CE3115

Geotechnical Engineering
Prof C F Leung
Ph D, C. Eng., PE (Geo)
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
National University of Singapore
e-mail: ceelcf@nus.edu.sg
Office: E1A-05-7
 Learning objectives
To equip students with fundamental knowledge of analysis and design
of slope and earth retaining structures through the following:
(1) Apply knowledge and critical thinking of mathematics, science and
engineering to slope and retaining wall problems
(2) Able to analyse and design of slopes and retaining walls in the
capacity of general civil engineer
(3) Use the technique, skills and modern engineering tools for
geotechnical engineering practice
(4) Communicate effectively through the tutorials and mini design
group project on slope
(5) Recognise the need for, and have the ability to engage in lifelong
learning for new types of retaining structures and new method for
slope stability analysis
 Topics
• Slope stability by Prof C F Leung (Week
1 to Week 6 first lecture)
– One mini-group project on slope stability
– One assignment
– No quiz

• Retaining structures by Dr T Ku (Week 6

second lecture plus all lectures from Week
8)
 My teaching philosophy
• Stress on importance of understanding the concept
rather than blindly getting the solutions (hence no
model answers are given)
• Important to know ‘why’ rather than ‘how’
• No heavy course work to give you time to think and
train you to see through things (this is especially
important for geotechnical engineering)
• Hope to facilitate you to learn independently and
be interested (or even passionate) in geotechnical
engineering by yourself (very important when you
are working)
 How do you help yourself
• Do NOT accept course materials blindly. Ask yourself
questions.
– This is especially important in the present computer aided/automated
learning environment! Ask yourself are the computer outputs
reasonable.
– Getting the right concept is far more important than getting the right
answers. You will keep the knowledge if you know the concept; but
you will soon forget if you study blindly even if you had scored an A.
– Do not hesitate to ask/discuss with your mates, the tutors and the
lecturers on the subject matter. No question is stupid.
– Making mistakes is OK. You often learn more after making a mistake.
Repeating the same mistakes is less forgiving!
– Be a thinker, not only a doer! You need to see through things
especially geotechnical engineering concerns underground!
– Always think positively! There are a lot of joys in learning!
– Be passionate. If not passionate, learn (or try) to be passionate and
have fun. You would not learn if you are NOT interested!
 If you need help
As early as possible
• Discuss among yourself
• Consult tutors
• Consult lecturers
Sample student assignment submissions will be
posted.
No past year exam solutions will be given but you
are welcome to consult lecturers after trying!
 Textbooks for reference
• J A Knappett and R F Craig. Craig’s Soil Mechanics, 8th
Edition, Spon Press, London, 2012.
• Ian Smith, Smith's Elements of Soil Mechanics, John
Wiley & Sons, 2013.
• Any other Soil Mechanics or Geotechnical Engineering
text adopting EuroCode.
• E N Bromhead. The stability of slopes, 2nd Edition,
Blackie Acad & Prof., 1992.
• R Chowdhury, P Flentje and G Bhattacharya.
Geotechnical Slope Analysis, CRC Press, 2010. (e-book
available in NUS Library)
 1. CE2112

Revision of topics that are useful

to CE3115
[Some symbols may have changed due to
adoption of EuroCode]
 1.1 Geology of Singapore

2 2
4

3 5

Geologic age from old to young, 5 formations:

1. Sajahat Formation of metamorphic quartz sandstone and mudstone
2. Bukit Timah granite & Gombak norite [G]
3. Jurong Formation of sedimentary rocks [S]
4. Old Alluvium (cemented soil or semi-rock) [OA]
5. Kallang Formation [marine clay]
 Geology of Singapore
• Bukit Timah granite formation [North and centre of
Singapore island]
– Residual soil of granite overlying fresh granite
• Jurong formation (sedimentary) [West and south]
– Residual soil of sedimentary origin overlying great depths of
weak sedimentary rocks
• Kallang formation [South and along rivers]
– Soft marine deposit (transported soils)
• Old alluvium OA [East]
– Old deposits with layered clay and cemented sands
• Fault lines, bouldery clay, limestone with cavities
1.2 Soil index properties and
classification
(A) Phase Relationship

Soil consists of 3 phases: solid, water and air

• Moisture content (m) = MW/Ms
• Degree of saturation (Sr) = Vw/Vv
[Dry soil Sr = 0 and Saturated soil Sr = 1]
• Void ratio (e) = Vv/Vs
• Porosity (n) = Vv/V
Thus e = n/(1-n), and
n = e/(1+e)
• Sr e = m Gs
• Specific gravity (Gs) = Ms/(Vs w ) = s/ w
Typical value Gs = 2.65 for clay and 2.7 for sand
• Unit weight () = W/V = Mg/V
= (Gs + Sre) w/(1 + e)
Example on phase relationship from Craig

[Note: You need NOT remember the equations by heart. Using the definition,
you can always derive the formulations using phase relationship diagrams.]
Example on phase relationship (cont.)
 (B) Particle Size Distribution
Apparatus

< Fine grain soils Coarse grained soils >

Sieve analysis for coarse grain soil
Gravel and boulder > 2 mm
Sand particles between 0.2 mm to 2 mm

Hydrometer test for fine grain materials

Silt between 0.02 mm to 0.2 mm
Clay smaller than 0.02 mm
(C) Plasticity of fine grain soils

The upper and lower limits of the range of

water content over which a soil exhibits
plastic behaviour are defined as the
liquid limit (LL) and the plastic limit (PL),
respectively.
[Methods of determination: BS1377:
1990 (Part 2)]
Plasticity index PI = LL - PL
 1.3 Effective stress principle
• Total vertical stress (v) at a given elevation is
the intensity of loading due to the total weight of
all the materials above the elevation
= Σ (Hi i)
where Hi is the thickness of soil layer i
and i is the unit weight of soil layer i
• Pore water pressure u = HW W
where HW is the height of water table above the given
elevation & W is unit weight of water.
• Effective vertical stress (’v)
= total vertical stress - pore water pressure

Effective stress principle:

• All measurable effects of a change of
stress such as compression, distortion and
a change of shearing resistance are
exclusively due to changes in the effective
stresses.
 Example on effective stress

Ground level For the soil at 7 m below ground

level:
Upper soil 2m v = 16 x 4 + 3 x 17
1 = 16 kN/m3 Water table = 115 kPa
2m u = 5 x 9.81 = 49.05 kPa
’v = 115 - 49.5
Lower soil 3m = 65.95 kPa
2 = 17 kN/m3
If there is a surcharge q = 10 kPa
(this is nominal traffic loading)
w = 9.81 kN/m3 at the ground level,
’v = 65.95 + 10 = 75.95 kPa
 Question
• For a given soil at 4 m below seabed
– With sea water at 10 m deep
– With sea water at 100 m deep
The soil effective stress is the same for both
cases? Why?
Exercise
If the soil below the seabed has a unit weight of 20
kN/m3, what is the effective stress at 4 m below
the seabed?
 1.4 Shear strength
• Total stress situation (short term condition
i.e. end of construction period and pore
pressure has no time to dissipate yet)
– Undrained friction angle (u)
– Undrained cohesion (cu)
• Effective stress situation (long term
condition) [’ =  - u]
– Drained friction angle (’)
– Drained cohesion (c’)
 Triaxial compression test
BS1377:1990
• Unconsolidated undrained triaxial test
(UU)
A 38 mm diameter 76 mm high sample taken
from the sampling tube obtained from site
investigation is tested in a triaxial cell (see next
slide for figure) to failure in less than 15 minutes.
Such quick test does not have time for the pore
pressure to dissipate and therefore undrained
shear strength is obtained from this series of
tests.
Triaxial compression test
Measurements:
(1) Axial load on
sample [stress is equal
to load/cross-sectional
area]
(2) Vertical
deformation of sample
Notes:
(a) Volume
of sample is
unchanged as
water has no
time to be
squeezed out.
(b) Sample cross-
sectional area becomes
larger as the sample is
compressed vertically.
 3 is the minor principal stress, and
1 is the major principal stress

3 1 - 3 1

Same
3 Vertical
Combined 3
all + =
round loading
pressure pressure

Before Loading Final

test stress

Stress diagrams
 Example on triaxial test
• The following results were obtained from a
series of UU tests:
Cell pressure (kPa) Additional axial
load at failure (N)
200 291
400 331
600 396
Each sample, originally 70 mm long and 35 mm in
diameter, experienced a vertical deformation of 5.1
mm. Draw the strength envelope and determine the
shear strength of the soil in terms of total stresses.
Solution:
Volume of sample (unchanged during test)
=(/4)(352)(70) = 67348 mm3
Cross-sectional area at failure (increases with
reducing sample height)
= 67348/(70-5.1) = 1036 mm2
 Cell pressure Deviator stress Major
3 (kPa) 1 - 3 (kPa) principal stress
1 (kPa)
6
200 0.291x10 /1036 481
= 281
6
400 0.331x10 /1036 719
= 319
6
600 0.396x10 /1036 982
= 382
[Note: cross-sectional area of the 3 samples at failure may not
necessary be the same.]
Shear stress

3 1
Normal stress
Results: u = 7o
cu = 100 kPa
This is stiff clay
Mohr-Coulomb Equation  = cu +  tan u
in terms of total stress (short term)
Saturated clay u = 0

You did this experiment in CE2112!

 Drained triaxial compression test
Drained shear strength ’, c’ (in terms of
effective stresses) can be obtained from
(a) consolidated drained triaxial tests with a very
slow rate such that pore pressure has time to
completely dissipate (i.e. sample always under
effective stress ’)
(b) consolidation undrained triaxial tests with pore
pressure measurement (’ =  - u)
Mohr-Coulomb Equation  = c’ + ( - u) tan ’
in terms of effective stress (long term)
 1.5 Seepage
• Water flow from high pressure zone to low
pressure zone following Darcy’s Law
• Discharge velocity V = q/A = ki
where q = volume of water flowing per unit time,
A = cross-sectional area of soil corresponding to
the flow q,
k = coefficient of permeability,
i = hydraulic gradient
 Flow net
• Quantity of seepage flow from flow net
q = khNf/Nd
See next page for definition and example.

Major characteristics of flow net, flow line

and equi-potential lines.
Example of application: estimation of water
seepage into an excavation site (e.g. cut
and cover excavation across river)
Example on seepage from Craig
 1.6 Consolidation of soil
Under load (e.g. soil underneath a newly built
embankment), soil experiences built up of excess
pore pressure (higher than the static water pressure).

The soil is deemed to consolidate as the positive

excess pore pressure dissipates with time (i.e. water
is squeezed out of the soil) resulting in consolidation
settlement of soil. Primary consolidation is deemed
to complete when pore pressure reaches the static
water pressure.
Consolidation theory only applies to fully saturated soil (i.e. the
soil has no air voids). It is assumed that the solids are incompressible
and only water is squeezed out during consolidation.
 Two important issues
• Ultimate (final) consolidation settlement

• Rate of settlement (how long does it take

to reach the final settlement)
– Owing to large particle size, sand has a high
coefficient of permeability and the settlement
under loading will take place ‘immediately’
and does not experience long term
consolidation settlement
 Consolidation status of clay
• A clay is still under-consolidating if it has not completed its primary
consolidation (Example: reclaimed land with very thick marine clay. The
Nicoll Highway collapse is at a location of very thick marine clay that was
reclaimed 50 years ago but the 40-m thick soft marine clay is still
consolidating).

• A normally consolidated (NC) clay has completed its primary consolidation

and its current overburden stress is the highest. This type of clay is
generally soft in nature (example Singapore marine clay that has completed
consolidation). For a NC clay, effective cohesion c’ = 0.

• A over-consolidation (OC) clay has completed its consolidation and the

overburden stress in the past is higher than the present one (for example,
the Kent Ridge was much taller thousands of years back and is currently not
as high due to soil erosion and weathering). This clay is generally stiffer as
it has been subjected to a higher stress before.
 Summary
Long term (drained)
= effective stress
(total stress – pore
Immediate upon Time
pressure)
loading/unloading
= soil settlement
= no volume
Consolidation – Under completed under
change
loading, soil would settle loading
= undrained (total
due to dissipation of OR
stress, short term)
excess positive excess soil swelling completed
pore water pressure under unloading
OR
Swelling – Under
unloading, soil would
swell due to dissipation The time required
of negative excess pore depends on the
water pressure permeability of the
soil: sand very fast,
clay much slower
2. Slope failures

2.1 Minor slope failures

NUS slope failure
Slope failure behind a house in Singapore
Failed slope covered up to prevent rainwater
seeping into soil and further damage
Ulu Pandan Canal

Canal bank
failure.
Sand bags
used to
stabilize
slope
temporarily.
Slope failures in Singapore parks

Courtesy Prof David Toll

Slope failures besides roads

Courtesy Prof David Toll

Jurong Sewerage Plant
Slope failed &
house had
Moved down

Shotcrete Drainage channels

protection on slope
on slope
(construction of
Tanjong Pagar Contiguous bored pile
MRT station) wall to stabilise slope
(Kent Ridge Crescent)
Cut back
of slope
Crest Piles
(Clementi
Road outside
SDE)
The following slides are provided
by A/Prof Harry Tan
Examples of Slope Failures
• SICC - Shallow Slip
Cover to prevent infiltration
Why failure occurs at low height and not the
larger height of cut slope?
Failure in Kranji RC
look at soil types
Kranji Effluent Pond
Erosion Gullies
Erosion Gullies
Slip at Stables Area
Slip due to under-seepage
Exposed irrigation pipe
Erosion slip behind cascade drain
Pulau Tekong Knolls
Pulau Tekong Knoll D11
Deep seated failure
Tension scarp at crest level
 Hong Kong

With increasing rainfall intensity (climate change), massive hill slope failure
coupled with soil debris flow are not uncommon in many parts of the world.
Ground Engineering Magazine, UK, Aug 2012
Maintenance of slopes and retaining walls is always an issue.
Drainage path and weep holes can be blocked! There was a car
with the driver inside buried under the rubbles.
2.2 Major slope failures
Massive landslide in Malaysia Aug 2011
Debris flow in Sir Lanka
Massive landslide, mud and debris
flow in Europe
From other angles
Mud flow from hill behind houses down to the sea
Before landslide After landslide
2.3 Slope failure disasters
 Malaysia Highland Tower Collapse due to slope failure Dec 1993
(Photos from Internet)

collapsing
Before collapse

Collapsed
Photo from Internet
1972 Po Shan Road Landslide (Hong Kong)

(Failure Volume = 20,000 m3 ;

67 fatalities)
Before

After

Courtesy of Hong Kong Geotechnical Engineering Office (for educational purpose)

Before 1972 Sau Mau Ping
Landslide (Hong Kong)

After

(Failure Volume = 6,000 m3 ;

71 fatalities)

Courtesy of HKGEO (for educational purpose)

1976 Sau Mau Ping Landslide
1976
landslide site
(Failure Volume = 5,000 m3 ;
18 fatalities)

1972
landslide site

HK Geotechnical Control Office (now HKGEO)

was hence set up in 1977

Courtesy of HKGEO (for educational purpose)

On average 300 reported landslides each year in Hong Kong

Courtesy of HKGEO (for educational purpose)

Serious debris flow in China (after Cui, 2012)
(after Cui, 2012)
(after Cui, 2012)
Slope failure and debris flow in Hiroshima, Japan
Photo from Singapore Chinese Newspaper
Mudslide in South California USA (photo from Strait Times 11 Jan 2018)
Hurricane Katrina USA Aug 2005

From Wikipedia
 From Wikipedia

The levee (river bank slopes) broke at several places during the hurricane
From
Wikipedia
From Wikipedia
 Xiaolin Village South Taiwan
8 Aug 2009

Debris flow due to typhoon prior to bury the village (photo from Internet)
Over 500 villagers are
still buried today!
(taken from Internet)
2.4 Manmade slope failures

Collapse of building due to

manmade slope failure
Shanghai building collapse June
2009
Piles suffered shear failure due to lateral soil movement
in Shanghai, China
Many buildings collapsed due to
nearby dumping ground slope
failure
Shenzhen, China, Dec 2015
November 2013: a quarry occupied the area of the site

Source:
(http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/12/21/world/asia/shenzh
en-landslide-maps-photos.html)
 Loosely fills
placed without
planning are
dangerous

November 2014: A man-made hill grew as dump trucks pile dirt

and construction debris on the former quarry
Source:
(http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/12/21/world/asia/shenzh
en-landslide-maps-photos.html)
 December 2015
After nearly two years, the debris gave way, destroying several
buildings as it slid down the mountain.

Source: (http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/12/21/world/asia/shenzhen-
landslide-maps-photos.html)
 Aerial view of the landslide in Liuxi industrial park.
Photograph: ChinaFotoPress via Getty Images
(source: http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/dec/21/china-landslide-dozens-missing-
shenzhen-construction-waste-collapses)
 Firefighters searched for survivors amid the debris of
destroyed buildings.
Credit China Stringer Network/Reuters
(source:
http://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/17/world/asia/shenzhen-
landslide-china.html?_r=0)