Investigation of the Use of Lightweight Aggregate Hot-Mixed

Asphalt in Flexible Pavements in Frost Susceptible Areas

Ashfaq Khan, Ph.D.1; and Donath Mrawira, P.E.2

Abstract: Frost related damage in pavements is a major concern for highway engineers in cold regions. The existing methods for
mitigating frost damage in flexible pavements are expensive; they require greater construction control and are not fully effective. This
paper investigates an alternative approach for reducing frost penetration into the pavement layers by engineering a less conductive asphalt
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surface layer. It proposes a less conductive pavement by replacing conventional aggregate in the asphalt mix with lightweight aggregate
共LWA兲. The paper discusses, in the context of the larger research program, the development of an optimized design of LWA-asphalt mix.
It is has been demonstrated in work published elsewhere that because of its superior insulating behavior, LWA-asphalt mix can reduce
frost penetration into the underlying pavement layers. Thus maintenance cost associated with frost damage can be reduced. This paper
presents the physical properties of LWA, the lessons learned from the mix design process, as well as the preliminary thermal and
mechanical properties of the optimized LWA-asphalt mix.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲0899-1561共2010兲22:2共171兲

CE Database subject headings: Aggregate; Asphalt; Mixtures; Flexible pavements; Damage; Thermal factors.
Author keywords: Lightweight aggregate; Asphalt mix; Flexible pavements; Frost damage; Thermal properties.

Background The various methods commonly used to mitigate frost action

Frost action is a phenomenon that occurs in winter and early
spring in northern regions. Pavements in these regions are subject
to freezing in winter and thawing in spring. Frost action can be
quite detrimental to pavements and refers to two separate but
related phases: freezing of the soil water and thawing of the soil
water. Frost action becomes critical in pavements when either the
freezing phase is accompanied by noticeable heaving of the road
surface, or the thawing phase is accompanied by a noticeable
softening of the roadbed.
The direct and indirect economic costs associated with frost
damage are enormous. Direct costs are related to need of mainte-
nance and/or reconstruction to repair frost damaged pavements.
Indirect costs include user costs and those related to the decline in
transportation productivity during the period when spring load
restrictions are enforced. A variety of approaches has been used to
prevent or minimize frost damage in flexible pavements. These
include stopping the supply of water into the pavement layers,
removal of frost susceptible subgrade, design of pavement struc-
ture based on reduced subgrade support, and using insulation
layer between the pavement and subgrade.
1 of LWA can be as large as twice the volume of the same weight of
Construction Engineer, Alberta Transportation, Room 223, Provin-
cial Building, 4709-44 Ave., Stony Plain, Alberta, Canada T7Z 1N4.
E-mail: ashfaq.khan@gov.ab.ca
2
Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of New Brun-
swick, P.O. Box 4400, Fredericton, NB, Canada E3B5A3 共corresponding
author兲. E-mail: donath@unb.ca
Note. This manuscript was submitted on February 20, 2008; approved
on October 5, 2009; published online on January 15, 2010. Discussion
period open until July 1, 2010; separate discussions must be submitted for
individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, Vol. 22, No. 2, February 1, 2010. ©ASCE, ISSN 0899-
1561/2010/2-171–178/$25.00.
in flexible pavements focus on remedial actions applied to sub-
grade and in some cases fine-grained subbase and base layers.
The approach proposed in this paper is to evaluate the use of
LWA in asphalt mix and determine optimum conditions for its
application in frost-resistant pavements. In one experimental
study conducted by Goodrich and White 共1987兲 on clay and shale
based lightweight aggregate 共LWA兲, the thermal conductivity of
such aggregates was found to be in the range of 0.11 to
0.17 W m K. The research hypothesis is that because of its lower
thermal conductivity, LWA can produce less conductive asphalt
pavement layers that will reduce or eliminate frost penetration
into the subgrade.
LWA is readily available throughout the United States,
Canada, and many other parts of the world. It is produced by
heating particles of shale, clay or slate in a rotary kiln at a tem-
perature of more than 1,000° C. Gases given off during the heat-
ing process cause bloating or expansion of the material resulting
in reduced bulk density of the particles. The high temperature
converts the material to ceramic-like particles containing numer-
ous nonconnected voids. After leaving the kiln, the material is
cooled and processed to precise gradations. LWA is inert, struc-
turally stable and highly insulative 共Gallaway 1997兲. The volume
conventional aggregate.
LWA has been used extensively in concrete bridge decks, high-
rise buildings, concrete masonry, and geotechnical applications.
The use of LWA in pavements has generally been in limited scale
with applications such as chip seals and other surface treatments
for pothole patching and slurry seals 共Gallaway 1997兲. LWA binds
better to asphalt because of its rough surface texture with a po-
tential to extend the pavement service life. Yet, routine use of
LWA in hot-mixed asphalts for extensive applications in road con-
struction has not been investigated.

JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / FEBRUARY 2010 / 171

J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2010.22:171-178.

 100
90
Blending Sand
80
70
% passing
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.075 0.15 0.3 0.6 1.18 2.36 4.75 6.3 9.5
Sieve Size (mm) to power 0.45
Fig. 1. Gradation curves of aggregates used to achieve an optimized
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LWA-asphalt mix
Objective
This paper is part of a larger study that investigates an alternative
approach for mitigating frost damage by engineering a less con-
ductive pavement structure. The benefits and effectiveness of
using LWA asphalt and LWA aggregates in other pavement layers
were demonstrated in the context study and published in recent
paper by the writers Khan et al. 共2008兲. Also, the larger study
dealt with the determination and measurement of thermal proper-
ties of LWA-asphalt mixes; this work has been published in a
recent article 共Khan and Mrawira 2008兲. This paper focuses on
the mix design for LWA-asphalt mix and initial characterization
of such a mix for possible use in flexible pavements in frost
susceptible areas. The scope of this laboratory study is the physi-
cal characterization of LWA, development of the optimum
LWA-asphalt mix design and the mechanical and thermal charac-
terization of the resulting LWA-asphalt mix. The structural per-
formance of a hypothetical LWA pavement section is evaluated
using the Asphalt Institute mechanistic-empirical relationships.
Material Characterization
Materials used for this study consist of expanded shale LWA ob-
tained from Northeast SOLITE Corporation; blending sand from
Colter pit 共natural deposit兲, New Brunswick; and asphalt binder
from Irving Oil Limited. The asphalt binder is a straight-run PG
58-28 in the Superpave binder grading system. The LWA was
crushed to achieve aggregate gradations that satisfy Superpave
mix design criteria. Physical properties of pumice 共another type
of LWA兲 were also studied. Pumice was supplied by Great Pacific
Pumice Inc. Fig. 1 shows the gradation curves of the four light-
weight aggregates, pumice, and the blending sand that were in-
vestigated in this study.
Before undertaking the mix design, the physical properties of
LWA were evaluated to determine if in fact, LWA can be used in
flexible pavements. This phase consisted of testing two types of
LWA: pumice and expanded shale. Physical properties of the ag-
gregates have significant effects on the performance of pavement.
The criteria used in this study are the New Brunswick Department
of Transportation 共NBDOT兲 standard specifications. The follow-
ing tests were performed: particle gradation analysis, determina-
tion of bulk density, specific gravity, absorption test, freeze-thaw
durability test, flat and elongated particles test, and microdeval
abrasion test.
Gradation analysis was performed for each type of aggregate
172 / JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / FEBRUARY 2010
Pumice
Aggregate A
Aggregate B
Aggregate C
Aggregate D
12.5 19.0
Fig. 2. Severe stripping of a trial asphalt mix containing pumice
according to the ASTM C136 test method. Test results for pumice
were not encouraging. gradation analysis 共Fig. 1兲 for pumice
showed that the material has a high dust content of 22.5%. Mi-
crodeval abrasion test resulted in a 40% loss in mass, which ex-
ceed the maximum allowable limit of 16% according to the
NBDOT standard specifications. A trial mix containing pumice
and 15% asphalt binder exhibited severe stripping problem
共Fig. 2兲. From these results it was decided to stop any further
investigation of pumice as a paving material. Consequently, the
remainder of this paper deals with the expanded shale LWA. For
simplicity, only the term LWA will be used in this paper instead of
expanded shale LWA.
Depending on where it is manufactured, the bulk density of
LWA is roughly about half the bulk density of a conventional
aggregate ranging from 480 to 1,000 kg/ m3 共Gallaway 1997兲. In
this study, bulk densities of the LWA and a conventional aggre-
gate were determined according to ASTM C29 and were found
to be 820 and 1,754 kg/ m3, respectively. It is worth noting that
the conventional aggregate used for comparison in this study is
from Springhill Construction Ltd. quarry in Fredericton, New
Brunswick.
Specific gravity of an aggregate is useful in making weight-
volume conversions and in calculating voids in mineral aggregate
共VMA兲 in the compacted asphalt mix. Specific gravity and ab-
sorption of the coarse fraction 共12.5–4.75 mm兲 and fine fraction
共passing 4.75 mm兲 of LWA were determined according to ASTM
C127 and ASTM C128, respectively. The two standards specify
soaking the aggregates for 24 h. However, given the higher pro-
portion of interconnected pores in LWA, these specifications may
not be appropriate for LWA. It was therefore proposed to soak the
LWA in water for 72 h so as to ensure saturation of all the open
pores. Test results for both coarse and fine aggregate are tabulated
in Table 1. As seen from the table, the specific gravity of the LWA
fine fraction is 11.7%; more than a percent higher compared to the
LWA coarse fraction. Also, as expected given the higher porosity,
the absorption values for LWA are 6 to 10 times higher than those
for conventional aggregates.
The freeze-thaw durability test was performed according to the
Ministry of Transportation Ontario 共MTO兲 test procedure MTO
LS-614. The test determines the resistance of coarse aggregate
共retained on the 4.75-mm sieve兲 to disintegration by repeated
freezing and thawing in a sodium chloride solution. The test pro-
vides a laboratory assessment of the soundness of LWA subject to
freezing and thawing action. The durability test results are pre-
sented in Table 1. LWA showed only 2% mass loss; this is well
below the NBDOT maximum allowable limit of 14%. The results
show that LWA is extremely resistant to freezing and thawing
action.
J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2010.22:171-178.
 Table 1. Physical Tests Results of LWA
Conventional NBDOT
Physical property LWA aggregate specification
Gb of coarse fraction 1.45 2.73 —
Gb of fine fraction 1.66 2.66 —
Absorption of coarse fraction 共%兲 10.28 0.66 1.75
Absorption of fine fraction 共%兲 11.68 1.68 —
Freeze-thaw durability 2.1 8.6 14
共maximum percent loss兲
Flat and elongated particles 0.5 10.1 20
共maximum percent at 4:1兲
Microdeval abrasion 21 16.5 16
共maximum percent loss兲
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Loose bulk density 共kg/ m3兲 820 1750 — graded 12.5 mm maximum size with only about 34% retained on
Note: Gb = bulk specific gravity; — = not specified.
The flat and elongated particles test was performed according
to MTO LS-608 standard test method. The test determines the
percentage of flat and elongated particles in coarse aggregate
共12.5–4.75 mm兲 by measurement of individual particles. Flat and
elongated pieces are defined as those whose greatest dimension in
the longitudinal axis exceeds the ratio of 4:1 compared to the least
dimension in a plane perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. Ex-
cessive proportions of flat and elongated particles may cause
compaction problems and reduce the overall performance of the
pavement. As seen in Table 1, LWA tested had only 0.5% of flat
and elongated particles by weight. The maximum allowable limit
set by NBDOT is 20%.
The microdeval abrasion test determines the abrasion loss of
aggregate in the presence of water and an abrasive charge
共9.5⫾ 0.5 mm steel balls兲. The test was performed according to
Test Method LS-618 developed by MTO. The LWA tested
showed a 21% loss 共Table 1兲 in mass; which is slightly higher
than the allowable limit of 16% specified by NBDOT for the
wearing course of flexible pavements. However, as noted before,
the LWA showed superior freeze-thaw resistance in addition to its
better insulative property. It is therefore expected that LWA-
asphalt mix will provide acceptable durability despite the low
abrasion resistance. Also, given the surface of LWA is vesicular
and more textured than conventional aggregate, higher frictional
resistance is expected from LWA asphalt surface mix. The litera-
ture shows that in a ranking of polished stone values 共PSVs兲 of
over 60 different aggregate samples from lowest value to the
highest, the LWA ranked at top with the PSV of 51 共Gallaway
1997兲.
Design of Lightweight Aggregate-Asphalt Mix
Design Considerations and Aggregate Gradation
Generally speaking, mix design is a laboratory simulation that
aims to approximate the actual hot-mix asphalt 共HMA兲 plant pro-
duction, placement, and in-service performance as close as pos-
sible. The laboratory mix design allows an engineer to predict
the type of mix design that is best for a particular application
and how it will perform. In this paper, the mix design goal was
to identify an optimized LWA-asphalt mix that can meet techni-
cal requirements for paving material with respect to NBDOT or
Superpave mix design standards. We followed common labora-
tory procedures of developing the job mix formula to ensure
that the optimized mix can be produced in the conventional as-
JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / FEBRUARY 2010 / 173
J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2010.22:171-178.
phalt plant. Subsequently, we present the three steps of the mix
design process—the aggregate selection, binder selection, and
identification of the optimum binder content according to
NBDOT specifications.
Fig. 1 shows the gradations of the four lightweight aggregates
after size reduction crushing and the blending sand. As seen on
the figure, Aggregate A is well graded with a maximum size of 19
mm and about 65% retained on the 4.75-mm sieve. Aggregate B
is a dense graded 12.5 mm maximum size with about 42% re-
tained on the 4.75-mm sieve. Aggregate C is almost a single size
with over 94% of the material in the range 12.5–4.75 mm and
79% retained on the 6.3-mm sieve. Aggregate D was obtained by
size reduction crushing of Aggregate C and it consists of fine
the 4.75-mm sieve.
In order to select the optimum working aggregate skeleton that
can be produced in the asphalt mix plant, the four aggregate gra-
dations were combined in the trial and error method 共mathemati-
cally兲 to meet Superpave specifications. The common practice in
mix design is to evaluate several aggregate blends of the available
aggregates before selecting the best blend for mix design. Typi-
cally the evaluation proceeds by preparing a compacted HMA
briquette of each aggregate blend at an estimated optimum binder
content and determining the volumetric properties—air voids,
VMA, and voids filled with asphalt 共VFA兲. The trial blend is also
evaluated to meet the Superpave compaction requirements. The
compaction requirements are specified in terms of VMA, VFA,
and maximum theoretical specific gravity at three numbers of
gyrations: initial number of gyrations 共Nini兲, design number of
gyrations 共Ndes兲, and maximum number of gyrations 共Nmax兲. For a
design traffic load of 3 to 30 million equivalent single axle loads
共ESALs兲, NBDOT specifies Nini, Ndes, and Nmax of 8, 100, and
160, respectively.
Table 2 summarizes the evaluation of aggregate trial blends
undertaken in this study. As seen on the table, eight blends were
first tried using Aggregates A and B and varying proportions of
blending sand. The goal was to achieve an asphalt mix with
12.5 mm nominal maximum size. None of them met the mix
design requirements—especially the air voids requirement. Next,
two blends were tried using only Aggregate B with blending sand.
Again, these blends did not meet the requirements. Finally, the
trial blends using Aggregates C and D were evaluated. The focus
here was changed to evaluate surface mixes with 9.5 mm nominal
maximum size. As seen on the table, Trial Blends #11 and #12
were very close to meeting the volumetric requirements. By
reducing the proportion of blending sand, the Trial Blend #13
was successful in meeting the design requirements. This trial
blend was selected as the design aggregate skeleton to be evalu-
ated in the final step of mix design—selection of optimum binder
content. Fig. 3 shows design aggregate gradation that was further
investigated for optimized LWA-asphalt mix.
It is worth noting that the binder used in the evaluation is a
PG58-28, the typical binder specified for medium traffic loading
in New Brunswick. The bulk specific gravity of each compacted
briquette was determined according to ASTM D2726. Theoretical
maximum specific gravity of each uncompacted 共loose兲 asphalt
mix was determined according to ASTM D2041. The bulk spe-
cific gravity value is used not only, as an input in estimating the
percentage air voids, but also in calculating specific heat capacity
of the asphalt specimens when thermal diffusivity and thermal
conductivity are known.
 Table 2. Mix Design Composition and Volumetric Properties of LWA-Asphalt Blends
Aggregate A Aggregate B Aggregate C Aggregate D Sand Asphalt Air voids VMA VFA
Blend # 共%兲 共%兲 共%兲 共%兲 共%兲 共%兲 Gb Gm 共%兲 共%兲 共%兲
1 36.5 52.5 — — 0 11 1.454 1.790 18.80 19.12 1.68
2 36.5 45.3 — — 7.2 11 1.530 1.780 14.00 16.97 17.50
3 19.6 60.5 — — 8.9 11 1.600 1.770 9.60 15.74 38.98
4 23.8 55.4 — — 8.8 12 1.570 1.720 8.70 17.76 51.02
5 23.6 55.1 — — 8.8 12.5 1.623 1.768 8.20 14.24 42.42
6 23.5 54.8 — — 8.7 13 1.640 1.766 7.13 13.79 48.26
7 23.3 54.5 — — 8.7 13.5 1.645 1.765 6.80 14.07 51.69
8 23.2 54.2 — — 8.6 14 1.652 1.762 6.24 14.16 55.90
9 — 80.9 — — 6.1 13 1.636 1.732 5.54 16.28 65.94
10 — 78.3 — — 8.7 13 1.618 1.732 6.58 20.02 67.12
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11 — — 7.8 70.5 8.7 13 1.675 1.733 3.35 14.28 76.56

12 — — 17.4 63.7 6.1 12.8 1.642 1.699 3.36 13.43 75.00
13 — — 14.8 70.1 2.6 12.5 1.586 1.662 4.57 15.23 69.97
Note: Gb = bulk specific gravity; Gm = maximum theoretical specific gravity; VMA= voids in mineral aggregate; and VFA= voids filled with asphalt.

Design Binder Content fication curve, relating the number of gyrations and the average
maximum theoretical specific gravity 共% Gm兲, was plotted as
In the Superpave mix design method, the optimum binder content
shown in Fig. 5.
共% by weight of total mix兲 is normally selected as that binder
The maximum theoretical specific gravity of the mix at Nini,
content that results in 4% air voids at Ndes. This binder content
Ndes, and Nmax was obtained from the densification curve and was
must also meet other requirements including VMA, VFA, and the
used to calculate the air voids 共%兲 at the three gyration levels.
Superpave compaction requirements. The optimum binder content
According to Roberts et al. 共1996兲, the densification behavior of
is identified by evaluating the effect of varying binder content on
an asphalt mix can be used to predict construction behavior of the
the three volumetric properties—air voids, VMA, and VFA of the
mix. It is desirable for example, for the mix to be easy to compact
design aggregate blend. Three HMA briquettes were prepared at
each binder content, at four levels of increasing binder content 共in
steps of 0.5%兲 from below the estimated optimum. The volumet- 6
ric properties of each asphalt mix were determined at Ndes. Fig. 4
% Air Voids

shows the air voids, VMA, and VFA for the mixes. Starting with 4
air voids graph, the binder content that gives 4% air voids is
selected as the optimum binder content. VMA and VFA at the
2
optimum binder content are found from the corresponding graphs.
As seen in Fig. 4, the optimum binder content, the corresponding
0
VMA and VFA are 12.8, 15.18, and 74%, respectively.
11.5 12 12.5 13 13.5 14
% Asphalt Binder
Densification of LWA-Asphalt Mix
16.0
Two Superpave briquettes of the optimized LWA-asphalt mix
were compacted at Nmax and the corresponding height data of the 15.5
% VMA

briquettes for each number of gyrations was recorded. The densi- 15.0

14.5

100
14.0
90
11.5 12 12.5 13 13.5 14
Maximum Density Line % Asphalt Binder
80

70 90
% Passing

60
Upper Limit 80
50
% VFA

Optimized LWA-HMA
40 70
30

20
60
Low er Limit
10
50
0
0.075 0.15 0.3 0.6 1.18 2.36 4.75 6.3 9.5 12.5 11.5 12 12.5 13 13.5 14
Sieve Size (mm) to power 0.45 % Asphalt Binder

Fig. 3. Design aggregate gradation investigated for an optimized Fig. 4. Asphalt content versus air voids, VMA, and VFA of the
LWA-asphalt mix optimized LWA-asphalt mix

174 / JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / FEBRUARY 2010

J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2010.22:171-178.

 100

95
% Gm.

90

85

80
1 10 100
Number of Gyrations (log scale) Fig. 6. Test specimens after undergoing indirect split tensile test

Fig. 5. Densification curve of the optimized LWA-asphalt mix

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mens. One subset was used for freeze-thaw conditioning, one for
moisture conditioning and the last subset was used as the control
and not become gummy during rolling. A Superpave mix should subset.
have air voids of at least 11% at Nini 共i.e., its density must be less The specimens for freeze-thaw subset were first subjected to
than 89% of Gm兲 in order to avoid the characteristics of a tender partial vacuum saturation of 55–80%, then wrapped in plastic
mix. A Superpave mix should also have air voids of at least 2% bags along with 3 mL of water and finally put in a freezer for
共i.e., its density must be less than 98% of Gm兲 at Nmax otherwise 18 h at a temperature of −20° C. The specimens were then placed
the mix would be susceptible to rutting. The optimized LWA- in a hot water bath for 24 h at a temperature of 60° C. Specimens
asphalt mix satisfied all these requirements. Table 3 presents the of the moisture conditioning subset were also subjected to partial
volumetric and mechanical properties of the optimized LWA- vacuum saturation 共55–80%兲 and then kept in a water bath for
asphalt mix. 24 h at a temperature of 60° C. After 24 h, specimens of both the
moisture conditioning subset and freeze-thaw subset were re-
Moisture Sensitivity of the Optimized LWA-Asphalt Mix moved from hot water bath and placed in another water bath at a
temperature of 25° C for 45 min.
As a final step of Superpave mix design method, the moisture The tensile strength of each specimen of all the three subsets
sensitivity of the optimized LWA-asphalt mix was evaluated ac- was determined by conducting indirect tensile strength 共splitting兲
cording to ASTM D4867. A set of nine Marshall Test specimens test at 25° C. Test results are tabulated in Table 4. Moisture sus-
having approximately 102-mm diameter and 64-mm height were ceptibility is reported as the tensile strength ratio 共TSR兲 of the
compacted to an air void content of 6 to 8%. The specimens were moisture conditioned subset or freeze-thaw conditioned subset to
then divided into three subsets, each consisting of three test speci- that of the unconditioned subset 共control兲. Mixtures with a TSR
value of less than 80% are considered moisture susceptible. Av-
erage TSR of the optimized LWA-asphalt mix was found to be
Table 3. Volumetric and Mechanical Properties of the Optimized LWA- 90%. It is therefore concluded that the optimized LWA-asphalt
Asphalt Mix mix is not susceptible to moisture damage. No visual stripping of
Property Result Specification
the test specimens was observed after splitting the specimens
共Fig. 6兲. This indicates that the optimized LWA-asphalt mix has
VMAs 共%兲 15.2 艌15 adequate asphalt film thickness to ensure durability.
VFA 共%兲 74.0 65–77
Air Voids 共%兲 4.0 3–5
Binder Content, Performance, and Cost Comparison
Maximum specific gravity % Gm at Nini 86.1 ⬍89%
of LWA-Asphalt versus Conventional AC
Maximum specific gravity % Gm at Nmax 97.8 ⬍98%
Bulk specific gravity Gb 1.591 — Binder Content and Cost
Maximum specific gravity Gm 1.658 — Binder content in paving contracts is usually specified as a per-
Asphalt absorption 共%兲 6.4 — cent of the total weight of the mix. At 12.8% by weight, the
Film thickness 共␮m兲 8.9 艌8.5 binder content of the optimized LWA-asphalt mix appears to be
Dynamic modulus 共MPa兲 2650 — high compared to a conventional asphalt concrete 共AC兲. However,
Marshall stability 共N兲 19,733 艌8,000 since the bulk density of LWA mix is only about 67% of the bulk
Marshall flow 共0.25 mm兲 15 12–18 density of conventional asphalt mix, a given tonnage of LWA-

Table 4. Moisture Susceptibility Evaluation of the Optimized LWA-Asphalt Mix

Subset Control Moisture conditioned Freeze-thaw conditioned
Specimen # 1 3 8 2 5 6 4 7 9
Load 共N兲 4,730 4,980 5,105 4,730 4,543 4,543 4,543 4,187 4,246
Average load 共N兲 4,938 4,605 4,325
Average tensile strength 共MPa兲 0.481 0.444 0.419
TSR 共%兲 92.3 87.1

JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / FEBRUARY 2010 / 175

J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2010.22:171-178.

 40 kN 40 kN Table 5. Summary of Analysis of Fatigue and Rutting Service Lives
Life
Fatigue ratio
Pavement structure Strain ␧t life 共%兲
p= 0.69MPa p=0.69 MPa

εt 150 mm 750-mm three-layer LWA-asphalt 1.907⫻ 104 2,360,580 100

υ1=0.35 εt E1=2920 MPa 150 mm ACS υ1=0.35 E1=2650 MPa
LWA-asphalt
500-mm three-layer conventional AC 1.856⫻ 104 2,375,624 101
υ2=0.40 E2=228 MPa 350 mm GB υ2=0.40 E2=217 MPa
600 mm
LWA-GB 750-mm three-layer LWA-asphalt 2.009⫻ 104 1,988,593 100
εv εv 750-mm five-layer conventional AC 1.951⫻ 104 2,015,724 101
υ3=0.45 E3=70 MPa υ3=0.45 E3=70 MPa
∞ Subgrade ∞ Subgrade Life
750 mm Conventional pavement 750 mm LWA-pavement Rutting ratio
(a) Three-layer conventional and LWA pavement structures Strain ␧z life 共%兲
750-mm three-layer LWA-asphalt 1.976⫻ 104 52,347,328 100
40 kN 40 kN
500-mm three-layer conventional AC 3.222⫻ 104 5,864,819 11
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750-mm five-layer LWA-asphalt 3.054⫻ 104 7,453,736 100

750-mm five-layer conventional AC 3.073⫻ 104 7,249,617 97
p= 0.69MPa p=0.69 MPa
50 mm ACS 50 mm
υ1=0.35 E1=2920 MPa υ1=0.35 E1=2650 MPa LWA-asphalt
100 mm
Tensile strain 共␧t兲 at the bottom of the asphalt layer and com-
υ2=0.35 E2=2920 MPa 100 mm ACB υ2=0.35 E2=2650 MPa
εt εt LWA-asphalt pressive strain 共␧t兲 at the top of the subgrade soil were calculated
E3=228 MPa υ3=0.40 E3=217 MPa 300 mm
υ3=0.40 200 mm GB
LWA base using ELSYM5. The strains were computed for a single axle load
υ4=0.40 E4=103 MPa υ4=0.40 E4=103 MPa 300 mm GSB
of 80 kN 共18,000 lb兲, i.e., 20 kN 共4,500 lb兲 on each tire with tire
400 mm GSB
pressure of 0.69 MPa 共100 psi兲. The critical strains were used to
εv εv
υ5=0.45 E5=35 MPa
∞ Subgrade
υ5=0.45 E5=35 MPa
∞ Subgrade
calculate service lives of the two pavement alternatives using the
Asphalt Institute fatigue and permanent deformation equations
750 mm Conventional pavement 750 mm LWA pavement

(a) Five-layer conventional and LWA pavement structures N f = 0.0796共␧t兲−3.291共E1兲−0.854 共2兲

Fig. 7. Cross sections of three-layer and five-layer conventional and
LWA pavements showing mechanistic properties used in the analysis
of fatigue and rutting service lives
asphalt mix would pave more area compared to the same tonnage
of a conventional asphalt mix. It is obvious that the appropriate
comparison of the effect of binder content on paving costs must
be through specifying the binder content by volume of the mix,
rather than by weight. If the LWA-asphalt mixture is compared to
a typical conventional asphalt mix on the basis of equal volume
共or area paved兲, the binder content translates to a ratio of 10:7.
The cost-effectiveness of the asphalt mixture will finally depend
of the cost ratio of the other materials in the mix, i.e., aggregate as
well as the of performance service lives.
where N f = number of axle load repetitions; ␧t = horizontal tensile
strain at bottom of the asphalt layer; and E1 = dynamic modulus of
asphalt layer 共psi兲.
Table 5 presents summary of pavement analysis comparing
two pairs of LWA-asphalt and conventional AC structures. As
seen from Table 5, LWA-asphalt pavements’ fatigue and rutting
performance is comparable to the conventional AC pavements.
The pavement analysis results show that both the three-layer and
five-layer pavement structures will provide very comparable fa-
tigue service lives. With respect to rut resistance, the three-layer
500-mm conventional pavement would require increased granular
base to provide the same rutting service life as a 750-mm LWA
pavement. The 750-mm five-layer LWA pavement outperforms an
equivalent conventional pavement by 3% longer rutting service
life.

Pavement Performance LWA-Asphalt versus Conventional AC Cost Comparison

Fig. 7 shows two sets of possible pavement structures, one con-
sisting of conventional materials and the other consisting of light-
weight materials. The modulus 共E兲, Poisson ratio 共␯兲, and
thickness of each layer is shown in the figure. Typical subgrade
resilient modulus 共M R兲 values of 70 and 35 MPa were assumed
for the two sets of pavement structures. The dynamic modulus of
the LWA-asphalt mix and the conventional mix were determined
in the lab according to ASTM D3497 and the recommendations of
the National Cooperative Highway Research Program Project
9-29 共Bonaquist et al. 2003兲. The California bearing ratio 共CBR兲
of the LWA granular base and the conventional aggregate base
layer was determined according to ASTM D 1883 and was found
to be 21 and 22, respectively. The resilient moduli of both types
of the aggregate base layers were obtained by using an empirical
relationship developed by Heukelom and Klomp 共1962兲
M R = 10.3 · CBR
where M R = resilient modulus 共MPa兲 of the granular base and
CBR⫽California bearing ratio 共%兲.
The bulk specific gravities of a typical conventional AC and
LWA-asphalt mixes are 2.375 and 1.591, respectively. Conse-
quently, the same volume of LWA-asphalt mix is only 67% 共i.e.,
1.591/2.375兲 of the weight of a typical conventional asphalt mix.
Assuming binder content of 6% for the conventional AC, to pave
the same area with the same layer thickness, the binder content of
the required conventional asphalt mix is 70% of that for LWA-
asphalt mix 关i.e., 共6%/12.8%兲/67%兴. In other words, although the
binder content of LWA-asphalt mix is more than double that of
conventional mix by weight, the LWA-asphalt mix will consume
only about 43% more binder to pave the same area.
A similar argument applies to granular base and subbase layers
consisting of LWA and conventional aggregates. The ratio of bulk
specific gravities of conventional to LWA is about 1.75 to 0.82.
Therefore, to pave the same area and thickness, one will need
more than twice 共1.75/0.82兲 the weight of the conventional aggre-
共1兲
gate as for LWA.
As pointed out before, the cost comparison question should
consider not only the total costs of materials 共aggregates for as-

176 / JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / FEBRUARY 2010

J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2010.22:171-178.

 100000
phalt mixes, granular base and subbase, and asphalt binder兲 but -15 deg C 5 deg C 10 deg C 23 deg C 33 deg C Master Curve
also service lives of the two pavement systems. The costs of

Dynamic Modulus (MPa)

materials should be worked out bearing in mind the bulk density 10000

differences of the materials as well as hauling cost per volume of

pavement layer constructed. It is therefore recommended that 1000

project procurement documents for the LWA-asphalt mix and

LWA granular layers be changed to include an equivalent volume 100

price rather than by weight price only. This would bring all the
materials on an equal competitive basis by correctly adjusting for 10
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
the large differences in volume to weight ratio.
Log of Reduced Time (s)

(a)
Mechanical Characterization of LWA-Asphalt Mix 100000
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-15 deg C 5 deg C 10 deg C 23 deg C 33 deg C Master Curve

In order to evaluate the potential use of LWA in flexible pave-

Dynamic Modulus (MPa)

10000
ments, a comprehensive laboratory testing program was con-
ducted to study the engineering properties of LWA 共Khan 2008兲.
1000
Dynamic modulus, tensile strength, and Marshall stability and
flow of a LWA-asphalt mix were compared to those of a conven-
100
tional mix. The conventional mix showed higher dynamic
modulus values compared to the LWA-asphalt mix. But the LWA-
10
asphalt mix showed superior Marshall stability and flow com- -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10

pared to a conventional mix. The indirect tensile strength and
tensile strain at failure of both the mixes were almost the same.
CBR of LWA was also determined to evaluate its potential use in
road base and/or subbase, and was found to be 21 which is ac-
ceptable for subbase and base course construction. On the basis of
these test results, it was concluded that LWA in flexible pave-
ments can result in adequate pavement performance.
Marshall test is an empirical test that gives a reasonable pre-
diction of pavement performance. Presently, although research
efforts have been directed toward developing mechanistic-
empirical pavement design methods, many agencies still rely on
empirical test methods such as the Marshall test to assess stiffness
of an asphalt mix. Marshall test was conducted on three cylindri-
cal test specimens 共having 102-mm diameter and 64-mm height兲
of the optimized LWA-asphalt mix according to ASTM D5581.
Each test established two parameters: stability and flow. Stability
is the measure of AC resistance to deformation under traffic loads
whereas flow measures the amount of deformation resulting from
such loads 共Asphalt Institute 1998兲. As seen in Table 3, the opti-
mized LWA-asphalt mix showed good stability and flow values
and satisfied NBDOT specifications. As expected, the vesicular
and more textured surface of the LWA results in increased stabil-
ity.
The new mechanistic-empirical pavement design method 关Na-
tional Cooperative Highway Research Program 共NCHRP兲 2004兴
requires dynamic modulus as a strength parameter for pavement
thickness design and performance analysis of flexible pavements.
Dynamic modulus test was performed at temperatures of ⫺15, 5,
10, 23, 33° C and at the loading frequencies of 25, 10, 5, 1, and
0.1 Hz. Dynamic modulus values measured over a range of tem-
peratures and loading frequencies were used in the development
of master curve for characterizing LWA-asphalt mix for pavement
thickness design and performance analysis. Fig. 8 shows the mas-
ter curves of the dynamic moduli for the optimized LWA-asphalt
mix and the conventional mix. Test results show acceptable dy-
namic modulus values for the optimized LWA-asphalt mix. A
typical dynamic modulus of the mix given in Table 3 is based at
23° C and a frequency of 25 Hz 共0.04 s of loading rate兲, which
represents pavement condition during the summer season under
moderate to high traffic speed 共Barksdale et al. 1997兲.
It is worth noting that because of its porous nature, LWA ab-
Log of Reduced Time (s)
(b)
Fig. 8. Master curve of the dynamic moduli of 共a兲 LWA-asphalt mix;
共b兲 conventional mix
sorbs higher asphalt and therefore requires additional asphalt to
achieve adequate film thickness around the aggregate. However,
Lee et al. 共1993兲 suggested that the absorption of asphalt into
aggregate pores can also increase the physical interlocking of the
binder and the aggregate, thereby resulting in increased pavement
strength.
Thermal Properties of LWA-Asphalt Mix
Thermal properties 共thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity
heat capacity兲 of the optimized LWA-asphalt mix and a conven-
tional asphalt mix were investigated using the k-alpha tester de-
veloped at the University of New Brunswick 共Luca and Mrawira
2005兲. The measurement and determination of thermal properties
of the optimized LWA-asphalt mix is detailed in a recent paper by
the writers Khan and Mrawira 共2008兲. The thermal conductivity
and thermal diffusivity of the optimized LWA-asphalt mix was
found to be 58 and 55% lower than that of the conventional
asphalt mix respectively 共Table 6兲. The specific heat capacity of
the optimized LWA-asphalt mix was found to be 38% higher than
that of the conventional asphalt mix. However, because of the
lower bulk density of LWA-asphalt mix, its volumetric heat ca-
pacity was found to be 7% lower than that of the conventional
Table 6. Thermal Properties of Conventional AC and LWA-Asphalt
Mixes
LWA-asphalt Conventional
Property mix asphalt mix
Thermal conductivity 共W m K兲 0.79 1.87
Thermal diffusivity⫻ 10−7 共m2 / s兲 2.09 4.60
Specific heat capacity 共J kg K兲 2,363 1,710

JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / FEBRUARY 2010 / 177

J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2010.22:171-178.

 mix. The lower thermal conductivity and diffusivity of the LWA-
asphalt mix provide a potential approach for mitigating frost pen-
etration and frost damage in flexible pavements. This potential
has been explored by the authors using a finite element thermal
response model HIFIEL 共Khan et al. 2008兲. The model was used
to estimate frost penetration into the subgrade of nine different
pavement structures. It was found that all the LWA pavement
structures 共using LWA either in asphalt surface and/or granular
base and subbase兲 can effectively mitigate the frost problem. The
results of this work were published in a recent article 共Khan et al.
2008兲.
Conclusions
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The work presented in this paper demonstrates that an asphalt mix
can be effectively produced from lightweight aggregate. The op-
timized LWA-asphalt mix satisfied the volumetric specifications
of NBDOT. It was found that the volumetric properties of LWA-
asphalt mixes were greatly affected by changing the proportions
of coarse and fine aggregate in these mixes. Particularly, variation
in the proportion of blending sand 共from natural deposits兲 signifi-
cantly changed the VMA of LWA mixes. The study also shows
that LWA-asphalt mix exhibited good Marshall stability and flow
values and would therefore resist deformation under traffic load-
ing. Dynamic modulus of the optimized LWA-asphalt mix was
also found to be acceptable for the structural design of asphalt
pavements.
The TSR of the optimized LWA-asphalt mix was found to be
90%. It is concluded that the mix is not susceptible to moisture
damage by stripping. The main hurdle of using LWA-asphalt mix
may be related to its high binder content. The binder content of
the optimized LWA-asphalt mix was found to be almost twice that
of a conventional asphalt mix by weight. However one compares
this binder content in terms of paving equal volume of pavement,
the binder content of LWA-asphalt mix is only about 43% more
compared to a conventional mix. The life-cycle cost implications
of using LWA-asphalt mixes need to be determined by the user
agency by carefully analyzing all pertinent factors such as the
costs of aggregates, the cost of hauling materials and the long-
term performance of the final pavement structure. The long-term
savings in maintenance costs due to reduced frost damage need to
be carefully weighted against the increased cost of binder, for
example. Such analyses tend to be agency-specific or even
project-specific, and therefore not worth a general investigation in
this paper.
Acknowledgments
The writers acknowledge the National Science and Engineering
Research Council of Canada for financial support for this research
178 / JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / FEBRUARY 2010
J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2010.22:171-178.
through Discovery Grant No. 217389-04. We would also like to
thank New Brunswick DOT, Northeast SOLITE Corporation,
Great Pacific Pumice Inc., and Irving Oil Limited for supporting
the experimental work and providing materials for this study.
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