Lecture Guide

in Math006

CLASS NUMBER: ______

SECTION: _________________

NAME: ___________________________________

PREPARED BY: PROF. RHODA MERCADO-LAILO

C HAPTER 1

Logic

1. Propositions and Connectives

2. Truth Tables
3. Conditional Proposition
4. Logical Equivalences
5. Logic Gates
6. Predicates and Quantifiers
7. Rules of Inference
1.1 Logic
Propositions and Connectives - the study of reasoning, it is specifically concerned whether
the reasoning is correct or not.

Proposition
- a declarative statement that is either true or false (but not
both)

Example 1.1.1
I NTENDED L EARNING OUTCOMES (ILO S )
Determine whether the following statement is a proposition or
1. Determine a proposition. not?

2. Translate propositional logic to symbols. 1. 3 + 4 = 9

3. Identify the different logical connectives. 2. Run!

3. Every complex number is a real number.

4. Enjoy the lovely weather.

5. Louis bought me two tickets of “Mission Impossible 5”.

6. The only factors of 7 are just one and seven.

7. Earth is the only planet that has life.

2
 Assessment Tasks (ATs)
Logical Connectives
Conjunction - denoted by
p ∧ q , is the proposition p and q. Find the true values of the following:

Disjunction - denoted by
p ∨ q , is the proposition p or q. 1. ( p ∧ q) ∨ r
2. ( p ∧ r ) ∧ ( p ∨ q )
Negation - denoted by
p , is the proposition not p. 3. ( p ∧ q) ∨ ( p ∧ q )

Truth Table

Consider the following propositions:

1. Lucia’s PC has more than 16 GB free hard disk space, and

the processor in Lucia’s PC runs faster than 16Hz.

2. Students who have taken Calculus or Statistics can take

the class.

3. Vandana’s smartphone has at least 32GB of memory.

3
1.2 Conditional Proposition - denoted by
p → q , is the com-

Conditional Proposition pound proposition if p then q.

Biconditional Proposition - denoted by

p ↔ q , is the com-
pound proposition p if and only if q.

p → q is q → p .
• Converse of

p → q is q → p .
• Contrapositive of
I NTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILO S )
Example 1.2
1. Transform conditional statements to symbols.
1. If you get 100% on the finals, then you will get an A.
2. Convert conditional statements to converse,
2. You can take the flight if and only if you buy a ticket.
contrapositive, inverse, biconditional.
3. The home team wins whenever it is raining.
3. Determine the truth value of a compound
proposition.

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Exclusive or Proposition - denoted by
p⊕q .

• Tautologous Statement - has only one decision value which

is true.

• Contradictory Statement - has only one decision value

which is false.

• Contingent Statement - is neither tautology nor a contradic-

tory.

Example 1.1.2

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1.3 Logic Gates
Logic Gates 1. And Gate 2. Or Gate

3. Not Gate 4. Nand Gate (Not And Gate)

I NTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILO S )

1. Construct logic circuits.

5. Nor Gate (Not Or Gate) 6. Xor Gate (Exclusive Or Gate)

! !

7. Xnor Gate

! ! ! !

6
Example 1.3

Build a digital circuit that produces the output:

1. ( p ∧ q) ∨ r
2. ( p ∧ q ) ⊕ (q ∧ r)
3. [(a ⊕ b) ∨ (b ∧ c)] ∨ (c ∧ d ∧ e )
! ! ! !

! ! ! !

Assessment Tasks (ATs)

Build a digital circuit that produces the output:

1. ⎡⎣( p ⊕ q) ⊕ q ∧ r ⎤⎦
2. ( p ∨ q) ∧ ⎡⎣(q ∧ r) ∨ (r ∨ s)⎤⎦ ∧ s

7
1.5 Rules of Inference
Rules of Inference • Syntactical transform rules which one can use to infer a con-
clusion from a premise to create an argument.

Argument - sequence of statements that end with a conclu-

sion.

I NTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILO S )

1. Familiarize with rules of inference.

2. Prove validity of arguments.

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Absorption Constructive Dilemma State the justification for each line below the conclusion.
p → q/∴ p → ( p ∧ q) ( p → q) ∧ (r → s)
A. B.
p ∨ r/∴q ∨ s
1. p ∧ q 1. p → q

Example 1.5 2. ( p ∨ r) → s/∴ p ∧ s ( )

2. p ∨ r ∧ q

3. p 3. s → r
State which rule of inference is the basis of the following argu-
4. p ∨ r 4. ( p ∧ q)/∴s ∨ q
ments: 5. s 5. p → ( p ∧ q)

1. It is below freezing now. Therefore, it is either below freez- 6. p ∧ s 6. p

ing or raining now. 7. r ∧ q

8. r
9. s
10. s ∨ q

2. It is below freezing and raining now. Therefore, it is below Assessment Tasks (ATs)
freezing now.
State the justification for each line below the conclusion.

A. B.
1. ( p ∨ q) ∧ (r ∨ s) 1. a → b
2. ( p → r) ∧ (q → s) 2. c → (d → e)
3. If it rains today, then we will not have a barbecue today. If
we do not have a barbecue today, then we will have a bar- 3. r/∴s 3. c ∨ (a ∨ d)
becue tomorrow. Therefore, if it rains today, then we will 4. p ∨ q 4. c/∴b ∨ e
have a barbecue tomorrow. 5. r ∨ s 5. d → e
6. s 6. (a → b) ∧ (d → e)
7. a ∨ d
8. b ∨ e

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1.6 Logical Equivalence
Logical Equivalence • The compound propositions p & q are logically equivalent if
p ↔ q is a tautology.

Example 1.6.1

Prove that the following is logically equivalent to each other.

I NTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILO S )

1. Prove the validity of logical equivalences using 1. p∨q ≡ p∧q

truth tables. 2. p∧q ≡ p∨q
2. Prove the validity of arguments using logical 3. p⊕q ≡ p ↔ q
equivalences.

Assessment Tasks (ATs)

1.

2.

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Example 1.6.2

Show that the following are logically equivalent by developing

a series of logical equivalences.

A.

B.

C. Show that ( p ∧ q) → ( p ∨ q)is a tauto log y.

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1.7 Predicate
Predicates and Quantifiers • Statements that are neither true nor false when the values
of the variables are not specified.

Example 1.7.1

Consider the statement, “x > 3’, x = y + 3”

1.

I NTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILO S )

1. Quantify statements using predicates and

quantifiers.
2. Identify the truth value of quantified
statements.
2.

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 Example 1.7.2
Quantifiers
• The extent to which a predicate is true over a range of ele- 1. Let P(x) be the statement “x + 1 > x.” What is the truth
ments.
value of the quantification , where the domain con-
Universal Quantifiers sists of all real numbers?

•
2.

3. Let P(x) denote the statement “x > 3.” What is the truth
Existential Quantifiers value of the quantification where the domain con-
sists of all real numbers?
•

4. Let Q(x) denote the statement “x = x + 1.” What is the truth

value of for all real numbers?

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Nested Quantifiers 4. Every real number except zero has a multiplicative inverse.

- can be used to transform English sentences into logical

statements.

Example 1.7.3

Transform the following into sentences/symbolic logic.

5. ∀x ∀y [(x > 0) ∧ (y > 0) → (xy < 0)]
1. ∀x ∀y (x + y) = (y + x)

2. ∀x ∃y (x + y = 0)

3. The sum of the two positive integer is always positive.

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C HAPTER 2

Sets

1. Operations on Sets
2. Venn Diagram
3. Application of Sets
2.1 Example 2.1.1

Sets 1. A = { 1, 3, 5, 7, 9}

2. A = all odd numbers from 1 to 10

3. B = all letters in the word “PHILIPPINES”

4. C = {1, 2, 3, 5}

5. D = {x ∈ℜ + /1 ≤ x < 5}
I NTENDED L EARNING OUTCOMES (ILO S ) 6. E = {y ∈ℜ / 3 < y > −2}
1. Define a set.
• Finite Set - a set with countable number of elements.

• Infinite Set - a set with uncountable number of elements.

• Empty/Null Set - a set without elements.

Set
Example 2.1.2
- an unordered collections of objects, called elements or
members of the set. Determine if the ff. is F/I/E.

Methods of Writing Sets 1. E = { 10, 20, 30, ...}

1. Rule Method - describes the elements of a given set. 2. F = { 0 }

2. Roster Method - lists all elements of a given set. 3. G = { 4, 5, 6}

3. Set Builder Notation - represents letters for numbers. 4. K = {∅}

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Subsets a. I ___ Q

b. R ___ I

c. O ___ I

Cardinality of a Set d. W ___ R

e. Z ___ M

2. Find the power set of A = { x, y, z }.

Power Sets

Cartesian Products
3. Given A = { 1, 2, 3 } and B = { x, y, z }, find:

a. A X B =

Example 2.1.3

1. Determine whether the ff. is a subset or not a subset to b. B X A =

make a true statement.

R = Real Numbers! ! ! I = Integers

c. A X A =
M = Imaginary Numbers! ! O = Non-integers

H = Irrational ! ! ! ! W = Whole Numbers

Q = Rational! ! ! ! Z = Zero

C = Counting Numbers

17
Assessment Tasks (ATs)

1. Subset or Not a Subset

a. W ___ Q

b. N ___ C

c. H ___ Q

d. I ___ H

e. O ___ M

2. What is the power set of the set { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 }?

3. What is the Cartesian product A X B X C, where A = { 0, 1 },

B = { 1, 2, } and, C = { 0, 1, 2}?

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2.2 Set Operations
Set Operations 1. Complementation ( ‘ )

The complement of set A is A’ , a set composed of the ele-

ments of the universal set but not all elements of set A.

2. Intersection ( ∩ )

The intersection of sets A and B is A ∩ B , a set composed

I NTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILO S ) of the elements of both sets A and B.

1.Perform operations on sets. 3. Union ( ∪ )

The union of sets A and B is A ∪ B ,a set composed of the

elements of set A or set B or both sets A and B.

4. Difference ( - )

The difference of sets A and B is A - B, a set composed of

the elements of set A but not the elements of set B.



5. Exclusive Union ( U )

The exclusive union of sets A and B is A U B, a set com-

posed of the elements of set A and set B but not elements of
sets A and B.

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 5. A ∩ B =

6. A ∪ B =

7. A U B =

Assessment Tasks (ATs)

U = {all letters in the word “kangaroo” and “dinosaur”}

U = { k, a, n, g, r, o, d, i, s, u}

A = { k, n, g, r, i, o, s}

B = {n, g, o, s, r}

C = {k, g, s, n, i}

Example 2.2 Find:

U = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} 1. ( A’ U B’ ) ∩ C' =

A = { 1, 3, 5, 7, 9} 2. ( A - B)’ U ( C’ - B) =

B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} 3. ( B - C’ ) U (A' ∩ B) =

Find:

1. A’ = 3. A - B =

2. B’ = 4. B - A =

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2.3 Venn Diagram
Venn Diagram - graphical representation of sets.

I NTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILO S )

1. Illustrate sets using Venn diagram.

Example 2.3



1. Draw a Venn diagram that represents:

U = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}!
!

A = { 1, 3, 5, 7, 9}! ! !

B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

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2. Draw the Venn diagrams for each of these combinations of
the set A, B, and C.

a.

b.

c.

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2.4 Example 2.4

Application of Sets 1. A survey of 80 TIP students produced the ff. results:

29 - play football! ! 15 - play basketball and volleyball

31 - play basketball! ! 15 - play volleyball and football

43 - play volleyball! ! 10 - play all three sports

12 - play football and basketball

I NTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILO S )

1. Apply Venn diagram in problem solving.

! ! !

a. How many play none of the sports?

b. How many play only volleyball?

c. How many play basketball and volleyball, but not football?

2. Out of 100 teenagers surfing the internet, 42 of them are us-

ing Twitter, 58 are using Facebook, 38 are using Instagram,
21 21 are using Instagram and Twitter, 22 are using Insta-
gram and Facebook, 21 using Facebook and Twitter, and
10 of them are using all the three social media.

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a. How many teenagers are using Facebook only?

b. How many of them are not using any of these social me-
dia?

c. How many teenagers are using Instagram and Twitter, but

not Facebook?

! ! !

24
C HAPTER 3

Relations

1. Definition of Relation
2. Properties of Relation
3. Equivalence Relation
4. Partial Order
3.1 Relations
Relations • A (binary) relation R from a set A to a set B is a subset of the
cartesian product A X B. If (x, y) is in R, we write xRy and
say that “x is related to y.”

Properties of Relations

I NTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILO S )

1. Explain the definition of relation.

Example 3.1
2. Identify the different properties of relation.
1. X = { 2, 3, 4 } and Y = { 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 }, where (x ,y) is in R
3. Determine that a relation is an equivalence which x divides y.
relation or a partial order.
R=

Diagraph:

26
2. X = {1, 2, 3, 4} defined by x, y) ∈R if x ≤ y, (x, y) ∈X Partial Order

R= • A relation R on a set X is called a partial order if R is reflex-

ive, antisymmetric, and transitive.

Equivalence Relation
Diagraph:
• A relation R on a set X is called an equivalence relation if R
is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.

Assessment Tasks (ATs)

3. R = { (a, a), (b, c), (c, b), (d, d) }
Determine whether the ff. relations are reflexive, symmetric,
Diagraph: antisymmetric, transitive, partial order, or equivalence relation.

1. A = { 1, 2, 3, 4 } and B = { 1, 2, 3, 4 }, where R is a relation

from A to B defined by a / b (a divides b).
! ! !
2. A = { 1, 2, 3 } and B = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 }, where R is de-
fined by (a + b) / 2b , (a, b) is in R.

3. A = { 1, 2, 3, 4 }

R = { (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}

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3.2 Inverse of a Relation
Inverse and Composition of • The inverse of the relation is R −1 = {(y, x) / (x, y) ∈R}

Relations Composition of a Relation

R2  R1 = {(x, z) / (x, y) ∈R1 and (y, z) ∈R2 for some y ∈Y }
•

Example 4.2

1. Find the inverse of the relations in Example 3.1 (refer to

I NTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILO S ) page 26 - 27)

1. Determine the inverse and composition of a

relation.

2. R1 = { (1,2), (2,1), (3,3), (4,2) }

R2 = { (2,3), (1,2), (2,4), (4,2) }

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C HAPTER 4

Functions

1. Definition of a Function
2. Properties of a Function
3. Inverse and Composition
3.1 Injective

Functions A function f from A to B is called one-to-one if for each b is in

B , there is at most one a in A with f(a) = b.

Surjective

Bijective

I NTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILO S )

1. Explain the definition of a function. Example 3.1

2. Identify the properties of function. 1. Let f be the function from { a, b, c, d } to { 1, 2, 3 } defined

by f(a) = 3, f(b) = 2, f(c) = 1, and f(d) = 3. If f surjective?

2. Is the function f(x) = x2 from the set of integers to the set of

Functions integers onto?

3. Let f be the function from { a, b, c, d } to { 1, 2, 3, 4 } de-

fined by f(a) = 4, f(b) = 2, f(c) = 1, and f(d) = 3. If f a bijec-
tion?

30
4. X = { 1, 2, 3 } and Y = { a, b, c }

R = { (1,a), (2,b), (3,a) }

4. X = { 1, 2, 3, 4 } and Y = { a, b, c }

R = { (1,a), (2,a), (3,b) }

5. X = { 1, 2, 3 } and Y = { a, b, c }

R = { (1,c), (2,a), (3,b) }

31
3.2 Inverse of a Function
Inverse and Composition of
Functions
Composition of a Function

I NTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILO S )

Example 3.2
1. Determine the inverse, and composition of a
function. 1.

2.

32
3.

4. f = { (1,a), (2,c), (3,b) } and g = { (a,z), (c,y), (b,x) }

Find g o f.

33
C HAPTER 5

Number
Theory

1. Divisibility
2. Congruence Modulo
3. Division and Euclidean Algorithm
4. Solving Linear Congruences
5. Number Systems
5.1 Divisibility
Divisibility and • If a and b are integers with a ≠ 0 , we say that a divides b if

Congruence Modulo
b
there is an integer c such that b=ac, or equivalently, if a is
ab
an integer. The notation denotes that a divides b.

Congruence Modulo
• If a and b are integers and m is a positive integer, then a is
I NTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILO S ) congruent to b modulo m if m divides a-b.

1. Explain the definition of divisibility and

! !
a ≡ b(mod m)
congruence modulo.
Theorems

1. a ± ccb ± d(mod m)
2. ac ≡ bd(mod m)
Number Theory
3. a k ≡ b k (mod m), ∀k ∈N
- study of the set of integers and their properties.

35
Example 5.1 Given a ≡ 4(mod m) and b ≡ 5(mod m), find the valueof c
with a < c < 9 such that :
1. 15 ≡ 6(mod 9)
1.c ≡ 4a(mod 9) ! ! ! ! !
2.c ≡ 3b(mod 9)

2. − 47 ≡ 17(mod8)

3. Given 15 ≡ 6(mod 9) and 13 ≡ −15(mod 9)

3.c ≡ 6a − 5b(mod 9) ! ! ! ! 4.c ≡ a 2 + b 2 (mod 9)

36
5.2 Euclidean Algorithm
Division and Euclidean
Algorithm
Example 5.2

1. What are the quotient and remainder when 101 is divided

by 11?

I NTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILO S )

1. Apply the division and Euclidean algorithms.

Division Algorithm 2. What are the quotient and remainder when -11 is divided
by 3?
• In the equality given in the division algorithm, d is
called the divisor, a is called the dividend, q is called
the quotient, and r is called the remainder.

q = a div d, r ≡ a mod d

37
 Assessment Tasks (ATs)

3. Find the greatest common divisor of 414 and 662 using 1. Suppose a ≡ 7(mod13) and b ≡ 6(mod13), find c with 0 ≤ c < 13such that
Euclidean algorithm. a)c ≡ a 3 + b3 (mod13)
b)c ≡ 2a 2 b + 3ab 2 (mod13)

2. Use Euclidean algorithm to find:

a) gcd(123,277)

b) gcd(100,101)

c) gcd( 111,201)

4. Express gcd(252, 198) = 18 s a linear combination of 252

and 198.

38
5.3 Solving Linear Congruence
Solving Linear Congruence The solution to ay ≡ b(mod m) ax ≡ b(mod m)is solvableif d b where d = gcd(a, m)

Consequently, if d = 1 then ax ≡ b(mod m)is always solvable.

Example 5.3

1.3x ≡ 4(mod 5)
I NTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILO S )

1. Solve problems involving linear congruences.

2. 2x ≡ 5(mod 4)

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3. 5x ≡ 3(mod8)

40
5.4 Number System
Number System Binary Expansion

• Choosing 2 as the base and each digit is either a 0 or a 1.

Octal and Hexadecimal Expansions

• Base 8 and 16 expansions.

Example 5.4
I NTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILO S )
1.
1. Represent integers in different number
systems.

2.

41
 6.

3.

4.

5.

42
C HAPTER 6

Combinatorics

1. Fundamental Counting Principle

2. Permutation
3. Combination
6.1 Fundamental Counting Principle
Fundamental Counting • 1st Activity = n1 ways

Principle 2nd Activity = n2 ways

1st2nd Activity = n1 n2 ways

Example 6.1

1. How many plate numbers are available if it consists of 3 let-

I NTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILO S ) ters and 4 numbers?

1. Explain combinatorics and fundamental

principle of counting. 2. How many can you arrange 5 people in a row if

a) there are no restrictions?

b) two want to sit next to each other?

c) two refuse to sit next to each other?

Combinatorics
- arranging, ordering, enumerating, counting, optimizing,
and partitioning of FINITE objects. Factorial Notation
n! = n (n-1)(n-2)... (3)(2)(1)

Illustration:

3! =

6! =

0! =
44
! ! ! ! !

! ! ! !

45
6.2 Kinds of Permutation

Permutation 1. Taken all at a time (nPr), where n = r.

2. Taken r at a time (nPr).

3. Similar Things

4. Circular Permutation: n-1Pn-1 = (n - 1)!

Example 6.2
I NTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILO S )
1. 6 people in a circle
1. Analyze and evaluate problem solving in
permutation.

2. Permute the word COMMITTEE.

Permutation
• Arrangement of objects with regard to other.
3. Ms. CEA, 1st and 2nd runner-up from 8 finalists.
n!
P =
(n − r)!
n r
! !

46
4. 6 ganes played win-loss standing of 6. President, Vice-President, Treasurer, Secretary, in a class
of 10 students?
a) 4 - 2

7. 6 people in a circle, 2 refuse..

b) 3 - 3

c) 6 - 0

5. How many ways can you arrange 4 couples in a row if

a) there are no restrtictions?

b) men and women alternate?

c) couples sit together?

d) men and women sit together

47
6.3 Example 6.3

Combination 1. How many 4-man officers can be chosen from 10 students?

2. How mnay 4-man committee can be formed from 4 fresh-

men, 3 sophomores, 2 juniors and 2 seniors if

I NTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILO S ) a) no restriction

1. Analyze and evaluate problem solving in b) 2 freshmen, 2 juniors

combination. c) 1 sophomore, 1 senior, and 2 freshmen

d) no freshmen

e) one of each kind

3. How many chords can be made from 10 points in a circle?

How about triangles?
Combination
• Arrangement without regard to order.

n!
n Cr =
! !
(n − r)!r!

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