Renaissance ( a n i m ated feature fi l m ; d i r . Christian Vol c kman , 2 0 06) . A Scanner Darkly { a n i m a ted
 Fdmography 191

feature fi l m ; d i r . Ri chard L i n k l a t e r , 2 0 0 6 ) . Steambo.v ( an i m ated feature fi l m ; d i r . Kats u h i ra

Otomo , 2004) . Tim Burton 's The Corpse Bride ( a n i mated feature fi l m ; d i rs . Ti m B u r t o n a n d M i ke
Johnson , 200 5 ) . lXlallace and Gromit: The Curse of the Were- Rabbit ( a n i mated feature fi l m ; d i rs .
Nick Park a n d Steve Box , 2 0 0 5 ) .

C hapter 2

The A nimatrix (OVA collect i o n ; d i rs . Larry and Andy Wachowski e t aI . , 2 ( 0 3 ) . Batman

Begins (live-action feature fi l m ; d i r . C h ristopher Nol a n , 20 0 5 ) . Cro uching Tiger, Hidden Dragon
(live-action feature fi l m ; d i r . Ang Lee, 2000) . Ghost ill the Shell (ani mated feature fi l m ; d i r . Mamoru
Osh i i , 1 9 9 5 ) . House of nVillg Daggers (live- action featu re fi l m ; d i r . Zhang Yi mo u , 2004) . jubei­
chan the Ninja Girl (a n i m ated TV series; d i r . Aki taro Daich i , 1 9 9 9 ) . jurllssic Park (l ive-acti o n fea­
ture fi l m ; d i r . Steven Spi elberg , 1 9 9 3 ) . Kill Bill (l ive-action feature fi l m ; d i r . Que n t i n Tara n t i n o ,
2003) . The Matrix trilogy. Mission: Impossible (l ive-act ion feature fi l m ; d i r . B rian D e Pal m a , 1 9 9 6 ) .
Monty Python and the Holy Grail (l ive-action feature fi l m ; d i rs . Terry G i l l iam and Terry Jones,
1 9 7 5 ) . Ninja Resurrection (OVA series ; dir. Yasunori Urata, 1 9 9 7 ) . N i nja Scro l l . Ninja Scroll: The
Series ( a n i m ated TV series ; d i r . Tatsuo Sara, 2003) . Princess fl,10nonoke (an i m ated feature fi l m ; d i r .
H ayao M iyazak i , 1 9 9 7 ) . P rogram . The Sting (live- acti o n feature fi l m ; d i r . G e o rge Roy H i l l , 1 9 7 3 ) .
Urusei Yatsura (an i m ated TV series a n d fea t u re fi l m s ; d i rs . Mamoru O sh i i , Kazuo Yam azak i ,
Satoshi Dezaki a n d Katsu h isa Yamada, 1 9 8 1- 1 9 9 1 ) . Vampire Hunter D (OVA series; d i r . Toyoo
Ash i d a , 1 9 8 5 ) . Vam p i re Hu nter D - Bloodlust ( a n i m ated feature fi l m ; d i r . Yoshiaki Kawaj i r i ,
2000) . Wicked C i t y ( a n i m ated feature fi l m ; d i r . Yos h i ak i Kawaj i r i , 1 9 8 7) . You Only Live Twice
(l ive-action feature fi l m ; d i r . Lew is G i l bert , 1 9 6 7) .

Chapter 3

The Adventures ofBaron Mltnchaltsen (l ive-act ion featu re fi l m ; d i r . Terry G i l l i am , 1 9 8 9 ) . Brazil

(l ive-action feature fi l m ; d i r . Terry G il l i a m , 1 9 8 5 ) . Gaslight (live-action fea tu re fi l m ; d i r . Al fred
H i tchcock , 1944) . Key the Metal Idol (OVA series; dir. r l i raaki S a L O u , 1 9 9 4 ) . Macross Plus - The
Movie (ani m ated feature fi l m ; d i r . Shouj i Kawamo r i , 1 9 94 ) . "Magnetic Rose" ( d i r . Kou j i Mori­
moto) . Memo ries ( an i m ated collectio n ; d i rs . Katsu h i ro OLOmo, Kouj i Morimoto a n d Tensai Oka­
mur a , 1994) . M i ll e nn i u m Act ress (anim ated feature fi l m ; d i r . Satoshi Kon , 2 0 0 1 ) . Neon G e n e s i s
Evangcl ion -- TV seri es a n d feature fi lms. Pa/"tlnoia Agent ( a n i m ated TV series; di r . S ato s hi Kon ,
2004) . Pe rfect B l u e . Perfect Blue: Yilme Nara Samete (l ive- action feature fi l m ; d i r . Toshiki S ato ,
2002) . Princess Mononoke . P�vcho (l ive-action feature fi l m ; d i r . Al fred H itchcock , 1960) . Rear
Window (live-action feature fi l m ; d i r . Alfred H i tchcock , 1 9 54) . Rebecca ( l i ve-action feature fi l m ;
d i r . Alfred H i tchcock, 1 940) . Serial Experiments Lai n (ani mated TV Series, d i r . Ryu raro Naka­
mura, 1 9 9 8 ) . Steamboy. Superdimensional Fortress Mtlcross ( a n i m ated TV series ; d i r . Noboru Ishig­
ura, 1 9 8 2 ) . Time Bandits ( l i ve-action feature fi l m ; dir. Terry G il l i a m , 1 9 8 1 ) . Tokyo G o d fathers
(animated feature fi l m ; d i r . Satoshi Kon , 2003) . 2 0 0 1 : A Space O dyssey ( l i ve-action feature fi l m ;
d i r . Stanley Kubrick , 1%8 ) .

C hapter 4

Blood: The Lmt Vampire ( a n i mated feature fi l m ; d i r . H i royuki K itakubo , 2 0 0 0 ) . Duck A m uck
(anim ated short ; d i r . Chuck Jones, 1 9 5 3 ) . Ghost in the Shell. Nadia: The Secret of Blue Water ( a n i ­
mated T V seri es; d i r s . H i deaki A n n o et a\ . , 1 9 9 0 ) . Neon G e n e s i s Eva n ge l i on : TV S e r i e s ; Death
and Reb i r t h ; The E n d o f Eva ngel i o n . Ptlt/abor 2: The Movie ( a n i m ated feature fi l m ; d i r . Mamoru
Osh i i , 1 9 9 3 ) . The Wings ofIIonnetlmise (an i m ated feature fi l m ; d i r . H i royuki Ya m aga , 1 9 8 7) .
1 92 F I LMOG RA P I I Y

Chapte r 5

AI (live-action featu re film ; d i r . Steven Spielberg , 2001) . Akira (animated feature fi l m ; d i r . Kat­
suhiro Otomo, 1 9 8 8 ) . Algol (l ive-action feature film ; dir. Hans Werckmeister, 1 9 2 0 ) . Astro Boy (ani­
mated TV series ; dir. Osamu TeZllka, 1963- 1966) . Batman (live-action feature film; dir. Tim B u rton ,
1 9 8 9 ) . Blade Runner (live-action feature film ; dir. Ridley Scott , 1982) . The Cabinet o/Doctor Caligari
(live-action feature fi l m ; dir. Robert Wiene, 1920) . Cowboy Bebop (animated TV series; d i r . S h i nichiro
Watanabe , 19 98) . Doctor Zhivago (l ive-action feature fi l m ; dir. Dav i d Lea n , 1 9 6 5 ) . Jungle Emperor Leo
(an i m ated TV series ; dir. Osamu TeZllka , 1966) . Metropolis (live-action feature film ; d i r . Fri tz Lang ,
1926) . Metro p o l i s ( 2 0 0 1 ) . Pat/abor 1: The Mobile Police (animated feature film ; d i r. Mamoru Osh i i ,
1989) . Pokemon (animated TV Series, dir. Masamitsu Hidaka, 199 8 ) . Serial Experiments Lain. Shrek
(animated feature fi l m ; dirs . Andrew Adamson and Vicky Jenso n , 200 1 ) . Toy Story (animated feature
film ; dir. John Lasseter , 1 9 9 5 ) .

Chapter 6

Beavis and BUt/head (animated TV series; d i rs . M i ke Ju dge and Yvette Kap l an , 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 7) .

Blade Runner. Cinderella (an i m ated feature fi l m ; dirs. Clyde Geron i m i , Wil fred Jackson and H a m i l ­
ton Luske , 1 9 5 0) . Dark City (l ive-action featu re fi l m ; d i r . A l e x Proyas , 1 9 9 8 ) . The D a Vinci Code
(l ive-acti o n feature fi l m ; d i r . Ron H oward, 2006) . eXistenZ (l ive-action feature fi l m ; d i r . D av i d
Cronenberg , 1 9 9 9 ) . The Fifth Element (l ive-action feature fi l m ; d i r. Luc Besso n , 1 9 97) . F i n a l Fan ­
tasy : T h e S p i r i ts Wi th i n . Final Flight o/the Osiris (OVA short ; d i r . A n d y J o n e s , 2 0 0 3 ) . The God­
father (live-action feature fi l m ; d i r . Francis Ford Coppol a , 1 9 7 2 ) . Harry Potter saga (l ive-ac t i o n
feature films ; d i rs . Chris C o l u m b u s , A l fonso Cuaro n , M i ke Newell , Dav i d Yates, 2 0 0 1 - 2 0 0 7 ) .
Heavy Metal (anim ated feature fi l m ; d i rs . Gerald Po tt erton and J . T. Murakami , 1 9 8 1) . The Jo.y
Luck Club ( live-acti o n feature fi l m ; d i r . Wayne Wand, 1 9 9 3 ) . JUlIlanji (ani mated featu re fi l m ; d i r .
J o e Johnsto n , 1 9 9 5 ) . Jurassic Park. Lara Croft: Tom b Raider (l ive-action feature fi l m s ; d i r s . S i mo n
West , 2 0 0 1 ; J a n de B o n t , 2003 ) . The Lord o/the Rings t r i l ogy ( live-action feature fi l m s ; d i r . Peter
Jackson , 2 0 0 1 - 2 0 0 3 ) . The Matrix trilogy. Metropolis (200 1 ) . Mulan (an i m ated feature fi l m ; d i r s .
Tony Bancroft and Barry Cook , 1 9 9 8 ) . Nestor Sextone for President ( a n i m ated short ; d i r s . D iana
Walczak and Jdf Klciser, 1 9 8 8 ) . Polar Express (animated feature fil m ; dir. Robe rt Zemecki s , 2 0 0 4 ) .
Princess Mononoke. A Scanner Darkly. Shrek. SOllth Park ( a n i m ated TV series; d i r s . Trey Parker e t
aI . , 1 997) . Spider-Man trilogy (l ive-act ion feature fi lms; d i r . S a m Rai m i , 2002-2007) . Spirited Away
(animated feature fi l m ; d i r . Hayao Miyazaki , 2 0 ( 1 ) . Star Wars (l ive-ac t i o n feature fi l m s ; d i r s .
George Lucas e t aI . , 1977-2 00 5 ) . Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (an i m ated feature fi l m ; d i r . S teve
Barro n , 1 9 9 0 ) . Titanic (live-action feature fil m ; d i r . James Cameron , 1 9 9 7 ) . Toy Story. Waking Lifo
(ani mated feature fi l m ; d i r . Richard Li nklater , 2001 ) . X-Men trilogy (l ive-action feature fi l m s ;
d i rs . B ryan S i nger , 2 0 0 0 - 2 0 0 3 ; Brett Ratner, 2006)

Ch apter 7

Avalon ( live-action feature fi l m ; d i r . Mamoru Oshi i , 2 0 0 1 ) . Blade Run ner. Dolls ( l i ve-action
feature film; dir. Takeshi Kirano, 2002) . Fahrenheit 9111 (l ive-acti o n docum e ntary ; dir. M ichael
Moore , 2 0 04 ) . Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within. Ghost in the Shell. G h os t i n t h e Shel l 2: I n n o ­
cence. Ghost i n the Shell 2 - Music Video Anthology (animated music v i deos, 2 0 0 5 ) . Killers: . 50
Woman ( live-acti o n short ; d i r . Mamoru Osh i i , 2002) . The Matrix t r i logy. Mobile Police Pat/a bor
O VA 1 (OVA series; dir. Mamoru Osh i i , 1 9 8 8 - 1 9 8 9 ) . Mobile Police Pat/abor O VA 2 (OVA s e r i e s ;
d i r . Mamoru Osh i i , 1 99 0 - 1 9 9 2 ) . Mobile Police Patlabor T V Series (TV s e r i e s ; d i r . M a m o r u O sh i i ,
1 9 8 9 - 1 9 9 0 ) . Neon Genesis Evangelion - TV Series . Pat/abor 1: The Mobile Police a n d Pat/abor 2:
The Movie. The Red Spectacles (l ive-action feature fi l m ; d i r . Mamoru O s h i i , 1 9 8 7 ) . Stray Dog:
 Filmography 1 93

Kerberos Panzer Cops ( live-action feature fi l m ; d i r . Mamoru Oshi i , 1 9 9 1 ) . Tachigui - The Amazing
Lives of the Fast Food Grifters ( live-ac t i o n feature fi l m ; d i r . Mamoru Osh i i , 2 0 0 6 ) . Talking Head
(live-action feature fi l m ; d i r . Mamoru Osh i i , 1 9 9 2) . Yum e [ D reams] ( l i ve-action feature fi l m ; d i r .
Akira Kurosawa, 1992) .

C hapter 8

Appleseed (OVA ; d i r . Kazuyo s h i Ka taya m a , 1 9 8 8 ) . Ap p l eseed ( 2 0 0 4 ) . Bubbl egum C r i s i s

(OVA series; dirs. Katsuhito Akiya m a , H i roaki G o h d a , H i roki H ayashi , M a s a m i Obari and Fu m i ­
h i ko Takayam a , 1 9 8 7� 19 9 0 ) . The Fifth Element. F i nal Fantasy : The Spi r i ts With i n . Ghost in the
Shell. Ghost in the Shell 2: Innocence. Howl's Moving Castle. The Matrix t r i l ogy. Megazon e 2 3 (OVA
series ; d i rs . Nobu ro Ishigu ro , Ich i rou l tano, S h i nj i Aramaki and Ken i ch i Yatagai , 1 9 8 5 �1 9 8 9 ) .
Neon Genesis Evangelion - TV series and feature fi l m s . Ninja Scroll. Perfect Blue. S e r i al Exper i ments
Lai n . Steamboy. Titanic.

Chapter 9

Akira. "Cannon Fodder" (dir. Katsu h i ro O tomo) . In Memories. Captain Harlock (anim ated
TV series ; dir. Leij i Matsumo t o , 1976) . Conan, Boy of the Future ( an i m ated TV series; dir. H ayao
Miyazaki , 1978 ) . Elemental Gelade (animated TV series ; d i r . S higeru Ueda, 2 0 0 5 ) . Full Metal
Alchemist (ani mated TV series; d i r . S e ij i M izush i m a , 2003�2004) . Howl's Moving Castle. Laputa:
Castle in the Sky (an i m ated feature fi l m ; d i r . Hayao M iyazaki , 1 9 86) . Magical Shopping A rcade
A benobashi (an i mated TV series ; d i r . H i royuki Yamaga , 2002 ) . Metropolis ( 1 926) . Metropolis (2001) .
Nadia: The Secret of Blue Water. Neon Genesis Evangelion - TV series and fea t u re fi l m s . Pokemon.
Space Cruiser Yamato (an i m ated TV series; dir. Leij i Matsumoto , 1 9 7 R ) . Spider-Man 2 ( live-action
feature film; dir. Sam Rai mi , 2 0 04 ) . Stea mboy. Trigun (an i m ated TV series; dir. Satoshi Nishimura,
199 8) . The Wings of Hon neamise. X-Men trilogy.

Chapte r 1 0

Chitty Chitty Bang Bang (live-action feature fi l m ; d i r . Ken Hughes, 1 9 6 8 ) . Howl's Mov i n g
Castle. Kiki 's Delivery Service (an i mated feature film ; d i r . H ayao M i yazak i , 1 9 8 9 ) . Lap uta: Castle
i n the S ky. Million Dollar Baby ( l i ve-action feature fi l m ; dir. Cl i nt Eastwood, 2 0 0 4 ) . Monsters Inc.
(an i m ated feature fi l m ; d i r . Pete Docter , 2 0 0 1 ) . My Neighbor Totoro (ani m ated feature fi l m ; d i r .
I hyao M iyazak i , 19 8 8 ) . Nausicaa of the Valley of the Wind (ani mated feature fi l m ; d i r . H ayao
Miyazaki , 1984 ) . On Your Mark (an i m ated music v ideo ; d i r . H ayao M iyazaki , 1 9 9 5 ) . Pom Poko
(animated feature fi l m ; d i r . I sao Takahat a , 1994) . Porco Rosso (an i m ated feature fi l m ; d i r . H ayao
Miyazaki , 1 9 9 2 ) . Princess Mononoke. Spirited Away. Steamboy. Tim Burton 's The Corpse Bride. Wal­
lace and Gromit: The Curse ofthe Were-Rabbit. Whisper of the Heart ( a n i m ated featu re fi l m ; d i r .
Yoshifu m i Kondou , 199 5 ) .

Chapte r 1 1

A kira. A liens (live-act ion feature fi l m ; d i r . James Camero n , 1 9 8 6 ) . The A n imatrix. Appleseed
(2004 ) . Astro Boy. Blade Runner. Bubblegum Crisis. Dragon Ball Z (anim ated TV series; d i r . Daisuke
N ishi o , 1 9 8 6 � 19 8 9 ) . Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within. Ghost in the Shell. Ghost in the Shell 2: In no­
cence. Giant Robo (OVA series; d i r . Yasu h i ro Yam agawa, 1 9 9 2 ) . . hackl/Roots (an i m ated TV series;
dir. Ko ichi Mash i m o , 2 0 0 6) . Hflkujaden (an i m ated feature fi l m ; dir. Taij i Yab u s h i t a , 1 9 5 8 ) . Heidi,
Girl of the Alps (animated TV series; d i rs . Atsuj i H ayakawa, Masao Ku roda and Isao Takahata,
19 7 4 ) . Howl's Movi ng Castle. Kishin Hoko Demonbane (an i m a ted TV series ; d i r. Shoichi Masuo,
1 94 F I LMOGRAPI I Y

2 0 0 6 ) . The M a t r i x t r i l og y. Metropolis ( 2 0 0 1 ) . Momotal'o ( a n i mated fe a t u re fi l m ; d i r . S e i taro

Kitayama , 1 9 1 7 ) . Naruto (animated TV series ; dir. H ayato Date , 2002-2006) . Nallsicaa a/the Val­
ley o/the Wind. Neon Genesis Evangelion - TV series and featu re fi l m s . Ninja Seroll. Perfect B l u e .
Pokemon. Space Cruiser Yamato. Steamboy. Tzlrn-A Gund'1m (ani mated TV series ; d i r . Yoshiyuki
Tom i n o , 1 9 9 9 ) . The Wings 0/ Honneamise. Yamato 2520 (an i m ated OVA series; dir. Yos h i n o b u
Nishizaki , 1994) .

Notes

Alakazam the Great (an i m ated featu re fi l m ; dirs. Lee Kresel , D a isaku S h i rakawa , Osamu
Tezuka , Tai j i Yabush i ta , I 9 60) . A rmitage If!: Polymatrix (an i mated feature fi l m ; d i r . Takuya Sara ,
1 9 9 7) . Bas i l isk ( a n i m ated TV series; d i r . Fu m i tomo Kizaki , 20 0 5 ) . Beauty and the Beast (an i m ated
feature fi l m ; dirs. Gary Trousdale and Kirk Wise , 1 9 9 0 . B rave S tory (an i mated featu re fi l m ; d i r .
Kou i ch i Chigira, 2006) . Le Chevalier D ' Eon (animated T V series ; d i r . Kazuh i ro Furuhash i , 2 0 0 6 ) .
Ergo Proxy (ani mated TV series; d i r . S h u ko Mu rase , 200 5 ) . Kami C h u ! ( a n i m ated TV series; d i r .
Koj i Masunari , 2 00 5 ) . Kiki 's Delivery Service. Ninja Nonsense (animated TV series; d i r . H i toyu ki
Matsui , 2 0 04 ) . Ninja Seroll: The Series. Papuwa (an i m ated TV series ; d i r . Ken i c h i N i s h i d a , 2 0 0 6 ) .
A Scanner Darkly. Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (an i m ated feature fi l m ; d i rs . Wal t D i sney and
David Hand, 1 9 3 7 ) . Transformers (ani mated feature film; Nelson Shin, 1 9 8 6 )
 Cha p ter No tes
Chapter 1
I . Shannon Fay's comments on a n i me's s tan d i n g i n this
area are worthy of n o t i c e : " O n ly films that have been
p layed in theatres i n the U S for a certa i n length of t i me
are e l i gi b l e for an Oscar . . . . The category for best a n i mated
feature film i s s ti l l re latively new to the Academy Awards,
hav i n g been i n trod uced for the first time i n 2 0 0 1 . Before
that, the few ti mes that a n i mated fi l ms were n o m i nated for
Oscars were usually in categories such as ' !lest Song.' Dis­
ney's Beallty and the Beast is to this date the only a n i mated
mov ie ro have been n o m i n ated in the Best Picture category"
( Fay) .
2. The very s t u d i o estab l i , hed by Wal t D i s ney h i mself
a n d respon sible for the execution of Golden -Age classics
s uch as Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( d i r s . Wal t Dis­
n ey and David Hand, 1 9 3 7 ) - the lege n dary B u rba n k Stu­
d i o - was s h u t down a l toge t h e r in 2 0 0 2 i n favor of a
department spec i a l i z i n g solely in computer- generated a n i ­
mation . A s Jake Friedman p o i n t s o u t , "soon after . . . t h e stu­
dios i n Orlando, Pa ris, l(lkyo and Sydney a l l fo l lowed s u i t ,
layi n g off more t h a n I , J O O people" ( Friedman , p . 4 ) .
Chapter 2
I . The srory articul ated in the series u n fil lds in the con­
text of feudal Japan and follows the mercenary n i n ja Jubei
Kibegami as he e ndeavors ro guard the Dragon Srone and the
Priestess of Ligh t (Shigure) Ii-om the joint threat posed by the
Hi ruko Clan and the Ki mon S h u u , w i th the help of the gov­
ernment spy Dalman and the thiefTsubute. As the 'If/kipedia
entry for the program points o ut , "Al thou gh critics hdve given
the show good reviews, fans of the origi n al Nil/ja Scroll h a ve
been negative towards i t . One reason for this is that Yoshi­
aki Kawaj iri and Yutaka M i n owa have l i ttle or no i n volve­
ment i n the series, and this has led to claims that the story l i ne
in i t is i n ferior to the fi l m's" ( Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopae­
dia - Ninja Scroll: The Series) .
2. An exten s i ve evaluation of the historical data - and
coral reef o f legendary accre t i o n s - s u r ro u n d i n g Yagyu
J ubei i s s u p p l i e d by the article " Yagyu J u b e i : Master
Swordsman ... A n d Shogun's Spy?" publi shed i n Furyu, Issue
9 and avai l a b l e a t the fo l l o w i n g a d d ress : h t t p : / /www.
furyu .coml archi ves l i ssue9/J ube i . h t m l .
3. Ani me's a n d manga's fasci n a tion w i t h the n i n ja mythos
19 5
contin ues unabated to this day, as attested ro by the TV series
Bmilisk (dir. r u m i romo Kizak i , 2005) , based on the manga
of the same t i t l e by F u taro Yamada. The show charts the age­
old animosity dividing the m embers of two n i n ja clans and
features a large cast of alternately monstrous and seductive
fighters, each of whom is endowed with u n i q ue combat skills
showcased i n a whirlwind of non-stop action . One of the
prodigies is a l i m b l ess yet p reternaturally swift n i n j a named
"Jyube i . " On the comedic fron t , the n i nj a-centred genre has
recently come to l i fe with Ninja Nonsense (dir. H i royuki Mat­
sui, 2004), a series featuring an inept n i n j a apprentice whose
utterly absu rd "missions" i n c l ude u n d e rwear- h u n t i n g .
Despite i ts rather unpromising t i tle, t h e ptogram is a gen­
uine breath of fresh air compared to more formulaic n i nja
plots, as i t p tovides myriad s i tuations ren dered i ntrigui n g by
their u n d i l uted zan i n ess and a cast of lovable characters (not
least the bumbling hero i n e herself) .
I n veterate n i n j a fan s in the West m i ght also benefit from
the fol l ow i n g p i ece of i n formation : " Wa n n a be a n i n ja ?
We l l , tough - even i f t h e real ones were s ti l l around, they
probably would n't accep t appl ications from foreigners . The
best yo u' l l do today i s to v i s i t the I ga N i n j a M us e u m i n
M i e prefectu re, Japan , which conta i n s a n i n j a res i d e nce
(complete with revo l v i n g walls and t rap doors) , exh i b i tions
of o l d n i n j ursu i m p lements, and eve n real ( ? ) black-clad
n i njas show i n g off their s k i l ls" (Newtype USA - News &
Newt ype : Basilisk, p. 148 ) . For further i n formation on the
subject , see h t t p : //www. igan i n j a . j p . where a v i rtual tour i n
the English l a nguage i s offered .
Chap ter 3
I . "The 1 9 9 5 Great H a n s h i n Earth quake ( M = 6 . 9 ) , com­
mon ly referred to as the Kobe earthq uake, was one o f the
most devastati n g earthq uakes ever to hit Japan; more than
5 , 5 0 0 were k i l led and over 2 6 , 0 0 0 i n j ured . The economic
loss has been e s t i m ated at a b o u t $ U S 200 b i l l i o n . The
proxi m i t y of the e p i center, a n d the p ropaga t i o n of r u ptu re
d i rectly beneath the highly p o p u lated regi o n , hel p exp l a i n
the great l o s s o f l i fe a n d the h i gh l e v e l o f d e s t r u c t i o n "
( " Kobe Earthqu ake [ 1 99 5 ] , Japan" ) .
2 . [ n " Excuse M e , W h o A r e You ? Real i t y and fantasy
i n the Anime of Satoshi Kon ," Susan J . Napier offers an
i nteres t i n g assess m e n t of affi n i ties between H i tchcock and
Kon w i t h specific re ference to the d i scourse of the gaze and
1 96 C! IAPTER NOTES
to the tole t h i s plays in the construction of gendered i de n ­
ti ties ( N a p i e r 2006) .
Chap ter 4
I . P iease note that the denomi natiollS here used to des­
ign ate Neon Genesis Evallgelioll's teen age pro tago n i s ts are
derived from the English-language dub. In the Japanese
o r i g i n a l , each of the p i lots i s actual ly named i n the plural
form as F i rst Chi ldren , Second Chil dren , T h i rd Chi l dre n ,
etc . T h e u s e of the p l ural w o u l d s e e m t o connote t h e col­
lective s i g n i ficance o f each p i l o t's role over a n d above his
or her personal function in the story. (The l i nguistic dis­
crepancy i s clearly borne o u t by the title of E p i sode 1 7,
namely "The Fourth C h i l d / Fo urth C h i l dren . " ) It should
also be noted, from a l i nguistic point of v i ew, that the ti tles
of the TV e p i sodes alternate between Japanese and English
th rougho u t .
2 . As exp l a i ned i n t h e essay on "Au m S h i nr i kyo ( Japan ,
c u l tists)" p u b l i shed by The Council on Foreign Re lations
i n November 2005, "Aum S h i n r i kyo is a Japanese rel i gi Olls
c u l t obsessed w i t h the apocalypse . The p rev i o u s l y obscure
gro u p became i n famous i n 1 99 5 when some of its mem­
bers released deadly s a r i n nerve gas i nt o the To kyo s u b­
way system, k i l l i n g 1 2 people and sen d i n g more than 5,000
o thers to h o s p i tals . . . . It was the most serious terro r i s t
attack i n Japan's m o d e r n h i s tory, caus i n g massive d i s r u p ­
t i o n a n d w i despread fear i n a society t h a t i s v i r t u a l ly free
of cri m e . B u r the subway attack also s howed the world
j ust how easy i t is for a s m a l l c u l t or gro u p of terrorists
w i t h l i m i ted means to en gage i n chemical warfare . . . . Aum
S h i n r i kyo i s a doomsday c u l t whose teachi n gs arc based
on tenets borrowed from H i n d ui s m and B u d d h i s m . Its
more b e n i gn acti v i t i e s i n c l u d e yo ga , m e d i t a t i o n , a n d
breat h i n g exercises. B u t at t h e center of t h e gro up's belief
i s reve rence fo r S hoko Asahara, A u m's fo u n d e r , who
teaches that the end of the world i s n ear" ( Terrorism: Ques­
tions and Amwers) .
3. Moreove r , tho ugh seem i n gly a l i e n to the wo rld of
the saga, i m ages of t h i s k i n d are perfectly at home in the
context of the p o p u l a r games i n s p i red by Eva1lgelioll ­
namely Gir/friend of Steel (a . k . a . [roll Maiden, 1 997) and
Girlfriend ofSteel 2 (200 5 ) -- fe" which many of them were
actually create d . I n deed, in i ts l u d i c t i c - i n s , Evallgelioll
takes a (possi b l y refres h i n g ) turn in the d i rection of depth­
less fun - even S h i n j i gets to experience some happi ness
w i th o u t any metaphysical s t r i n gs attached .
4. There are three d i fferent versions of Delllh: the one
i ncluded i n the 1997 theatrical release of Death & Rebirth;
Death True, which was a i red in Japan on WoWoW satel­
l i te TV in 1998; and Death TrueA2 (also prod uced in 1 9 9 8 ) ,
w h i c h h a s been i n c l u ded i n var i ous s ubsequent DVD
releases . The version upon which this discussion p i vots is
the most c o m p re he n s i v e , as p resented i n the Death &
Rebirth! The End of Evangeli01l Special E d i t i o n DVD
released by Manga Entertai n m e nt in 2 U 1 I4.
Chapter 5
1 . Many manga series deve l o p over a period of several
years, mai ntai n i n g relatively s table casts of characters a n d
i n terpersonal d yn a r n i c s . I n a n i m e , conversely, i t i s n o t
u n COll1111on for t h e s a m e personae t o be wovc n i n to rela­
tionsh i p s that do not conform with thei r original p(} � i ­
tinn i n g w i t h i n a s t o r y arc, a n d for their identi ties to b e
accord i n gly transformed . No l e s s frequently, a n i m e char­
acters travel across d i Hcrcllt p r o d u c t i u n s , someti mes
retai n i n g n o th i n g more substantial than their i n i t i a l n ames
as their actual roles alter. H i ge Oyaj i p ro v i des a p a r a d i g­
matic exa m p l e of s u c h a tran s m i gratory person a : he fea­
tu red reg u l a r l y t h r o u g h o u t Tez u ka's o u t p u t , a n d h i s
appearance i n R i lltaro's Metropolis w e l l over a decade a fter
h i s creator's demise i n the person of S h u n s a k u B a n c o u l d
be s a i d to s i g n a l the cha racter's k n a c k o f t r a n s ce n d i n g
space a n d t i m e .
2 . Even thollgh t h e i m med iate s o u rce beh i n d Metropo­
lis i s Tezu b's manga, R i n taro has fre q u e n tly cited l i ve­
ac t i o n c i n e m a -- both A m e r i c a n and E u r o pean - as h i s
major early i n fluence . I n t h e interview con d ucted b y Jeff
Berkw i ts on behalf of SeiFi. com, for i n s tance, the d i rector
has stated : "I really haven't had much i n fl uence from the
Wal t Disney fi l m s . Rather, I was more i n fl uenced by Amer­
ican western fi l m s or gJngster fi l ms or fi l m tw i r , or even
foreign films l i ke French fi l ms" ( R i maro 2002b) .
Chapter 6
1 . As documented by the W'ikipedia entry for the fra n ­
c h i s e , Final Fa1ltasy is first and foremost
a series of computer and console role- p l ay i n g games . . . .
I t may b e the most w i dely d i s t r i b u ted game series o f a l l
t i m e , i n c l u d i n g s t a n d a r d c o n s o l e r o l e - p l ay i n g g a m e s ,
p o r table g a m e s , a m a s s i v e l y m u l t i p layer o n l i n e r o l e ­
p l ayi n g gam e , games for mob i l e p h o n e s, t h ree a n i me p r o ­
d u c t i o n s , a n d t w o fu l l l e n gth C: G l fi l m s . T h e fi r s t
i ns t a l i l m e m of the s e r i e s p r e m i ered i n J a p a n o n Decem­
ber 18, 1 9 8 7, a n d Filial hmttlSY games have s u bs e q u e n t l y
been local i zed for markets i n N o r t h A m e r i c a , E u r o p e a n d
Austral i a , on n u m erous v i deo ga me con � o l es . . . . A s o f J u n e
2 0 0 6 , twelve games have b e e n rel eased i n J a p a n a s p a r t of
the m a i n ( n u mbered) series, along w i t h IIl a n y spinoff's a n d
r e l a t e d t i t les [ Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopaedia - Filial
filll tasy] .
2. For readers eager to fi n d o u t more about the execu ­
t i o n of L i n klater's 200G p r o d u c t i o n , the fol l ow i n g a r t i c l e ,
posted on the A/lid webs i te , i s h i g h l y recom m e n d e d :
" Conceal i n g a n d Revea l i n g I d e n t i t i es on A Seallller
Darkly. " Avid. 2 0 0 6 .
h t t p : I l w w w . av i d . c o m / p r o fi l e s 1 0 6 0 7 1 () _ _ a S U l n n e r ­
darkly_lllediacolTl poser .asp?featllfe I I h 1 O ()] & market! D � .
Chap ter 7
1 . As noted by Rowan Hooper a n d W i l l Knight i n the
New Scientist rev i ew of IlIlIocence p ll b lished u p o n the fi l m's
U . K . release in October 2 0 0 5 , i n advanc i n g this hypoth­
e s i s , Oshii "ex p l o res what Richard Dawk i n s calls the
extended p h e n o t y p e , s t r u c t u res t h a t arc ge n e t i c a l l y
encoded, b u t external to the body. T h e beaver's dam a n d
t h e s p i der's w e b a r e natural i l l ustrations o f t h i s , a n d , i n the
fllm, melllory i tself h as bCCOIllC externalized in t h i s l11al1 -
n e r " (Hooper a n d K n i gh t ) .
2. Atsuko Ta n a k a , the actress p r ov i d i n g t h e M a j o r's
voice, has a l l u d e d to t h i s role in descri h i n g her own
approach to the character : " I p layed her as tho ugh she coex­
isted i n s i d e o f h i m [ i . e . Batou]" ('Ianab).
Chap ter 8
1 . " Doom is a 1 9 9 3 com p u ter ga me by id S o ftware that
is among the landmark ti tles i n the fi r s t - p e r s o n s h o o t e r
ge n r e . I t i s w i d e l y recogn ized for i ts p i o n e e r i n g u s e o f
i ll1mers i ve 3 D graphics, n etworked m u l ti p l ayer gam i n g o n
 Chapter Notes
the PC platform, a n d the s u p p o r t for p l ayers to create cus­
tom expansions . . . . Doom was down loaded by a n esti mated
1 0 m i l l i on people w i t h i n two years , pop ularizi ng the mode
of gameplay a n d s p awn i n g a gam i n g subcult ure ; as a sign
of i ts i m pact on the i n d u s try, games ftorn the rn i d - 1 9 90s
boom of tirst-person shooters are often known s i m ply as
. Doom clon es' " ( Wikipedia, the Free ElIcycfopaedill �
Doom ) .
2 . T h e theme of a see m i n gly perfect soc ie ty, a l l facets
of which are flawlessly organ ized, yet hosts unsavory tru ths
at i ts core, has retained considerable appea l w i t b i n the u n i ­
verse of a n i rn e s ince the p u b lication of t h e App/eseed manga .
A recen t i nstance of this topos can be fo u n d i n the TV
show Ergo l'rm,y ( d i r . S h uko M u rase, 2 0 0 5 ) , a series that
exhi b i ts several points of contact w i t h App/eseed in both i ts
manga and a n i me configurati o n s . The domed city of Lomd
is a u to p i a oste n s i b l y u n marred by c r i m e o r hatred, i n
which h u mans are free t o i n d u l ge i n l u xury a n d l e i s u re
wh i l e a n d r o i d s take care of ever y t h i n g e l s e . H owever ,
Lomd 's t r u e nat u re i s far from i m peccable, a n d i t is u p to
the cha r i s m a t i c a l l y tough hero i n e Rea l M ayer a n d her
android assistant I ggy (redolent of Deunan and B r i areos
respectively) to p l u m b the d ar k secrets it conceal s .
Chap ter 9
I . The aesthetics of steam p u n k have also i nfluenced var­
ious aspects of fashion , music and i n terior design , by both
expand i n g and d i versify i n g existing s u bcu l t u ral styles . The
most p r o m i nent ( a n d c u r i o us l y res i l i e n t ) among them
i nc l ude the goth , punk and i ndustrial movements . The dis­
ti nctive trend emergi ng from the amalgamation of s team­
p u n k motifs with elements derived from other estab l ished
vogues i s often descri bed as " Neo-Victor i a n i s m , " i nsofar
as one of its most d i s t i nctive a n d rec u r r i n g c haracteristics
i s i n deed the syn thesi s of Victori a n aes thetic tenets and
cont e m porary sens i b i l i t ies a n d technologies .
2. A recent i nstance of this trend can be fou n d in Le
Chevalier D F.01l, a multimedia project comprising an anime
(dir. Kazuhiro F u ruhashi ) , manga and novel series s i m u l ­
taneously released i n J a p a n i n t h e s U l l l m e r of 2006. The
s tory h i nges on the h i s to r i c a l fi gu r e of a n e i ghteenth­
century hench aristocrat who spent the second half of h i s
l i fe i n female disguise. T h e p rogram's protagonist i s a mem­
ber o f the secret police i nves t i gat i n g a series of m u rders in
the c l i mate o f pre- Revo l u t io!l Pari s .
Chapter 10
1 . In order to si t uate context u a l l y the s i g n i ficance of
Howls Moving Castle's voice cas t , the fol l ow i n g comments
by anime expert Jonathan Clements seem espec i a l l y use­
ful :
The concept o f a voice acting fandom fi rst arrived i n
Japan i n the early 1 9 8 0s, w i th newly founded m agazines
s uch as Newtype and A nimage i n search of fresh subjects
for arti cles . . . . Whereas video a n i m e tend to use relative
u n knowns, often rendered a l l the more u n k n owable by the
( 0 01 0 1 0 0 use o f p s e u d o n yol s to p reserve u n i o n s t a t u s ,
a n i m e fea t u re r e l e a s e s i n A m e r i c a regu l a r l y use "s tunt­
casti ng" � the use of actors famous elsewhere . I n c i dences
date back to the use o f F ra n k i e Avalon in Alakazam the
Great (1960 ) , and have i n c l uded cameo a n i m e pe rform­
ances from Orson Welles and Leonard Ni moy ( i n the Trtl/lS­
formers movie) . This has even happened in Japan , where
the prod ucers of the A rmitage III movie l'o/ymatrix decided
[0 make it exotic hy h i r i n g foreig n actors a n d re l e as i n g the
1 97
movi e i n English i n Japan , with the voices of Kiefer S uther­
land and El izabeth Berkley. A m e rican s t u nt-cas t i n g roles
has become even more n o t i ceable in recen t years w i t h the
release of Srudio G h i b l i films in America, u t i l i z i n g such [al­
ents as La uren Baca l l and Jean S i m mons (llowls fl.loving
Castle) , or K i rs t e n D u n s [ a n d D e b b i e Reyn o l d s (Kiki 's
Delivery Service) [Clements] .
2. Readers keen on fa ntastical bes t i aries a re advised to
sample the TV series KamiClm! (dir. Koj i Masunari , 20( 5 ) ,
a veritable documentary on character designer Takahi ro
Chi bis i m ag i n ation , offe r i n g a motley parade of often s u r ­
r e a l and i nvariably captiva t i n g g o d s a n d s p i r i ts of variab l y
a n i ma l fo r m . The s r u n n i n g array o f tal k i n g a n i m a l s
encountered by t h e yo u n g h e r o u pon cross i n g t h e t h resh­
old to an alternate u n i verse i n the feature film Brave Story
( d i r . Ko u i c h i Chigira, 2 0 0 6 ) are also e m i n ently worthy o f
notice. An aesthetically less a l l u r i n g but u n de n iably enter­
tai n i n g pantheon o f b izarre beasts is also o ffered hy the
series l'apuwa (d i r . Ken ic h i N i s h i d a , 2006) .
Chap ter 11
1 . An i m e Expo ( a . k . a . AX) takes p lace on the J u l y 4th
weekend for 4 days every year in S o u thern Cal i forn i a . The
convention i s hosred by the n o n - p ro fi t "Society for the
Promotion of Japanese An i m ation" ( S PJA) . S PJA has also
held An i m e Expos in New York a n d Tokyo . The largest
ani me conventions o f 2006 i nc l uded the fo llow i n g :
• A n i m e Expo ( July, Southern Cal i forn ia) � 41,000 total
• A n i m e North (M ay, l()ronto) � 1 2 , 5 0 0 total
• A- Kon ( J u ly, Win!l i peg ) � 12,000 paid
• Anime Central (Sp r i n g , Rosemont) � 1 1 , 500 total
• Fani meCon ( May, San Jose) � I O,()OO p a i d
• A n i me B o s t o n ( S p r i n g , Boston ) � 9 , 3 5 4 total
• Katsucon (February, Washi ngto n , D . C . ) � 6,400 total .
For addi tional derails regardi n g A n i m e Expo speci fical ly,
a n d a n i m e conve n t i o n s ge n e r a l l y, p l ease see : http://en.
wikipedia. orglwikiiA llimejcxpo and h t t p : //en . w i ki pedi a .
org/wi ki / Li st_oC a n i llle_conve n t i o n s .
2 . Festivals, conferences a n d conventions c o u l d be seen
as complementary a n d even partially overl a p p i n g events,
yet retain certa i n d i s t i nctive trai t s . Ernru Townsend has
usefu l l y eluci dated the most sal i ent characteristics of these
three types of ga the r i n gs as fo llows :
Conferences lean m u c h heav i e r toward i n d us try and a r t ,
w i t h l i ttle foc u s on a u d i e n c e ; the S I G G RA P H a n d the
Sociery for A n i mation S t u d i es conferences, for i n s tance,
are jam- packed w i t h profess i o n a l s a n d aca d e m i cs i n the
tiel d . Conventions, on the o ther hand, lean far more toward
tans, tho ugh the professionals that do attend arc every b i r
a s lai d-back and access i b l e a s those at fes t i vals . Fes t i vals
fal l somewhere in between , though rhe closer yo u get ro a
"true" ani mation festival ( l i ke those held i n O ttawa , Annecy
and Zagreb ) , the closer yo u get to a balance between the
three elements; festivals l i ke Fantas i a , which concentrate
more on scree n i n gs than workshops or panels, tilt more i n
the d i rection o f conven tions [Townsend 2 0 0 6 a , p . 3] .
It is also common for conventions to i nclude an ele­
ment o f "cosplay" (a portmanteau o f the English words
"costume" a n d "p lay" ) . Com p e t i t i o n s are h e l d in which
fans masquerade as their favorite a n i me or manga charac­
ters, pose for p h o tos a n d arc awarded p r i zes . Numerous
fa ns take cos play very ser i o u s l y i n deed, and devote several
months to the d e s i g n and exec u r i on o f the i r cos r u m e s .
A n i m e m agaz i n es s llch as Newtype cont a i n d e d i cated sec­
tions w i t h i n thei r regular co l u m n s in which the cos p l ay
scene is discussed in detai l .
1 98 CHAPTER NOTES

3. The Japanese word "otaku" comb i n es the honori fic
particle 0 and the kanji for "ho use" and may thus be re n ­
d e r e d i n E n g l i s h as "yollr honorable house . " T h e t e r m c a n
be used to add ress a pe rson i n a n exaggeratedly reve re n t i al
fas h i o n . and is reputed to h ave been originally connected
w i th a n i m e enth usiasts on the premise that they wo u l d be
lonesome and i nadeq uately cncultured i n d i v i d uals. inclined
to use a n arti fi c i a l ly i n Hated rhetor i c d u e to social i n e p t i ­
tude.
4 . A m o r e comprehe n s i ve l i s t o f u n i vers i ties a n d c o l ­
leges a n d r e l a t e d cou rses can be o b t a i n e d fro m . h t t p : / /
www.comercdange l . com/amwess/an i m e _ on _ ca m p u s . h tm .
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 Index

Ace Combat 4 147 Clplaill !farlock 140 Fahrenheit 91II 103

Adamson, A. 80 Cars 16 fauvism 186
The AdveJltllres of Baron Mun­ Ca ulfield, I' lOl The Fijih Element 91, 126
challsen 44 Chari es, R. 82 Final F,mtasy series 183
Al 74 Chitty Chitty Bang Bang 156 Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within
Akira 71, 72, 137, 142-143, 144, Christianity 59 18, 87-lO2, 115, 131, 171
172, 173 Ci "derefla 96 The Final Flight of the Osiris 97
Akiyama, K. 1.34, 172 CLmical Creece 125 Fireball 137
Algol 86 Clockll'ork Orange 143 Fleischer, M. 2, 76, 96
AliellS 172 Colu mbus, C. 91 F reud, S. 59
"Among School Children" 82 COila". Boy oft!" Fllture 140 I�dlmetal Alchemist 140
The A"imatrix 34-36, 97, 170 Confucius 115 Furukolojioni 58
Anno, H. 18, 54-7(), 114, 135, 140, Cook , II. 88
186 C o p pola, E F. 91 Gaslight 45
Aoshima, C. 179 Cowboy liebop 71 Gaultier, J.-1� 126
Appleseed ( featu re film) 18, 121·136, Cronenberg, D. 91 Ghost in the Shell 23, 64, 68, 103,
171, 176 Crouching 71ger. lJidden Dragon 35 107, 117, 135, 170, 173
Appleseed (OVA) 121 Cuartin, A. 91 Ghost in the Shell 2: Innocence 18,
Appleseed: Ex Machil/a 136 cyborg 115-116 19, 103-120, 131, 171, 172
Aramaki, S. 121-136 Ghost in the Shell 2: Inllocence:
Artaud, A. 109 D: Demoll Dealhchase 28 M/lSic Video Anthology 116-119
Ashida, T. 28 The Da Vinci Code 91 Giant Robo 174
Asimov, 1. 115 [lark City 91 Gi bso n, \YI. 27, 49, 99, 139, 179
Astro Boy 72, 74, 79, 170, 173 Date , H. 181 Giger, H. R. 118
Allin Shinrikyo 59, 1% Delacroix, E. 76 Cilliam, T. 24,44
Avalon 117 [)"I/onballf 7 181 Godard, J.-L. 63, 115
Derain, A. 184 The Godfother 91
Bancroft, T. 88 Descartes, R. 115 Cohda, H. 134, 172
Batman 86 The DijJermCf Fngil/e 139 Gone with the Wind 146
Batman Begins 27 D isney 2, 14, 76, 90, 155, 164, 174, Grimm, J. 115
Bauhaus Movement 84 178 GUr/dam 172
Beavis and BUllhead 101 Docter, P. 15-16, 154, 165
Bess on,L. 91, 126 Doctor Zhil.ago 7(, .hackIIG.l!. 181
Blade Runner 73, 74, 88, 91, 106, doll figure 110, 115, 131 .h.lckIIRnots 181
172 Doll, 112 lIamlet 41
Blood: The Last Vampire 64 Domu: A Childs Dream 44, 137- Hanks, T. 100
Bont,J.de 90 138 Haraway, D. 115 -116
Box, S. 6 Doom 122 lJarry ['otter saga 91
Brazil 44 Dragon Wi/rrior 18.� Hayakawa, A. 174
Bubblegllm Crisis 134-135, 172 Duchamp, M. 181 Hayashi, H. 134, 172
Bunraku 112 Du "'Lwricr, D. 45 lIeallY Metal !O1
Burton, T 6, 86, 155 Heidi, Girl of the Alps 174
Eastwood, c:. 25, 154 Herge 76
The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari 83, 86 Eckelberrv, L. 184-185 Hitchcock, A. 45
C ame ron, J. 122, 172 Elemellfal G"lade 140 House of Flying Daggers 26, 34
"Cannon Fodder" 141 eXistenZ 91 Howard, R. 91

207
208 It-;])FX

IIowl's MOi'ing Castle 6, 19, 127, 91, 93, 100, 101, 103, 135, 170 Pat/abor 2: lhe MOI.ie 68, 117
139, 154-168, 171, 176 172 Pat/em Recogllition 27
Matsumoto, L. 140, 172 Peckinpah, S. 25
"I Can't Stop Loving You" 82 matsuri 107, 110 Perftct Blue 18, 37-53, 134, 171, 176
Idont 49, 99 McCay, W. 8, 76 Perfect Blue: Yume Nara Samete 38
Ikeda, R. 139 Mead, S. 172 performance capture 100
Megazone 23 1.)4-1.)5 Piranesi, G. 151
jenson, V. 80 Memories 51-52, 141 Plato 135
johnson, M. 6, 155 Messmer, O. 76 PoUmoll 71, 137, 173
johnston, j. 98 Metropolis 18, 71--86, 92, 139, 141, Polar E>:press 100, 101
Jones, A. 97 171, 172, 173 Pom f'oko 162
Jones, c. 60 Millennium Actress 50-51, 52 Porco Rosso 168
Jones, D. W. 157 Million Dollar Baby 154 Primrose, J. 81
jones, T. 24 Milton, J. 115 Princess MOllonoke 23, 45, 89-90,
The Joy Luck Club 88 Ming Na 88 168
Jubei-chall the Ninja Girl 21 Mitchell, M. 146 Production I.G 18, 64, 68
Jumanji 98 Miyazaki, H. 6, 19, 23, 45, 89, 90, Program 18, 34-36
Iungle Emperor Leo 74 127, 139, 140, 154-168, 171, 177, Proyas, A. 91
furassie Park 89, 90 183-184 pjJcho 45
Mizushima, S. 140
Kabbalah 58 Mobile Police Pat/abor OVA I 117 Raimi, S. 91
Kabuki 128 Mobile Police Pat/abor OVA 2 117 Ratner, B. 143
Katayama, K. 121 Mobile Police Pat/abor TV series 117 Rear WilldolV 45
Kawai, K. 109, 116-119 Moebius 183-184 Rebecca 45
Kawajiri, Y. 17-18, 21-36, 135, 170, Momotaro 169 The Red Spectacles 117
186 Monet, C. 155 Renaissance 16-17
Key the Metal Idol 40 !lIonsters, Inc. 154 The Republic 1.35
Kiki's Delivery Service 168 Monty Pytholl alld the Holy Grail 24 Rilltaro 18, 71--86, 92, 114, 139, 173
Kikuchi, H. 28 Moore, M. 103 Robida, A. 139, 155
Kill Bill 24 Morimoto, K. 141 Robotali 40
Killers: .50 Woman 117 motion capture 94-101, 129-132 The Rose o/ Versailles 139-140
KishimolO, M. 181 Mulan 88 roroscope 94, 96, 101
Kishi" Hoku Demonbane 181 Murakami, T. 178-179 Roy,t/ SplIce Force: T he Wings 0/
Kitakubo, H. 64 My Neighbor Totoro 168 lIonneamise 64, 140, 184
Kitano, T. 112
Kitayama, S. 169, 186 Nadia: The Secret o/Blue Water 64, "Sr. James's 1nflrmary" 81
Kobe earthquake 37, 195 140 Sakaguchi, H. 18, 87-102, 131, 171
Kojiki 58 Nakamura, R. 49-50, 134 Sakakibara, M. 89
Kon, S. 18, 37-53, 114, 134, 171 Nara, Y. 179 Sara, T 38
Kondou, Y. 162 Naruto 181 A Seallller Darkly 16-17, 101-102
Koons, J. 178 NaTl/to: Ultimate Ninja 181 Scott, R. 73, 91, 172
Kunikata, M. 179 Nausicaii o/ the Valley o/the Wind Serial Experiments rain 49-50, 71,
Kuroda, M. 174 168, 177 134
Kurosawa, A. 112 Neoll (;enesis Evangelion 18, 54-70, Shinto 58, 107, 110, 14 9
113, US, 141, 171, 172, 176, 179 Shirow, M. 121-122, 128
Lang, F. 71, 72, 74, 75, 143 Neuromallcer 27 S!JOlfllfli Tantei Rock ffome 77
Laputa: Castle in the Sky 156, 168 Newell, M. 91 Shrek 80
Lara Cru/t: 70mb Raider movies 90 Nihonji 58 Singer, B. 143
Lasseter, J. 16, 80 The Ninja 27 South Park 101
Lean, D. 76 Ni IIja Resurrection 21 Space Cruiser Yamato 140, 172
Lee, A. 35 Ninja Scroll 17-18, 21-34, 37, 135, Spider-Mall movies 91, 143
Lee, W. 42 171 Spielberg, S. 74
Legend 0/ the White Serpmt 169 Nillja Scroll: jfJe Series 21 Spirited Away 89-90, 155, 162
Leone, S. 25 Nishimura, S. 140 Square 88
Levi-Strauss, C. 2 Noh lOS Stilr Wars movies 90
Linklater, R. 16, 101-102 Ste,lInboy 19,45,127,137-1'i.3,155
Obari, M. 134, 172 steam punk 139-141, 14 2
Macross Plus-The Movie 40 Ohnishi, N. 184 Sterling, B. 139
Magical Shopping Arcade Abenobashi Okamura, T. 141 StrllY Dog: Kerberos f'anzer Cops 117
147 Omnibus Japan 68 Sullivan, P. 76
"Magnetic Rose" 51-52 On Your Mark 168 Superrlimensio/lal Fortress Macross 40
manga 174-175, 177 Oshii, M. 18, 64, 68, 103-120, 135 Superflat 178-179
Marks, B. 49 otaku 179 synthespian 94--101
Marlow, R. 49 Oromo, K. 19, 44, 45, 127,
Mashimo, K. 181 137-153, 172 Tachiglli - T he Amazillg Lives of the
masks 107-108 Fast Food Grifters 117
Masuo, S. 181 Paranoia Agwt 50, 52-53 Takahata, I. 162 , 174
Matisse, H. 184 Park, N. 6, 155 Takauo, A. 179
The Matrix movies 13, 27, 34, 35, Pat/abor I: The Mobile Police 73, 117 Takayama, F. 134, 172
 Index 209

Talking Head 117 Vampire HUflter D 28 Wbisper of the Heart 162

Tarantino, Q. 24 Vampire HIIllter D - Bloodlust 28 Wicked City 27-28
Teenilge Mutallt Ninja 1imles 90 Van Lustbader, E. 27 Wiene, R. 83
Tewka, O. 2, 19,71,74,77,139, Vermeer,). 155 Wittgenstein, L. 115
169, 173,186 Verne,) 139,140
. Woo,). 136
71m Burtolls The Corpse Bride 6, video games 90-91, 179 -183
16,17,155 V laminck, M. de 184 X-Mm movies 88,94, 143
Time Bandits 44 Volckman, C. 16
Titanic 89, 122 Yamaga, H. 147
Tokyo Godfothers 50, 52 Wachowski, L. and A. 34-35, 91, Yamagawa, Y. 174
Tomino, Y. 172 100, 171 Y;mlilto 2520 172
Toy Story 89 Waking Life 101 Yates, D. 91
Triglln 140 Wallace alld Gromi!: The Curse of Yeats, W. B. 82
]urner, J. M. W. 151-152 tbe Were-Rabbit 6, 155 Yimou, Z. 26
Twenty ThouSilfld Leagues Under the Wand, W. 88 You Only Live 'livice 27
Sea 140 Warhol, A. 178, 182 Yume 112
Warner Brothers 178
Ueda, S. 140 Weaving, H. 13 Zemeckis, R. 100
universal capture 100 Werckmeisler, H. 86
Umsei Yatsura 23 West, S. 90